Chapter one

Vectors in the plane

We assume that you are familiar with the standard (x, y).

Cartesian coordinate system in the plane. Each point p in the plane is identified with its x and y
components: p= (a, b). y

b P= (a, b)

a x

A scalar is a quantity that is determined by its magnitude (its number of units measured in a
suitable scale).

Examples 1 Mass, length, temperature, voltage are examples of scalar quantities.

Quantities that have both magnitude and direction are called vectors. A vector is usually
represented by an arrow, the length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the vector and the
arrow head indicates the direction of the vector.

Examples 2 Velocity, acceleration, displacement and force are examples of vector quantities.

An ordered pair of numbers (a1, a2… an) is called vector. Here ai’s for i=1, 2… n are called
components.

The set of all vectors with n-components. The set of all vectors with n-components is denoted by
IRn.

Vectors are denoted by small case letter with an arrow at the top likea⃗ ,b⃗ ,c⃗ .

To determine the coordinates of a vector a⃗ in the plane, the first step is to translate the vector so
that its tail is at the origin of the coordinate system. Then, the head of the vector will be at some
point (a1, a2) in the plane. We call (a1, a2) the coordinates or the components of the vector a⃗ . We
often write a⃗ ∈R2 to denote that it can be described by two real coordinates.

1
Desalegn A.
Zero vector: suppose a⃗ = (a1, a2… an) is any vector in IRn. Then a⃗ is said to be zero vector if
and only if all components are zero. That is a⃗ = 0 if and only if ai=0, ∀ i = 1, 2, 3… n.

Equal vector: let a⃗ = (a1, a2… an) and b⃗ = (b1, b2… bn) be vectors in IRn. Then the two vectors
are said to be equal if and only if their corresponding components are all equal.

That means a⃗ = b⃗ if and only if ai = bi ∀ i = 1, 2, 3… n.

Example: find the values of x, y, z if a⃗ = (x-y, -1, 7) and b⃗ = (5, x+y, 3z+1) are equal.

Solution: a⃗ = b⃗ ⇒(x-y, -1, 7) = (5, x+y, 3z+1)

{
x− y=5
⇒ x + y=−1
3 z +1=7

⇒ z=2, x=2, y=-3

Operation on vectors

Consider a⃗ = (a 1,a 2) and b⃗ = (b ,b 2). Geometrically we can find a⃗ +b⃗

2
Desalegn A.
Let a⃗ = (a1, a2… an) and b⃗ = (b1, b2… bn) be any two vectors in IRn. Then, we define the sum and
differences of these vectors as follows.

Addition of vectors: we define a⃗ + b⃗ to be the vector given by

a⃗ + b⃗ = (a1 + b1, a2 + b2, … , an + bn ).

That is, a⃗ + b⃗ is a new vector obtained by adding the corresponding components a⃗ andb⃗ .

Subtraction of vectors:

We define a⃗ - b⃗ to be the vector given by

a⃗ - b⃗ = (a1 - b1, a2 - b2, … an - bn )

That is, a⃗ - b⃗ is a new vector obtained by subtracting the corresponding components a⃗ and b⃗ .

Multiplication of a vector by scalar

If k is scalar, then ka⃗ is a vector given by

ka⃗ = (ka1, ka2…, kan)

Example: Let a⃗ = (2, 3, 5) and b⃗ = (1, -1, 3).

Then find

a) a⃗ + b⃗ = (2, 3, 5) + (1,-1,3)

= (2+1,3+(-1),5+3)

= (3, 2, 8)

b) a⃗ + b⃗ = (2,3,5) - (1,-1,3)

= (2-1,3-(-1),5-3)

= (1, 4, 2)

c) 3a⃗ = (3*2,3*3,3*5)

= (6, 9, 15)

Directed vector: Any vector with initial point A and terminal point B denoted by ⃗
AB is called
directed vector from A to B.

It is obtained by ⃗
AB = B –A.

Examples:

3
Desalegn A.
 1. Find a vector ⃗v directed from A to B where A =(2, -1, 3) and B=(5, -4, 7).

Solution: ⃗v = ⃗
AB = B – A = (5,-4, 7) – (2,-1,3)

= (3, -3, 4).

2. Let ⃗
AB = (-2, 0, 4). If the midpoint of the segment ⃗
AB is (2, 3,-2). Then find the end point
of ⃗
AB .

Solution: Let A = (a, b, c) and B = (x, y, z) be the coordinate of the end point of the segment.

Then ⃗
AB =B – A = (x-a, y-b, z-c) = (-2, 0, -4)

⇒ x-a = -2, y-b = 0 and z-c = -4. …………………….(*)

On the other hand, from the mid-point formula, the mid-point of ⃗

AB is given by

x+ a y+ b z+ c
( , , ) = (2, 3, -2)
2 2 2

⇒ x+ a = 4, y+ b= 6 and z+ c = -4 ……………………………..(**)

From (*) and (**), we get

A = (3, 3, 0) and B = (1, 3, -4).

Norm or magnitude of a vector

Definition: Let a⃗ = (a1, a2… an) be vectors in IR n. Then the norm of a⃗ which denoted by ‖⃗a ∣∣ is
given by

‖⃗a ∣∣ = √ a12 +a 22 +…+ an2

Examples:

1. Find the norm of a⃗ = (3, -1, 1) and b⃗ = (2, 3, 0, 6).

Solution:

‖⃗a ∣∣ = √ 32 +−12 +12 = √ 9+1+1 = √ 11

‖b⃗ ∣∣ = √ 22+−32 +02 +62 = √ 4 +9+0+ 36 = √ 49 = 7.

2. If a⃗ = (x, 2, x) and ‖⃗a ∣∣ = 6, find the values of x.

4
Desalegn A.
Solution:

‖⃗a ∣∣ = √ x 2+22 + x 2 = √ 2 x 2 + 4 = 6

⇒2 x 2+ 4 = 36

⇒ x = ±4

3. Given a⃗ = (1, -5, 6) and b⃗ = (3, y+8, -6). If ‖⃗a + ⃗b ∣∣ =5, then find the values of y.

Solution: Here a⃗ + b⃗ = (4, y+3, 0). Then

‖⃗a + ⃗b ∣∣ = √ 4 2+( y +3)2 +02 = 5

⇒√ 16+ y 2 +6 y +9 =5

⇒√ y 2+ 6 y +25 =5

⇒ y 2 +6 y +25 = 25

⇒ y = 0, y = -6.

4. Given vector a⃗ where ‖⃗a ∣∣ = 6 and ‖⃗

ka ∣ ∣ = 4. Find the scalar k.

Solution: By properties of norm, ‖⃗

ka ∣ ∣ = 4

⇒‖⃗
ka ∣ ∣ = ∣k∣‖⃗a ∣∣

⇒6 ∣k∣ = 4

2
⇒k=±
3

Definition: A vector of magnitude (modulus) unity (one) is called a unit vector.

a⃗
Note that: For any non-zero vector a⃗ = is a unit vector in the direction of that of vectora⃗ .
|⃗a|
Examples:

1. The vector u⃗ = (2/3, 1/3, -2/3) is unit vector because

‖u⃗ ∣∣ = √(2 /3)2 +(1 /3)2 +(−2/3)2 =1

5
Desalegn A.
 2. If u⃗ = (2/3, 1/3, t) is unit vector, then find the value of t.

Solution:‖u⃗ ∣∣ = √ (2 /3)2 +(1 /3)2 +(t)2 =1

⇒√ 5/9+(t)2 =1

⇒t 2 =4/9

2
⇒t = ±
3

The standard unit vectors are i= (1, 0, 0), j= (0, 1, 0) and k = (0, 0, 1).

Let a⃗ = (a1, a2, a3) be vectors.

a⃗ = (a1, a2, a3) = a1(1, 0, 0) + a2(0, 1, 0) + a3(0, 0, 1) = a1i + a2j + a3k

Examples:

1. Let a⃗ = 2i - j + 2k be given vector. Find unit vector in the same and opposite direction
of a⃗ .
Solution: Here ‖⃗a ∣∣ = √ 22+−12+ 22 = √ 9 = 3.
a⃗ 2i− j+2 k
The unit vector in the direction of a⃗ is = = 2/3i -1/3j +2/3k.
‖⃗a ∣∣ 3
−⃗a 2i− j+2 k
The unit vector in the opposite direction of a⃗ is = = -2/3i + 1/3j - 2/3k.
‖⃗a ∣∣ −3
2. Let a⃗ = i - j + k and b⃗ = 3i + j + k be given vectors. Then find a unit vector in the
direction of a⃗ + b⃗ .

Dot product of vectors

Definition: Let a⃗ and b⃗ be any two non-zero free vectors. The scalar (dot or inner) product of
a⃗ and b⃗ , denoted a⃗ • b⃗ is defined by:

a⃗ • b⃗ = |⃗a| |b⃗| cosθ

6
Desalegn A.
 Where  is the angle between a⃗ and b⃗ .

Let a⃗ = a1i + a2j + a3k and b⃗ = b1i + b2j + b3k be vectors.

Then,

a⃗ • b⃗ = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3

Properties of dot product

1. a⃗ • b⃗ = b⃗ • a⃗
c ¿ ¿ = a⃗ • b⃗ + a⃗ • c⃗
2. a⃗ • ¿ + ⃗
3. (ka⃗ )• b⃗ = k(a⃗ • b⃗ )
4. a⃗ • a⃗ = ‖⃗a ∣∣2

Example: If a⃗ = 2i + 3k and b⃗ = 4i + 6j – k, the dot product is a⃗ • b⃗ = 2(4) +0(6) +3(-1) = 5.

Orthogonal and parallel vectors

Two non – zero vectors a⃗ and b⃗ are said to be orthogonal if their dot product is zero.

a⃗ ⊥b⃗ if and only if a⃗ • b⃗ = 0.

Any two non-zero vectors are said to be parallel if and only if one is the scalar multiple of the
other. Let a⃗ and b⃗ be non-zero vectors.

a⃗ //b⃗ if and only if ∃t ≠0 such that a⃗ = tb⃗ .

Examples:

1. Show that the vectors a⃗ = (3, -1, 5) and b⃗ = (1, 13, 2) are orthogonal.

Solution:a⃗ •b⃗ = 3(1) + (-1)(13) + (5)(2) = 3 – 13 +10 = 0.

2. Let a⃗ = (3, -t, 2) and b⃗ = (5t, 17, 3) be vectors. Find t so that a⃗ and b⃗ are orthogonal.

Solution: Since a⃗ and b⃗ are orthogonal, a⃗ • b⃗ =0.

3. Are the vectors a⃗ = (1, 3, -2) and b⃗ = (3, 9, -6) parallel?

Yes, because ∃t = 3 such that a⃗ = 3b⃗ .

4. Let a⃗ = (m, 3, -4) and b⃗ = (2, -n, 8) be vectors. Find m and n so that a⃗ and b⃗ are parallels.

7
Desalegn A.
Solution: Here, from the definition of parallel vectors

a⃗ //b⃗ if and only if ∃t ≠0 such that a⃗ = tb⃗

⇒ (m, 3, -4) = t(2, -n, 8)

⇒ t =-1/2, m = -1 and n = 6.

5. Let a⃗ = 2i -3j and b⃗ = 2i. Find a vector c⃗ such that c⃗ • ⃗b = 6 and c⃗ ⊥a⃗ .

Solution: Here, let c⃗ = xi +yj

Then, c⃗ • ⃗b = 6⇒2x – 0 = 6

⇒x=3

Again, c⃗ ⊥a⃗ ⇒ c⃗ •a⃗ =0

⇒2x – 3y= 0
⇒ y = 2.

Hence, c⃗ = 3i +2j.

The Two important inequalities

Let a⃗ and b⃗ be two vectors.

1.‖⃗a • ⃗b‖  ‖⃗a‖‖⃗b‖ (Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality)

2. ‖⃗a + ⃗b‖  ‖⃗a‖+‖⃗b‖ (Triangle Inequality)

Angle between two vectors

Recall, the definition of dot product of vectors a⃗ andb⃗ ,

a⃗ . b⃗ = ‖⃗a ∣∣‖b⃗ ∣∣ cos𝜽

a⃗ . ⃗b
From this, 𝜽 = cos−1( )
‖⃗a ∣∣‖b⃗ ∣∣

Example. Given: The angle between two unit vectors ⃗pand q⃗ is 60. Then find

i) ‖⃗p + ⃗q‖ ii) the angle between ⃗pand ⃗p+ q⃗

= (⃗p+ q⃗ ) . (⃗p+ q⃗ )
2
Solutions. i) ‖⃗p + ⃗q‖

8
Desalegn A.
 = ‖⃗p‖2 + 2‖⃗p‖ ‖⃗q‖ cos 60 + ‖⃗q‖2

= 2 (1 + cos 60)

= 3.

Therefore ‖⃗p + ⃗q‖=√ 3 .

ii) The angle between ⃗pand ⃗p+ q⃗

Then ⃗p• ⃗p+ q⃗ = ‖⃗p‖2 + ‖⃗p‖ ‖⃗q‖ cos 60

= 1 + cos 60

= 1.5. i)

On the other hand ⃗p• ⃗p+ q⃗ =‖⃗p‖ ‖⃗p + ⃗q‖ cos 

=√ 3 cos  ii)

From i) and ii) we get:

√3
√ 3 cos  = 1.5  cos  = 2

  = 30.

Therefore the angle between ⃗pand ⃗p+ q⃗ is 30.

Further examples

1. Find the angle between the vectors a⃗ = i + k and b⃗ = j + k.

Solution: Here, ‖⃗a ∣∣ = √ 2 and ‖b⃗ ∣∣ = √ 2

a⃗ • b⃗ = 1.

a⃗ • ⃗b 1 π
𝜽 = cos−1( ) = cos−1( ) =
‖⃗a ∣∣‖b⃗ ∣∣ 2 3

9
Desalegn A.
2. Find the value of c for which the angle between the vectors a⃗ = i – 2cj + k and
π
b⃗ = i + j is .
4

Solution: Here,

a⃗ • b⃗ = 1 – 2c

‖⃗a ∣∣ = √ 4 c2 +2 and ‖b⃗ ∣∣ = √ 2

⃗ . ⃗b
a π
Cos𝜽 = ⇒ Cos = ¿ )(1/√ 2)
‖⃗a ∣∣‖b ∣∣
⃗ 4

⇒ 4 c 2+ 2 = 4 c 2−4 c +1

−1
⇒c=
4

3. If a⃗ and b⃗ are orthogonal unit vectors, show that ‖⃗a + ⃗b ∣∣ = ‖⃗a −b⃗ ∣∣ =√ 2.

Solution: since a⃗ and b⃗ are orthogonal unit vectors, ‖⃗a ∣∣ =‖b⃗ ∣∣ = 1 and a⃗ . b⃗ =0.

Hence,
2
‖⃗a + ⃗b ∣∣ = (a⃗ + b⃗ )• (a⃗ + b⃗ ) =‖⃗a ∣∣ + ‖b⃗ ∣∣ +2a⃗ • b⃗ = 1+1+0 = 2
2 2
I.

⇒‖⃗a + ⃗b ∣∣ = √ 2.
2
‖⃗a −b⃗ ∣∣ = (a⃗ - b⃗ )• (a⃗ - b⃗ ) =‖⃗a ∣∣ + ‖b⃗ ∣∣ - 2a⃗ • b⃗ = 1+1-0 = 2
2 2
II.

⇒‖⃗a −b⃗ ∣∣ = √ 2.

Direction Angles and Direction Cosines

Definition: Let a⃗ = (a1, a2, a3) be a non-zero vector. The angles,  and  (between 0
and  inclusively) that a⃗ makes with the positive x, y and z axes respectively are called
the direction angles ofa⃗ .

Then, the corresponding direction cosines are calculated as:

a⃗ • i = a1 ⇒‖⃗a ∣∣‖i ∣ ∣ Cosα = a1

10
Desalegn A.
 a1
⇒ Cos α =
‖⃗a ∣∣
a⃗ • j = a2 ⇒‖⃗a ∣∣‖ j ∣∣ Cosβ = a2

a2
⇒ Cos β =
‖⃗a ∣∣
a⃗ • k = a3 ⇒‖⃗a ∣∣‖k ∣∣ Cosγ = a3

a3
⇒ Cosγ =
‖⃗a ∣∣
Besides, from these values the angles themselves can be calculated as

a1 a2 a3
α = cos−1( ), β = cos−1( ) and γ = cos−1( ).
‖⃗a ∣∣ ‖⃗a ∣∣ ‖⃗a ∣∣
 Cos, cos  and cos  are called the direction cosines of a⃗ .

Examples:

1. Find the direction cosines and direction angles of the vector a⃗ = i + k.

Solution: ‖⃗a ∣∣ = √ 2

From the definition of direction cosines, it follows that

a1 1 1 π
Cosα = = ⇒ α = cos−1( ) =
‖⃗a ∣∣ √2 √2 4
a2 0 π
Cosβ = = =0⇒ β = cos−1(0) =
‖⃗a ∣∣ √2 2

a3 1 1 π
Cosγ = = ⇒ γ = cos−1( ) =
‖⃗a ∣∣ √2 √2 4

Projection of vectors

Definition: Let a⃗ and b⃗ be two non-zero vectors. The components of a⃗ along b⃗ is called the
parallel projection of a⃗ onto b⃗ and it is given by proj a⃗ b⃗ = ¿) b⃗ .

On the other hand, the vector ⊥proja⃗ b⃗ = a⃗ - proj a⃗ b⃗ is called the orthogonal projection of a⃗ onto
b⃗ .

11
Desalegn A.
Similarly, the projection of b⃗ onto a⃗ is given by ¿) a⃗ .

Examples:

1. Let a⃗ =3i -6j +12k and b⃗ = i+ j + k. Find the parallel and orthogonal projection of a⃗ onto b⃗ .

Solution: Here,

a⃗ • ⃗b = 9 and ‖b⃗ ∣∣ =√ 3. Thus the parallel projection of a⃗ onto b⃗ is

proja⃗ b⃗ = ¿) b⃗ = ¿) (i+ j + k) = 3i +3j + 3k.

The orthogonal projection of a⃗ onto b⃗ is given by

⊥proja⃗ b⃗ = a⃗ - proj a⃗ b⃗ = (3i -6j +12k) – (3i +3j + 3k) = -9j + 9k.

Cross Product

Definition: Let a⃗ = a1i + a2j + a3k and b⃗ = b1i + b2j + b3k be vectors. Then the cross product of a⃗
and b⃗ denoted by a⃗ x b⃗ is the vector given by

| |
i j k
a⃗ x b⃗ = a1 a 2 a3 = i(a2 b3 - a3 b2) –j(a1 b3 – a3 b1) +k(a1 b2 –a2 b1)
b 1 b 2 b3

Example: Let a⃗ = (5,  1, 0) and b⃗ = (0, 2,  2). Find a⃗  b⃗ and b⃗  a⃗ .

| |
i j k
⃗
Solution: a⃗ x b = 5 −1 0 = i(2-0)-j(-10-0)+k(10-0) = 2i +10j +10k.
0 2 −2

| |
i j k
⃗ ⃗
a
and b x = 0 2 −2 = i(0-2)-j(0-(-10))+k(0-10) =-2 i -10j – 10k
5 −1 0

Properties of Cross Product

Let a⃗ , b⃗ , c⃗ be vectors and let m be a scalar. Then

i) a⃗  b⃗ =  (b⃗ a⃗ )

ii) a⃗  a⃗ = ⃗
0
iii) (m a⃗ )  b⃗ = m (a⃗  b⃗ ) = a⃗  (mb⃗ ).
12
Desalegn A.
 iv) a⃗ •a⃗  b⃗ = b⃗ •a⃗  b⃗ = 0.

If  is the angle between a⃗ and b⃗ (0    ), then

‖⃗a ⃗b‖ = ‖⃗a‖‖⃗b‖sin (θ)

Corollary: Two non-zero vectors a⃗ and b⃗ are parallel if and only if a⃗  b⃗ = 0.

Example: Let a⃗ = (3, 2,  2) and b⃗ = (0, 3, 7).

a. Determine whether a⃗ and b⃗ are parallel or orthogonal or neither.

b. Find a vector orthogonal to both a⃗ and b⃗ .

Solution:

a. a⃗ •b⃗ = (3  0) + (2  3) + ( 2  7) =  2. Therefore a⃗ •b⃗ ≠ 0.

and a⃗ b⃗ ≠ 0

Hence neither a⃗ •b⃗  0 nor a⃗ b⃗ ≠ 0.

Therefore a⃗ and b⃗ are neither parallel nor orthogonal.

b. a⃗ b⃗ is orthogonal to both a⃗ and b⃗

| |
i j k
⃗
a⃗ x b = 3 2 −2 = i(14-(-6))-j(21-0)+k(9-0) = 20i- 21j +9k.
0 3 7

Application of vectors

Area and volume

The area of parallelogram whose adjacent sides is the vectors a⃗ and b⃗ is computed by using

Area = ∣∣a⃗ X b⃗ ∣∣ = ‖⃗a ∣∣‖b⃗ ∣∣ sin𝜽

The area of triangle whose sides is the vectors a⃗ and b⃗ is given by

1
Area = ∣∣a⃗ X b⃗ ∣∣
2

13
Desalegn A.
Examples:

1. Find the area of the parallelogram whose adjacent sides are given by the vectors
a⃗ = i+2 j +3k and b⃗ = 4i+5j + 6k

S olution :

Area =∣∣a⃗ x b⃗ ∣∣

| |
i j k
But a⃗ x b⃗ = 1 2 3 = i(12 -15) –j(6-12) +k(5 - 8) = -3i +6j -3k
4 5 6

Area = ∣∣a⃗ x b⃗ ∣∣ = √ −32 +62 +(−3)2 = √ 54

2. Find the area of the triangle whose adjacent sides are given by the vectors
a⃗ = i-3 j +2k and b⃗ = 2i+2j - 2k

Solution:

1
Area = ∣∣a⃗ x b⃗ ∣∣
2

| |
i j k
⃗
But a⃗ x b = 1 −3 2 = i(6 -4) –j(-2-4) +k(2 +6) = 2i -6j +8k
2 2 −2

∣∣a⃗ x b⃗ ∣∣ = √ 22+(−6)2 +(8)2 = √ 104

1
Area = ∣∣a⃗ x b⃗ ∣∣ =
√104 = 26
2 2
√

3. Find the area of the parallelogram whose vertices are p(1,2,0), Q(3,4,0), R(4,1,0) and
S(2, -1,0).

Solution: First let’s find six directed vectors formed by the four vertices

⃗ PR = 3i – j, ⃗
PQ = 2i +2j , ⃗ P S = i - 3j, ⃗
RQ = i - 3j, ⃗
RS = 2i +2j and ⃗
SQ = i +4j.

From these six vectors, the pair of equal (parallel) vectors are ⃗
PQ = 2i +2j with ⃗
RS = 2i +2j and
⃗
PS = i - 3j with ⃗
RQ = i - 3j.

Hence, we take ⃗
PQ = 2i +2j from the first and ⃗
PS = i - 3j from the second.

14
Desalegn A.
 | |
i j k
⃗
PQ x ⃗
PS = 2 2 0 = -8k
1 −3 0

Area = ∣∣ ⃗
PQ x ⃗PS ∣∣ = 8.
4. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are p(3, -2, 0), Q(2, 2, 2) and R(-1, 0, 3).

Solution: first find two vectors with common initial point using the three vertices. Taking R as
common,

RP = 4i -2j -3k and ⃗

⃗ RQ = 3i +2j – k

| |
i j k
⃗
RP x ⃗
RQ = 4 −2 −3 = 8i – 5j +14k
3 2 −1

RP x ⃗
So, area = ∣∣ ⃗ RQ ∣∣ =
√285
2

The volume of the parallelepiped determined by three non-zero vectorsa⃗ , b⃗ ,c⃗ is given by the
absolute value of their scalar triple product.

| |
a1 a 2 a3
That is Volume =∣a⃗ .( ⃗b x c⃗ )∣ = b 1 b 2 b3
c 1 c2 c 3

Example: Find the volume of parallelepiped generated by

a⃗ = 2i + j +3k,b⃗ = -i + j -2k and c⃗ = i + j -2k

| |
2 1 3
⃗
Solution: Volume = ∣a⃗ .( b x c⃗ )∣ = −1 1 −2 = ∣-6 -12∣ = 28.
1 1 −2

Equation of lines and planes in space

Let l be a line in pass through P( x 0 , y 0 , z 0) and parallel to the non-zero vector u⃗ = ai +b j +ck and
suppose X(x, y, z) is arbitrary point on this line. Since both P and X are on l the directed vector
⃗
PX is parallel to l. Besides, the line is supposed to be parallel to the vectoru⃗ .

Hence, by transitivity ⃗
PX //u⃗ if and only if ⃗
PX = tu⃗

⇒X – P = tu⃗ ⇒X = P + tu⃗ is called vector equation of line and t is parameter.

15
Desalegn A.
Now from the vector equation by letting X = (x, y, z), P = ( x 0 , y 0 , z 0) and u⃗ = (a, b, c), we get that
the vector equation to be l: (x, y, z) = ( x 0 , y 0 , z 0) + t (a, b, c)

Equating corresponding components from these equations, we have

{
x=x 0 +at
y= y 0 +bt (This is called parametric equation)
z= z0 + ct

Solve t, we get

{
x−x 0
t=
a
y − y0
t=
b
z−z 0
t=
c

Equating the value of t,

x−x 0 y− y z−z 0
= = is called symmetric equation of line.
a b c

Examples:

1. Give the vector, parametric and symmetric equation of the line pass through the point A(1, 3,
0) and parallel to the vector u⃗ = 2i -5 j +7k.

Solution: the vector equation of the line is

X = (1, 3, 0) + t(2, -5, 7)

The parametric equation is

{
x=1+2 t
y=3−5 t
z =7 t

The symmetric equation of the line is

x−1 y−3 z−0

= =
2 −5 7

16
Desalegn A.
2. Give the vector, parametric and symmetric equation of the line pass through the point A(2, -1,
1) and B(1, 3, -2).

Solution: The directed vector is parallel to line is ⃗

AB = (-1, 4, -3).

The vector equation of the line is X = (2, -1, 1) + t(-1, 4, -3)

The parametric equation is

{
x =2−t
y=−1+ 4 t
z=1−3t

The symmetric equation of the line is

x−2 y=1 z−1

= =
−1 4 −3

Definition:

Suppose l: X = P + tu⃗ and m : X = Q + r ⃗v ,t, r∈ R are any two lines. Then they are said to be

i) Parallel if their direction vectors u⃗ and ⃗v are parallel

ii) Perpendicular if their direction vectors u⃗ and ⃗v are perpendicular.

Examples:

Determine whether the following pair of lines are parallel, perpendicular or neither and for these
which are neither find the angle between.

a) l: X = (1, 2, 3) + t(1, 2, -1) and m: X = (1, 0, 1) + t(-3, -6, 3)

b) the lines through A=(1, 3, 5), B =(4, 7, 5) and C= (5, -2, 2),D = (1, 1, 7)
c) the lines through A=(2, -1, 4), B =(2, -2, 5) and C= (3, 4, 3),D = (3, 5, 3)

Solution:

a) here u⃗ = (1, 2, -1) and ⃗v = (-3, -6, 3)

⇒ v⃗ = -3u⃗
⇒ u⃗ // v⃗

By definition, the lines are parallel.

b) In this case, u⃗ = B-A =(3, 4, 0) and ⃗v = D – C = (-4, 3, 5).

⇒u⃗ . ⃗v = 0

17
Desalegn A.
 ⇒u⃗ ⊥ ⃗v

By definition, the lines are perpendicular.

c) In this case, u⃗ = B-A =(0, -1, 1) and ⃗v = D – C = (0, 1, 0).

But those vectors are neither parallel nor perpendicular and so are the lines through these points.
Let 𝜽 be angle between the lines.

u⃗ . ⃗v −1 3π
Then, cos𝜽 = = ⇒𝜽=
‖u⃗ ∣‖⃗v ∣ ∣∣ √ 2 4

d) For what value of k are the lines l: x=2t,y=1-3t, z= -2-7t and the line
m: X = (2, 3, -5) + r(3, k, -3) are perpendicular?

Intersection of lines

{ {
x=x 0 +at x=x 1+ mt
Suppose l: y= y 0 +bt and m: y = y 1+ nt are parametric equation of the lines l and m.
z= z0 + ct z=z 1 +rt

Here, a point P(x, y, z) will be the intersection of the lines if and only if it satisfies the equation
of both lines at the same time.

{
x 0+ at=x 1+ mt
Hence, at the point of intersection, we have y 0 + bt= y 1+ nt
z 0+ ct=z 1+ rt

From this simultaneous equation, determine the parameters t and r. Then substitute the value of t
and r in the equation of the lines where they are.

Example:

Given that lines l: x+1=4t, y-3 = t, z-1=0 and m: x +13=12r, y-1 = 6r ,z-2 =-3r.

Then find the intersection point of the lines.

Solution:

To find the intersection point of the two lines equate corresponding equations.

{
−1+4 t=−13+12r
−1
That is, 3+t=1+6 r ⇒ r = , t =-4
3
1=2+3 r

18
Desalegn A.
 −1
Hence, put t= -4 in the equation of l, we get P =(-17, -1, 1) and if we put r = in the equation
3
of m, we get point Q =(-17, -1, 1).

Plane in space

A vector is said to be normal to the plane if it is perpendicular to all vectors in the plane. That
means for any two points A and B lying in the plane, the vector ⃗ AB is always perpendicular to
the normal vector of the plane.

Suppose 𝜋 is plane passing through the point P0and normal to the vector ⃗
N = ai +bj +ck. The
point P(x, y, z) be any point in 𝜋.

Since ⃗N = ai +bj +ck is normal to the vector of the plane and the points P0( x 0 , y 0 , z 0) and P(x, y,
z) are on the plane, the vectors ⃗
P0 P = ( x−x 0 , y− y 0 , z−z 0) and ⃗
N = ai +bj +ck are perpendicular.

Thus,⃗
P0 P •⃗
N = 0 ⇒ ( x−x 0 , y− y 0 , z−z 0)•(a, b, c) = 0

a( x−x 0 ,) + b( y− y 0 ,) +c( z−z 0) =0

ax +by +cy =d where d =a x 0 , + b y 0+c z 0 is equation of plane 𝜋.

Examples:

1. Find the equation of a plane passing through the point (6, 1, -3) and normal to the vector
⃗
N = 3i -2j +4k.

Solution:

Take P0=(6, 1, -3) and let P = (x, y, z) be arbitrary point on the plane.

Then, from the definition

We have ⃗
P0 P • ⃗
N =0⇒ ( x−6 y −1, z+ 3)•(3, -2, 4) = 0

⇒3(x-6)-2(y -1)+4(z+3) =0

⇒3x-2y +4z = 4

2. Find the equation of plane through P(1, 2, -1), Q(3, 2, 4) and R(0, 1, 5).

Solution:

Here, three points are given rather than a point and a normal vector.

Since the three points are on the plane, the vector

19
Desalegn A.
⃗
PQ = 2i +5k, ⃗
PR = -i –j + 6k are lying on the plane. But from the property of cross product,
the vector ⃗
N= ⃗
PQ x ⃗
PR is perpendicular to both of the vectors and so is to plane containing
them.

| |
i j k
So, ⃗
N= ⃗
PQ x ⃗
PR = 2 0 5 = 5i -17j -2k
−1 −1 6

Hence, using point P(1, 2, -1) , we have

: 5(x-1) -17(y-2)-2(z+1) = 0 ⇒ 5x – 17y – 2z = -27.

Definition:

Any two planes in space are said to be

i) Parallel if their normal are parallel

ii) Perpendicular if their normal are perpendicular

Examples:

Determine whether the following pair of planes are parallel, perpendicular or neither and for
these which are neither find the angle between.

a) 2x - 3y + 5z = 11 and x +4y +2z = -7

1
b) 2x – 6y + z = - 2 and –x + y - k=5
2
c) X +y +z = 7 and x +y –z = -13

Solution:

a) n1 = 2i -3j +5k and n2 = i +4j +2k

⇒ n 1 . n2 = 2 – 12 +10 = 0
⇒ n 1 ⊥ n2
Hence, the planes are perpendicular.
1
b) n1 = 2i -6j +k and n2 = -i + 3j - k
2
⇒ n 1 = -2n2
⇒ n 1//n2
This means the plane themselves are parallel.
c) In this case, n1 = i + j +k and n2 = i +j - k which are neither parallel nor perpendicular and
so the planes.

20
Desalegn A.
 Therefore, the angle between the planes is given by
⃗
n 1. ⃗
n2 1
Cos𝜽 = =
‖n 1 ∣‖n 2 ∣∣∣ 3
⃗ ⃗
1
𝜽 = cos−1( )
3
3. Find the equation of the plane
a) through P(-2, 1, 4), Q(1, 0, 3) and perpendicular to the plane 𝜋: 4x –y + 3z =2
b) containing the point P(-1, 2,-5) and perpendicular to the planes π 1: 2x – y + z = 1 and
π 2: x + y - 2z = 3.

Solution:

a) If two planes are perpendicular their normal are perpendicular and thus the normal vector f
one plane is parallel to the other plane. Thus, the vector ⃗
N = 4i –j + 3k is parallel to the
required plane and ⃗
PQ = 3i – j + 3k.

| |
i j k
⃗
N 2 = N 1x PQ = 4 −1 3 = 4i + 13j – k.
3 −1 −1
Hence, the equation of the plane is 4(x +2) +13(y - 1) – (z - 4) = 0 ⇒ 4x +13y –z =1.
b) The normal vectors of the given planes are N =2i – j + k and M =i + j -2k. But the plane
that we are required is given to be perpendicular to the given plane and thus it is parallel to
these normal vectors.
Hence, N X M = i+5j +3k can be used as a normal vector to the required plane.
The plane 𝜋: x+1+5(y -2) +3(z +5) = 0 ⇒ x +5y +3z = -6.
Intersection of a line and plane

Suppose 𝜋: ax +by +cz =d is a plane and l is a line given in parametric form as

{
x=x 0 +at
l: y= y 0 +bt .
z= z0 + ct

Then, the intersection of the line and planes is a point (x, y, z) which satisfies the equation of line
and plane at the same time.

Examples: Find the intersection point of the line l: x =2-3t, y = 4+3t, z = 3 -5t and the plane

𝜋: 2x +3y +4z = -6

Solution: putting x =2-3t, y = 4+3t, z = 3 -5t in 𝜋: 2x +3y +4z = -6 gives

21
Desalegn A.
 2(2 – 3t) +3(3 – 5t) + 4(3 – 5t) = -6

⇒17t = 34

⇒t=2

Then, putting t =2 in the equation of line gives x =-4, y = 10, z = -7.

Hence, the intersection point is (-4, 10, -7).

y+ 1 z−2
3. The line l: x = = and the plane x +y+ z =1
2 −3

Solution: In this case, the equation of the line is not parametric form. So, first change it in
parametric form:

x =t, y = -1 +2t, z = 2 -3t

⇒x + y +z =1

⇒t-1 +2t +2 -3t =1

⇒ 1 = 1 (which is always true for all value of t)

Therefore, the line lies in the plane.

22
Desalegn A.