Ex.

No: 7(a)
V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF LED
Date:

AIM:

To obtain the V-I Characteristics of LED.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

S.NO PARTICULARS SPECIFICATION RANGE QUANTITY

1 Regulated Power - (0-30) V 1

Supply
2 Resistor - 330 Ω 1

3 - 1
LED

4 Voltmeter - (0-10) V 1

5 Ammeter - (0-100) mA 1

6 Bread Board - - 1

7 Connecting wires - -

THEORY:

LEDs emit light when an electric current passes through them. LED is connected in the circuit as
shown in figure. LED operates only in forward biased condition. Under forward bias condition the anode is
connected to the positive terminal and the cathode is connected to the negative terminal of the battery. It is
like a normal PN junction diode except the basic semiconductor material is GaAs or InP which is
responsible for the color of the light. When it is forward biased the holes moves from p to n and electrons
flow from n to p. In the junction the carriers recombine with each other and released the energy in the form
of light. Thus LED emits light under forward biased condition. Under reverse biased condition, there is no
recombination due to majority carriers, so there is no emission of light.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

MODEL GRAPH
 TABULATION:

S.No VOLTAGE(V) CURRENT (mA)

ADVANTAGES OF LED:
1. Less complex circuitry

2. Can be fabricated less expensively with high yield

PROCEDURE:

1. Give the connection as per the circuit diagram.

2. Vary the input voltages at the RPS and note down the corresponding current for the voltages.
3. Repeat the procedure for reverse bias condition and tabulate the corresponding voltages and
currents.
4. Plot the graph between voltage and current for forward bias.
PRACTICE DIAGRAM
 RESULT:

Thus, the VI characteristics of LED is determined and the graph is determined

Inference from the Result:

VIVA QUESTIONS

1.What is an LED
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) are a type of semiconductor diode that emits light when an electric current is
passed through it.

2. Why is LED used?

The major uses of LED (Light Emitting Diodes) are to illuminate objects and even places. Its application is
everywhere due to its compact size, low consumption of energy, extended lifetime, and flexibility in terms of use
in various applications.

3. What kind of light is LED?

LED stands for light emitting diode. LED lighting products produce light up to 90% more efficiently than
incandescent light bulbs.
Ex. No: 7(b)
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTOTRANSISTOR
Date:

AIM:
To determine the Characteristics of Phototransistor.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED

S.NO PARTICULARS SPECIFICATION RANGE QUANTITY

1 Phototransistor NPN transistor 1

- 10KΩ 2
2 Resistor
100KΩ 1

3 Ammeter (0-100)mA

4 Regulated Power Supply - (0-30) V 1

5 Bread Board - - 1

6 Connecting wires - -

THEORY:
Phototransistor:
Photo-Transistor is a bit like a Photo-Diode in the fact that it detects light waves, however photo-
transistors, like transistor are designed to be like a fast switch and is used for light wave communications and
as light or infrared sensors. The most common form of photo-transistor is the NPN collector and emitter
transistor with no base lead. Light or photons entering the base (which is the inside of the photo-transistor)
replace the base - emitter current of normal transistors.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

MODEL GRAPH
PRACTICE DIAGRAM
TABULATION

PHOTOCURRENT DISTANCE
S.NO
(mA) (Cm)

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect circuit as shown in figure

2. Maintain a known distance between the bulb and phototransistor say 5cm
3. Set the voltage of the bulb, vary the voltage of the diode in steps of 1 volt and note down
the diode current Ir.
4. Repeat above procedure for VL=4V, 6V, etc.
5. Plot the graph : Ir for constant VL
 RESULT:

Thus, the characteristics of Phototransistor are determined and graph is plotted.

Inference from the Result:

PRACTICE DIAGRAM

VIVA QUESTIONS

1.What is the use of photo transistor?

Phototransistors are used extensively to detect light pulses and convert them into digital electrical signals. These
are operated by light rather than electric current. Providing a large amount of gain, low cost and these
phototransistors might be used in numerous applications.

2.What is a photo transistor called?

A phototransistor is a type of bipolar junction transistor including a photodiode junction. An NPN phototransistor
has a photodiode at its base-collector junction, and the photocurrent generated there acts as the base current IB.

3.Which transistor is used in phototransistor?

A phototransistor is two terminal bipolar junction transistor which converts light energy into electrical energy. A
photodiode has two terminals namely anode and cathode. A phototransistor may have two or three terminals
depending on the design which are emitter, base and collector.
Ex. No: 8(a)
RECTIFIERS
Date:

AIM:

To construct a half wave and Full wave bridge rectifier with and without simple capacitor filter and to
measure the ripplefactor.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

S.No APPARATUS SPECIFICATION RANGE QTY

1. CRO - (0-20 MHz) 1

2. Multimeter - - 1

3. Diode 1N4007 - 4

4. Transformer - 230V / 6 -0-6v, 20mA 1

5. Decade Resistance Box - - 1

6. Capacitor - 100µF /25V 1

7. Breadboard - - 1

8. Connecting Wires - - needed

THEORY:
A device is capable of converting a sinusoidal input waveform into a unidirectional waveform with non
zero average component is called a rectifier. A practical half wave rectifier with a resistive load is
shown in the circuit diagram. During the positive half cycle of the input, the diode conducts and all the
input voltage is dropped across RL. During the negative half cycle the diode is reverse biased and it acts
as almost open circuit so the output voltage is zero. The filter is simply a capacitor connected from the
rectifier output to ground. The capacitor quickly charges at the beginning of a cycle and slowly discharges
through RL after the positive peak of the input voltage. The variation in the capacitor voltage due to
charging and discharging is called ripple voltage. Generally, ripple is undesirable, thus the smaller the
ripple, the better the filtering action.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM - HALF WAVE RECTIFIER (WITHOUT FILTER):

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM - HALF WAVE RECTIFIER (WITH FILTER):

MODEL GRAPH:

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

(WITHOUT FILTER) (WITH FILTER)
TABULATION: HALFWAVE RECTIFIER

WAVEFORM AMPLITUDE (V) TIME PERIOD (ms)

Input Wave

Without Filter
Charging Period :
With Filter
Discharging Period :
PRACTICE DIAGRAM
THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS FOR RIPPLE FACTOR:
WITHOUT FILTER:
V
Vdc  m

V
Vrms  m
2

Ripple factor  V 2
( rms ) 1  1.21
Vdc

WITH FILTER:

1
Ripple factor 
2 3 fCRL

PROCEDURE:

Without FILTER:

(i) Test your transformer: Give 230v, 50Hz source to the primary coil of the transformer and observe
the AC waveform of rated value without any distortion at the secondary of the transformer.
(ii) Connect the Half wave rectifier as shown in the circuit diagram.
(iii) Measure the values from the waveform.
(iv) Plot the graph

With FILTER:

(i) Now connect the filter across the load.

(ii) Varying the load for various resistor values, note the values from the waveform.
(iii) Calculate the Ripple factor using the given formula.
(iv) Compare the theoretical ripple factor with the practical ripple factor and simulated values.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM - FULL WAVE RECTIFIER (WITHOUT FILTER):

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM - FULL WAVE RECTIFIER (WITH FILTER):

MODEL GRAPH:

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

(WITHOUT FILTER) (WITH FILTER)
PRACTICE DIAGRAM
THEORY:
A device is capable of converting a sinusoidal input waveform into a unidirectional waveform with
non-zero average component is called a rectifier. The Bridge rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac
voltage to dc voltage using both half cycles of the input ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier has four diodes
connected to form a Bridge. The load resistance is connected between the other two ends of the bridge.
For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diode D1 and D3 conducts whereas diodes D2 and D4
remain in the OFF state.

The conducting diodes will be in series with the load resistance RL and hence the load current flows
through RL . For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diode D2 and D4 conducts whereas diodes
D1 and D3 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with the load resistance RL and
hence the load current flows through RL in the same direction as in the previous half cycle. Thus a
bidirectional wave is converted into a unidirectional wave.

THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS FOR RIPPLE FACTOR:

WITHOUT FILTER:
Vm
Vdc  2

V
Vrms  m

V
Ripplefactor  ( rms )2 1  0.48
Vdc
WITH FILTER:
1
Ripplefactor 
4 3 fCRL
TABULATION:

WAVEFORM AMPLITUDE (V) TIME PERIOD (ms)

Input Wave

Without Filter
Charging Period :
With Filter
Discharging Period :
RESULT:

Thus the halfwave rectifier and Full wave bridge rectifier are designed with and without capacitor filter and
the corresponding dc output voltages are measured.

Inference from the Result:

 VIVA QUESTIONS

1.What is rectifier made of?

A rectifier is made using one or more diodes to convert alternating current into direct current. Diodes allow
current flow in one direction. This unique property of diodes allows them to behave as a rectifier by converting
AC to DC.

2.Where is full wave rectifier used?

Full Wave Bridge Rectifiers are mostly used for the low cost of diodes because of being lightweight and highly
efficient. The important uses of the full-wave bridge rectifier are given below. Mobile phones, laptops, charger
circuits. Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) circuits to convert AC to DC.

3.What are the two types of full wave rectifier?

The two most common types of full wave rectifiers are the bridge rectifier and the center-tapped rectifier. The
bridge rectifier uses four diodes to form a bridge circuit, while the center-tap rectifier uses a transformer with a
center-tapped secondary winding and two diodes.

4.What is ripple factor?

The ripple factor is defined as. The ratio of the RMS value of an alternating current component in the rectified
output to the average value of rectified output. The ripple factor is denoted as γ. It is a dimensionless quantity and
always has a value less than unity.
Ex. No: 8(b)
VOLTAGE REGULATOR
Date:

AIM:
To construct the following voltage regulator and verify the output for,
1. Shunt
2. Series regulator
3. IC regulator
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

S.No PARTICULARS SPECIFICATION RANGE QUANTITY

1. Transformer 230/(6-0-6)V --- 1

2. Transistor BC 107 --- 2
3. Diode 1N4007 --- 4
4. Zener diode FZ 5.6 --- 1
5. Capacitor --- 100µF,10 µF 1,1
6. Decade resistance --- --- 1
7. Regulator IC IC 7805 --- 1
8. Resistor --- 1KΩ 1
9. DRB --- --- 1
10. Bread board --- --- 1
11. Connecting wires --- --- few

FORMULA TO FIND VOLTAGE REGULATION:

VNL VFL 
%R  100
VNL
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :
SERIES REGULATOR

SHUNT REGULATOR

IC REGULATOR
TABULATION:

SERIES REGULATOR FOR LOAD REGULATION:

VNL = Volts

S.No LOAD RESISTANCE (Ω) OUTPUT VOLTAGE (V) % REGULATION

SHUNT REGULATOR FOR LOAD REGULATION:

VNL = Volts

S.No LOAD RESISTANCE (Ω) OUTPUT VOLTAGE (V) % REGULATION

SERIES REGULATOR FOR LINE REGULATION:

S.No INPUT VOLTAGE (V) OUTPUT VOLTAGE (V)

SHUNT REGULATOR FOR LOAD REGULATION:

S.No INPUT VOLTAGE (V) OUTPUT VOLTAGE (V)

TABULATION FOR IC REGULATOR:

S.No INPUT VOLTAGE (V) OUTPUT VOLTAGE (V)

THEORY - SHUNT REGULATOR:

The term regulation is the ability of the power supply source to maintain a constant output voltage in spite
of line voltage fluctuations and changes in load current The factors of poor regulation are: The line
voltage changes which causes a dc output change and the ripple content of the dc input due to inadequate
filtering. The load current changes which causes a variable internal drop due to the internal resistance of
the regulator and the consequent change in the output voltage and The temperature coefficient of the
device parameters which results in a change of the output voltage. Voltage regulators can be classified by
the method of achieving regulation as linear regulators and switching regulators. They are also classified
by the way they are connected to the load as series regulators and shunt regulators. Standard regulator
contains three basic elements namely a precision voltage reference, an error amplifier and a power control
element.
PRACTICE DIAGRAM
Line Regulation:
Line regulation is a measure of the ability of the power supply to maintain its output voltage given
changes in the input line voltage. Line regulation is expressed as percent of change in the output voltage
relative to the change in the input line voltage.
Line regulation = (output voltage at High line input voltage - output voltage at low line input
voltage) x100/ (High line input voltage - low line input voltage)
Load Regulation:
Load regulation is a measure of the ability of an output channel to remain constant given changes in the
load. Depending on the control mode enabled on the output channel, the load regulation specification can
be expressed in one of two ways In constant voltage mode, variations in the load result in changes in the
output current. This variation is expressed as a percentage of range per amp of output load and is
synonymous with a series resistance. In constant voltage mode, the load regulation specification defines
how close the series resistance of the output is to 0 ohms – the series resistance of an ideal voltage source.
In constant current mode, variations in the load result in changes to the current through the load. This
variation is expressed as a percentage of range change in current per volt of change in the output voltage
and is synonymous with a resistance in parallel with the output channel terminals. In constant current
mode, the load regulation specification defines how close the output shunt resistance is to infinity—the
parallel resistance of an ideal current. In fact, when load regulation is specified in constant current mode,
parallel resistance is expressed as 1/load regulation.

The Zener diode is like a general-purpose signal diode. When biased in the forward direction it behaves
just like a normal signal diode, but when a reverse voltage is applied to it, the voltage remains constant
for a wide range of currents.
Avalanche Breakdown: There is a limit for the reverse voltage. Reverse voltage can increase until the
diode breakdown voltage reaches. This point is called Avalanche Breakdown region. At this stage
maximum current will flow through the zener diode. This breakdown point is referred as ―Zener voltage‖.
The Zener Diode is used in its "reverse bias". From the I-V Characteristics curve we can study that the
zener diode has a region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant negative voltage regardless
of the value of the current flowing through the diode and remains nearly constant even with large changes
in current as long as the zener diodes current remains between the breakdown current IZ(min) and the
maximum current rating IZ(max).

This ability to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate or stabilize a voltage source against
supply or load variations. The fact that the voltage across the diode in the breakdown region is almost
constant turns out to be an important application of the zener diode as a voltage regulator.
 THEORY - SERIES REGULATOR:

The series voltage regulator or series pass voltage regulator uses a variable element placed in series with
the load. By changing the resistance of the series element, the voltage dropped across it can be varied to
ensure that the voltage across the load remains constant.
The advantage of the series voltage regulator is that the amount of current drawn is effectively that used
by the load, although some will be consumed by any circuitry associated with the regulator. Unlike the
shunt regulator, the series regulator does not draw the full current even when the load does not require
any current. As a result the series regulator is considerably more efficient.
Using feedback within a voltage regulator enables the output to be sampled, and compared with a stable
reference voltage. The error is then used to correct the output voltage. In this way, a far higher level of
performance can be obtained in terms of the required output voltage as well as ripple and spikes.

THEORY - IC REGULATOR:
Here comes the 7805 Voltage Regulator IC to the rescue. It is an IC in the 78XX family of linear voltage
regulators that produce a regulated 5V as output. Some of the important features of the 7805 IC are as
follows:
It can deliver up to 1.5 A of current (with heat sink).
Has both internal current limiting and thermal shutdown features.
Requires very minimum external components to fully function.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are given as per the circuit Diagram.
2. An input voltage of 6V is given to the diode circuit using the transformer.
3. Measure the value of output voltage using the multimeter.
4. Calculate the percentage of regulation using the formula.
5. Repeat the same procedure for various resistance values and plot the graph.
GRAPH:

SERIES REGULATOR FOR LOAD REGULATION:

SHUNT REGULATOR FOR LOAD REGULATION:

SERIES REGULATOR FOR LINE REGULATION:

SHUNT REGULATOR FOR LINE REGULATION:

IC REGULATOR
 RESULT:

Thus, the various voltage regulator circuits have been constructed and % regulation has been
calculated and the graph is plotted

Inference from the Result:

VIVA QUESTION

1.What is a voltage regulator used for?

A voltage regulator is a circuit that creates and maintains a fixed output voltage, irrespective of changes to the
input voltage or load conditions. Voltage regulators (VRs) keep the voltages from a power supply within a range
that is compatible with the other electrical components.
2.What are the two types of voltage regulators?
There are mainly two types of voltage regulators: Linear voltage regulators and switching voltage regulators;
these are used in wider applications. The linear voltage regulator is the easiest type of voltage regulator. It is
available in two types, which are compact and used in low power, low voltage systems.
3.What is the main function of IC regulator?
What is the function of a voltage regulator IC? A voltage regulator generates a fixed output voltage of a preset
magnitude that remains constant regardless of changes to its input voltage or load conditions.
Ex. No: 9(a)
CLIPPER CIRCUITS
Date:

AIM:

To study the performance of positive, negative, biased and combinational clipper circuits

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Sl.No. COMPONENT SPECIFICATION RANGE QUANTITY

1 PN junction diode 1N4007 - 1
2 Resistor - 1k Ω 1
3 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope - Dual/(0-20)MHz 1
4 Signal Generator - (0-2)MHz 1
5 Regulated power supply (RPS) Single /(0-30) V 2
6 Bread Board - - 1
7 Connecting wires - - As per requirement

THEORY:
Clipping circuit is a wave-shaping circuit, and is used to either remove or clip a portion of the applied
wave in order to control the shape of the output waveform. One of the most basic clipping circuit is the half-wave
rectifier. A half-wave rectifier clips either the negative half cycle or the positive half cycle of an alternating
waveform, and allows to pass only one-half cycle. Such a circuit has great applications in radars, digital
computers and other electronic systems for removing unwanted portions of the input signal voltages above or
below a specified level. Another application is in radio-receivers for communication circuits where noise pulses
that rise well above the signal amplitude are clipped down to the desired level. Clipping circuits are also referred
to as voltage limiters, amplitude selectors, or slicers. The clipping circuit is known as amplitude limiter or simply
limiter.

Positive Clipper:
It consists of a diode and a resistor with the output taken across the resistor. The diode acts as an ideal
switch between the source and the load. It acts a closed switch, when the input voltage is negative and as an open
switch when the input is positive or zero. The purpose of the resistor is to limit the current through the diode,
when it acts as a closed switch.
NEGATIVE CLIPPER:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: MODEL GRAPH:

POSITIVE CLIPPER:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: MODEL GRAPH:

BIASED NEGATIVE CLIPPER

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
MODEL GRAPH:

Negative Clipper:
Here the diode is connected in the opposite to that of a positive clipper. The function of the resistor is to
limit the current when the diode is forward biased. The diode acts as a closed switch for a positive input voltage
and as an open switch for a negative input voltage.

Biased Clipper:
A clipping circuit which has the provision for the adjustment of a clipping level is called a biased clipper.
The name „bias‟ is designated because the adjustment of the clipping level is achieved by adding a bias voltage in
series with the diode or resistor.
BIASED POSITIVE CLIPPER
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:

COMBINATIONAL CLIPPER
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: MODEL GRAPH:
PRACTICE DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.

2. The input signal of 5V and 1 KHz is applied to the circuit using the signal generator.

3. The output signal is connected to the CRO to view the output waveform.

4. From the output waveform the time and amplitude of the signal is noted.
5. The input and output waveform are compared to verify how the output signal is clipped from the input signal.
TABULATION:
INPUT WAVEFORM OUTPUT WAVEFORM
CLIPPERS
Amplitude (V) Time (ms) Amplitude (V) Time (ms)

POSITIVE CLIPPER

NEGATIVE CLIPPER

NEGATIVE BIASED CLIPPER

POSITIVE BIASED CLIPPER

COMBINATIONAL CLIPPER
 RESULT:

Thus, the output performance for the clipper circuits is verified and the waveforms are drawn

Inference from the Result:

VIVA QUESTION

1.What is clipper circuit and clamper circuit?

A clipper circuit clips or removes a portion of an AC signal. A clamper circuit shifts the DC level of the
waveform. A clipper circuit is also known as a voltage limiter, slicer, etc. A clamper is also known as a voltage
multiplier or DC level shifter. It is made of diode and resistor.

2.Why do we need clamper?

A clamper will bind the upper or lower extreme of a waveform to a fixed DC voltage level. These circuits are also
known as DC voltage restorers. Clampers can be constructed in both positive and negative polarities.

3.What is negative clipper?

Negative Series Clipper. A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in series to the input signal and that
attenuates the negative portions of the waveform, is termed as Negative Series Clipper.
Ex. No: 9(b)
SWITCHING CIRCUIT
Date:

AIM:
a. To observe the action of a Transistor as an electronic switch.
b. To measure the voltage across the transistor when it is ON and when it is OFF.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Sl.No. COMPONENT SPECIFICATION RANGE QUANTITY

1 Transistor BC-107 - 1
2 Resistor 4.7K Ω,2.2K Ω, 2,1
3 LED CQY24 - 1
(0-1)V, 1,2
4 Voltmeter -
(0-10)V
5 Regulated power supply (RPS) Single /(0-30) V 1
6 Bread Board - - 1
7 Connecting wires - - As per requirement

THEORY:
One of the most common uses for transistors in an electronic circuit is as simple switches. In short, a
transistor conducts current across the collector-emitter path only when a voltage is applied to the base. When no
base voltage is present, the switch is off. When base voltage is present, the switch is on. In an ideal switch, the
transistor should be in only one of two states: off or on. The transistor is off when there‟s no bias voltage or when
the bias voltage is less than 0.7 V. The switch is on when the base is saturated so that collector current can flow
without restriction. This is a schematic diagram for a circuit that uses an NPN transistor as a switch that turns an
LED on or off.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

TABULATION:

INPUT VOLTAGE
VCB(V) VBE(V) VCE(V) MODE ON/OFF

0 VOLTS

5 VOLTS
PRACTICE DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE:
1. Construct the circuit as shown in figure.
2. Connect „0‟ volts to the input terminals.
3. Measure the voltage across collector to emitter (VCE), collector to base (VCB) and base to emitter (VBE).
4. Connect „5‟ volts to the input terminals. Measure the voltage across collector to emitter (V CE), collector to base
(VCB) and base to emitter (VBE).
5. Observe that the LED glows when the input terminals are supplied with „0‟ volts. and the LED will not glow
when the input is „5‟ volts.
 RESULT:
Thus, the Transistor as an electronic switch and the voltage across the transistor when it is ON and
OFF are measured.

Inference from the Result:

VIVA QUESTION

1.Which transistor is used for switching?

Both PNP and NPN transistors can be utilised as switches. A basic terminal transistor can be handled differently
from a signal amplifier by biasing both NPN and PNP bipolar transistors with an “ON / OFF” static switch.
2. In which region transistor is switched on?
saturation region
Hence, the transistor acts as a switch in the saturation region and cutoff region. The emitter-base junction and the
collector-base junction are reverse biased in the cutoff region. Both the junctions are forward biased in the
saturation region.

3. Why use transistor instead of switch?

Transistors allow current to flow between the collector and emitter, as opposed to an on/off switch. They use no
moving parts. Instead, when positive voltage is present, the transistor varies the conductivity of the transistor's
material.
Ex. No: 10(a)
AND & OR GATE USING DIODES
Date:

AIM:
To verify the logic gate of AND & OR using Diodes.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Sl.No. COMPONENT SPECIFICATION RANGE QUANTITY

1 Diode 1N4007 - 2
2 Resistor 1kΩ, 200Ω 1 (Each)
3 LED - - -
4 Regulated power supply (RPS) Single /(0-30) V 1
5 Bread Board - - 1
As per
6 Connecting wires - -
requirement

THEORY:
OR gate has two or more inputs and only one output. The output of the OR gate is HIGH if
one or more inputs are HIGH.
 If all inputs are in LOW, both the diode becomes in reverse biased hence acts as an open
switch. Hence the output voltage is LOW.
 If A is HIGH and B is LOW, the diode D1 becomes in forward biased hence act as the closed
switch. (Neglecting diode forward resistance and voltage drop across the diode) Hence the
output is HIGH.
 Also, If A is LOW and B is HIGH. Diode D2 becomes in forward biased and act as an open
switch. Hence the output is HIGH.
 If both the input is in HIGH then the output is equal to the more positive value of the input. 
Hence OR function has been implemented.
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

OR GATE USING DIODES:

Vin= 0V / 5V

Vin= 0V / 5V

TABULATION:

INPUT VOLTAGE INPUT VOLTAGE OUTPUT VOLTAGE

(A) (B) (C)

LOW LOW LOW

LOW HIGH HIGH

HIGH LOW HIGH

HIGH HIGH HIGH

 AND GATE USING DIODES:

Vin= 0V / 5V

Vin= 0V / 5V

LED

TABULATION:

INPUT VOLTAGE INPUT VOLTAGE OUTPUT VOLTAGE

(A) (B) (C)

LOW LOW LOW

LOW HIGH LOW

HIGH LOW LOW

HIGH HIGH HIGH

PRACTICE DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE:
1. Construct the circuit as shown in figure.
2. Connect „0‟ volts to the input terminals VIN.
3. Connect „5‟ volts to the input terminals VOUT.
4. Observe that the LED glows when the input terminals are supplied with „0‟ volts and
the LED will not glow when the input is „5‟ volts.

RESULT:

Thus, the truth table of AND, OR logic gates using PN diodes using transistor are verified.

Inference from the Result:

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What is logic gates?

A logic gate is a device that acts as a building block for digital circuits. They perform basic
logical functions that are fundamental to digital circuits.
2. What is Truth table?
The truth table identifies all possible input combinations and the output for each. It is
common to create the table so that the input combinations produce an unsigned binary up-
count.
3. What are the universal gates?
The NAND and NOR gates are universal gates.
4. What is Diode?
Diode is an electronic device in which the electric current flows in one direction only.
5. List the different Logic gates.
There are seven basic logic gates: AND, OR, XOR, NOT, NAND, NOR, and XNOR.
Ex. No: 10(b)
NOT GATE USING TRANSISTOR
Date:

AIM :
To verify the logic gate of NOT gate using Transistor.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED :

Sl.No. COMPONENTS SPECIFICATION RANGE QUANTITY

1 Transistor BC-107 - 1
5.6K Ω, 300Ω, 1 (Each)
2 Resistor
2.2KΩ
3 LED - - 1
4 Regulated power supply (RPS) Single /(0-30) V 1
5 Bread Board - - 1
As per
6 Connecting wires - -
requirement

THEORY :
NOT gate is also known as an inverter because the output is opposite to the input. It has one
input and one output. Here, Vin is input and Vout is output. Output must be LOW if the input is HIGH.
Also, the output must be HIGH if the input is LOW.

WORKING :
 If the input is LOW, the parameter is chosen so that the output is V sat. Also, if the
input is HIGH, the parameter is chosen so that the output is LOW.
 If the input is LOW, the transistor acts as an open switch. Hence the output is LOW.
 If the input is HIGH, the transistor acts as the closed switch. Hence the output is
HIGH (Neglecting voltage drop)
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

LED

TABULATION:

INPUT VOLTAGE OUTPUT VOLTAGE

(VIN) (VOUT)

LOW HIGH

HIGH LOW
PRACTICE DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE:
1. Construct the circuit as shown in figure.
2. Connect „0‟ volts to the input terminals VIN.
3. Connect „5‟ volts to the input terminals VOUT.
4. Observe that the LED glows when the input terminals are supplied with „0‟ volts and
the LED will not glow when the input is „5‟ volts.
 RESULT:

Thus, the truth table of NOT gate using PN diodes using transistor are verified.

Inference from the Result:

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What is a negative logic system?

If the signal that activates the logic gate has for its high (1) level a voltage more negative than
for its low (0) level then the polarity of the logic is called negative logic,
2. What is an inverter?
In digital logic, an inverter or NOT gate is a logic gate which implements logical negation. It
outputs a bit opposite of the bit that is put into it.
3. What is an Not gate?
NOT gate is a logic gate that inverts the binary input.
4. Why AND, OR and NOT gates are called basic gates?
We form the basic circuit with the help of these gates only.
Ex. No: 11 SIMULATION OF WILSON CURRENT MIRROR CIRCUIT USING
Date: MULTISIM

AIM:
To perform and study the characteristics of Wilson current mirror circuit using multisim.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Sl.No. COMPONENT SPECIFICATION RANGE QUANTITY

1 Transistor BC-107 - 3
2 Resistor 1K Ω, 3.3kΩ, 1 (Each)
3 Regulated power supply (RPS) Single /(0-30) V
4 Multisim - - -
As per
5 Connecting wires - -
requirement

THEORY:
A current mirror is a circuit designed to copy a current through one active device by
controlling the current in another active device of a circuit, keeping the output current constant
regardless of loading. A Wilson current mirror is a three-terminal circuit that accepts an input current
at the input terminal and provides a "mirrored" current source or sink output at the output terminal.
The mirrored current is a precise copy of the input current. An important feature of the current mirror
is a relatively high output resistance which helps to keep the output current constant regardless of load
conditions. Another feature of the current mirror is a relatively low input resistance which helps to
keep the input current constant regardless of drive conditions.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

WAVEFORM:
PROCEDURE:
1. Construct the circuit as shown in figure.
2. Connect 12 volts supply between the resistance R1 and R2.
3. Measure the input current and output mirrored current.
RESULT:

Thus, the Wilson current mirror circuit using Multisim was simulated and verified.

Inference from the Result:

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What is Current mirror circuit?

It is commonly used to replicate current from one branch of the circuit to another.
2. What is advantages of current mirror circuit?
The benefits of the cascode current mirror are better matching of output currents and larger
output resistance.
3. How many types of current mirror circuit?
It explored four types of BJT current mirrors: the basic mirror, the mirror with beta helper, the
Widlar current source, and the Wilson mirror.
4. What is the importance of current mirror circuit?
The current mirror is used to provide bias currents and active loads to circuits. It can also be
used to model a more realistic current source.
5. What is the other name for current mirror circuit?
The current mirror circuit is frequently referred to as a CCCS (Current Controlled Current
Source).
Ex. No: 12
CHARACTERISTICS OF CMOS INVERTER
Date:

AIM:
To perform and study the characteristics of CMOS inverter.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Sl.No. COMPONENT SPECIFICATION RANGE QUANTITY

1 pMOS - - 1
2 nMOS 1
3 Regulated power supply (RPS) Single /(0-30) V 1
4 Signal Generator
5 Multisim - - -
As per
6 Connecting wires - -
requirement

THEORY:
The term “CMOS” stands for “complementary-symmetry metal–oxide–semiconductor” which
is pronounced as “SEE MOS”. CMOS is a type of MOSFET, where its fabrication process uses
complementary & symmetrical P-type & N-type MOSFET pairs for logic functions. The main CMOS
devices characteristics are consumption of low static power & high noise immunity. The inverter is
accepted universally as the basic logic gate while performing a Boolean operation on a single i/p
variable. A basic inverter circuit is used to accomplish a logic variable by complementing from A to
A‟. So, a CMOS inverter is a very simple circuit, designed with two opposite-polarity MOSFETs
within a complementary way. The general CMOS inverter structure is the combination of both the
PMOS & NMOS transistors where the PMOS is arranged at the top & NMOS is arranged at the
bottom. The NMOS transistor is connected at the drain (D) & gate (G) terminals, a voltage supply
(VDD) is connected at the source terminal of PMOS & a GND terminal is connected at the source
terminal of NMOS. Input voltage (Vin) is connected to both the gate terminals of transistors & output
voltage (Vout) is connected to the drain (D) terminals of the transistor. When the low input voltage is
given to the CMOS inverter, then the PMOS transistor is switched ON whereas the NMOS transistor
will switch OFF by allowing the flow of electrons throughout the gate terminal & generating high
logic output voltage. Similarly, when the high input voltage is given to the CMOS inverter then, the
PMOS transistor is switched OFF whereas the NMOS transistor will be switched ON avoiding as
many electrons from attaining the output voltage & generating low logic output voltage.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
VDD
3.3V

Q3

V
VOUT
A
I
VIN
0V Q2

CHARACTERISTICS OF CMOS INVERTER

PROCEDURE:
1. Construct the circuit as shown in figure.
2. Tap expand Simulation settings and select DC sweep.
3. V1 is automatically selected as the source and rename it as VIN.
4. Enter a Start value of 0 V, a Stop value of 3.3 V, and an Increment of 0.1 V.
5. Tap Start simulation and measure the output voltage and current
 RESULT:

Thus, the characteristics of CMOS inverter was performed and studied.

Inference from the Result:

VIVA QUESTIONS

1.What is the use of CMOS circuit?

It is used in microcontrollers, static RAM, registers, microchips and other digital circuits.
2.What are the 2 types of CMOS?
It has an n-type transistor or nMOS and a p-type transistor or pMOS.
3.Why is it called CMOS?
CMOS transistors are based on metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET)
technology.
4.What are the four functions of CMOS?
Memory handling, expansion port speed configuration, boot device order and power control.