Artificial Intelligence (AI)

What is Artificial Intelligence (AI)?

In today's world, technology is growing very fast, and we are getting in touch with different new
technologies day by day.

Here, one of the booming technologies of computer science is Artificial Intelligence which is
ready to create a new revolution in the world by making intelligent machines.The Artificial
Intelligence is now all around us. It is currently working with a variety of subfields, ranging from
general to specific, such as self-driving cars, playing chess, proving theorems, playing music,
Painting, etc.

AI is one of the fascinating and universal fields of Computer science which has a great scope in
future. AI holds a tendency to cause a machine to work as a human.

Artificial Intelligence is composed of two words Artificial and Intelligence, where Artificial
defines "man-made," and intelligence defines "thinking power", hence AI means "a man-made
thinking power."

So, we can define AI as:

"It is a branch of computer science by which we can create intelligent machines which can
behave like a human, think like humans, and able to make decisions."

Artificial Intelligence exists when a machine can have human based skills such as learning,
reasoning, and solving problems
With Artificial Intelligence you do not need to preprogram a machine to do some work, despite
that you can create a machine with programmed algorithms which can work with own
intelligence, and that is the awesomeness of AI.

It is believed that AI is not a new technology, and some people says that as per Greek myth,
there were Mechanical men in early days which can work and behave like humans.

Why Artificial Intelligence?

Before Learning about Artificial Intelligence, we should know that what is the importance of AI
and why should we learn it. Following are some main reasons to learn about AI:

o With the help of AI, you can create such software or devices which can solve real-world
problems very easily and with accuracy such as health issues, marketing, traffic issues,
etc.
o With the help of AI, you can create your personal virtual Assistant, such as Cortana,
Google Assistant, Siri, etc.
o With the help of AI, you can build such Robots which can work in an environment where
survival of humans can be at risk.
o AI opens a path for other new technologies, new devices, and new Opportunities.

Goals of Artificial Intelligence

Following are the main goals of Artificial Intelligence:

1. Replicate human intelligence

2. Solve Knowledge-intensive tasks
3. An intelligent connection of perception and action
4. Building a machine which can perform tasks that requires human intelligence such as:
o Proving a theorem
o Playing chess
o Plan some surgical operation
o Driving a car in traffic
5. Creating some system which can exhibit intelligent behavior, learn new things by itself,
demonstrate, explain, and can advise to its user.

Thinking Humanly Thinking Rationally

 "The exciting new effort to make comput- "The study of mental faculties through the
ers think . . . machines with minds, in the use of computational models."
full and literal sense." (Haugeland, 1985) (Charniak and McDermott, 1985)
"[The automation of] activities that we "The study of the computations that make it
associate with human thinking, activities possible to perceive, reason, and act."
such as decision-making, problem solv- ing, (Winston, 1992)
learning . . ." (Bellman, 1978)
Acting Humanly Acting Rationally
"The art of creating machines that per- "Computational Intelligence is the study of
form functions that require intelligence the design of intelligent agents." (Poole et
when performed by people ." (K urzweil, al., 1998)
1990)
"The study of how to make computers do "AI . . . is concerned with intelligent be-
things at which, at the moment, people are havior in artifacts." (Nilsson, 1998)
better." (Rich and Knight, 1991)

Figure 1.1 Some definitions of artificial intelligence, organized into four categories.

The definitions on the top are concerned with thought processes and reasoning whereas on the
bottom address behaviour. The definitions on the left measure success in terms of fidelity to
human performance, whereas the ones on the right measure against an ideal performance
measure, called rationality (doing the “right thing”). A system is rational if it does the
“right thing,” given what it knows.

According to the above four types of definitions we have four categories of intelligence. They
are: i) Systems that think humanly ii) Systems that act humanly iii) Systems that think rationally
iv) Systems that act rationally

The Turing Test, proposed by Alan Turing (1950), was designed to provide a satisfactory operational
definition of intelligence. A computer passes the test if a human interrogator, after posing some written questions,
cannot tell whether the written responses come from a person or from a computer.

The computer would need to possess the following capabilities:

• natural language processing to enable it to communicate successfully in English;
• knowledge representation to store what it knows or hears;
• automated reasoning to use the stored information to answer questions and to draw new conclusions;
• machine learning to adapt to new circumstances and to detect and extrapolate patterns .
Turing's test deliberately avoided direct physical interaction between the interrogator
and the computer, because physical simulation of a person is unnecessary for
intelligence. However,
TOTAL TURING TEST the so-called total Turing Test includes a video signal so that the interrogator can

test the subject's perceptual abilities, as well as the opportunity for the interrogator
to pass physical objects "through the hatch." To pass the total Turing Test, the
computer will need
 coMPUTER v1s10N • computer vision to perceive objects, and
RosoT1cs robotics to manipulate objects and move about.
•

These six disciplines compose most of Al, and Turing deserves credit for designing
a test that remains relevant 60 years later. Yet AI researchers have devoted little
effort to passing the Turing Test, believing that it is more important to study the
underlying principles of in- telligence than to duplicate an exemplar. The quest for
"artificial flight" succeeded when the Wright brothers and others stopped imitating
birds and started using wind tunnels and learn- ing about aerodynamics. Aeronautical
engineering texts do not define the goal of their field as making "machines that fly so
exactly like pigeons that they can fool even other pigeons."

Foundations of Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence is not just a part of computer science even it's so vast and requires lots of
other factors which can contribute to it. To create the AI first we should know that how
intelligence is composed, so the Intelligence is an intangible part of our brain which is a
combination of Reasoning, learning, problem-solving perception, language understanding,
etc.

To achieve the above factors for a machine or software Artificial Intelligence requires the
following discipline:

o Mathematics
o Biology
o Psychology
o Sociology
o Computer Science
o Neurons Study
o Statistics
Advantages of Artificial Intelligence

Following are some main advantages of Artificial Intelligence:

o High Accuracy with less errors: AI machines or systems are prone to less errors and
high accuracy as it takes decisions as per pre-experience or information.
o High-Speed: AI systems can be of very high-speed and fast-decision making, because of
that AI systems can beat a chess champion in the Chess game.
o High reliability: AI machines are highly reliable and can perform the same action
multiple times with high accuracy.
o Useful for risky areas: AI machines can be helpful in situations such as defusing a
bomb, exploring the ocean floor, where to employ a human can be risky.
o Digital Assistant: AI can be very useful to provide digital assistant to the users such as
AI technology is currently used by various E-commerce websites to show the products as
per customer requirement.
o Useful as a public utility: AI can be very useful for public utilities such as a self-driving
car which can make our journey safer and hassle-free, facial recognition for security
purpose, Natural language processing to communicate with the human in human-
language, etc.

Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence

Every technology has some disadvantages, and thesame goes for Artificial intelligence. Being so
advantageous technology still, it has some disadvantages which we need to keep in our mind
while creating an AI system. Following are the disadvantages of AI:
 o High Cost: The hardware and software requirement of AI is very costly as it requires lots
of maintenance to meet current world requirements.
o Can't think out of the box: Even we are making smarter machines with AI, but still they
cannot work out of the box, as the robot will only do that work for which they are trained,
or programmed.
o No feelings and emotions: AI machines can be an outstanding performer, but still it does
not have the feeling so it cannot make any kind of emotional attachment with human, and
may sometime be harmful for users if the proper care is not taken.
o Increase dependency on machines: With the increment of technology, people are
getting more dependent on devices and hence they are losing their mental capabilities.
o No Original Creativity: As humans are so creative and can imagine some new ideas but
still AI machines cannot beat this power of human intelligence and cannot be creative and
imaginative.

Application of AI

Artificial Intelligence has various applications in today's society. It is becoming essential for
today's time because it can solve complex problems with an efficient way in multiple industries,
such as Healthcare, entertainment, finance, education, etc. AI is making our daily life more
comfortable and fast.

Following are some sectors which have the application of Artificial Intelligence:
1. AI in Astronomy
o Artificial Intelligence can be very useful to solve complex universe problems. AI
technology can be helpful for understanding the universe such as how it works, origin,
etc.

2. AI in Healthcare
o In the last, five to ten years, AI becoming more advantageous for the healthcare industry
and going to have a significant impact on this industry.
o Healthcare Industries are applying AI to make a better and faster diagnosis than humans.
AI can help doctors with diagnoses and can inform when patients are worsening so that
medical help can reach to the patient before hospitalization.

3. AI in Gaming
o AI can be used for gaming purpose. The AI machines can play strategic games like chess,
where the machine needs to think of a large number of possible places.

4. AI in Finance
o AI and finance industries are the best matches for each other. The finance industry is
implementing automation, chatbot, adaptive intelligence, algorithm trading, and machine
learning into financial processes.
5. AI in Data Security
o The security of data is crucial for every company and cyber-attacks are growing very
rapidly in the digital world. AI can be used to make your data more safe and secure.
Some examples such as AEG bot, AI2 Platform,are used to determine software bug and
cyber-attacks in a better way.

6. AI in Social Media
o Social Media sites such as Facebook, Twitter, and Snapchat contain billions of user
profiles, which need to be stored and managed in a very efficient way. AI can organize
and manage massive amounts of data. AI can analyze lots of data to identify the latest
trends, hashtag, and requirement of different users.

7. AI in Travel & Transport

o AI is becoming highly demanding for travel industries. AI is capable of doing various
travel related works such as from making travel arrangement to suggesting the hotels,
flights, and best routes to the customers. Travel industries are using AI-powered chatbots
which can make human-like interaction with customers for better and fast response.

8. AI in Automotive Industry
o Some Automotive industries are using AI to provide virtual assistant to their user for
better performance. Such as Tesla has introduced TeslaBot, an intelligent virtual
assistant.
o Various Industries are currently working for developing self-driven cars which can make
your journey more safe and secure.

9. AI in Robotics:
o Artificial Intelligence has a remarkable role in Robotics. Usually, general robots are
programmed such that they can perform some repetitive task, but with the help of AI, we
can create intelligent robots which can perform tasks with their own experiences without
pre-programmed.
o Humanoid Robots are best examples for AI in robotics, recently the intelligent Humanoid
robot named as Erica and Sophia has been developed which can talk and behave like
humans.

10. AI in Entertainment
 o We are currently using some AI based applications in our daily life with some
entertainment services such as Netflix or Amazon. With the help of ML/AI algorithms,
these services show the recommendations for programs or shows.

11. AI in Agriculture
o Agriculture is an area which requires various resources, labor, money, and time for best
result. Now a day's agriculture is becoming digital, and AI is emerging in this field.
Agriculture is applying AI as agriculture robotics, solid and crop monitoring, predictive
analysis. AI in agriculture can be very helpful for farmers.

12. AI in E-commerce
o AI is providing a competitive edge to the e-commerce industry, and it is becoming more
demanding in the e-commerce business. AI is helping shoppers to discover associated
products with recommended size, color, or even brand.

13. AI in education:
o AI can automate grading so that the tutor can have more time to teach. AI chatbot can
communicate with students as a teaching assistant.
o AI in the future can be work as a personal virtual tutor for students, which will be
accessible easily at any time and any place.

History of Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence is not a new word and not a new technology for researchers. This
technology is much older than you would imagine. Even there are the myths of Mechanical men
in Ancient Greek and Egyptian Myths. Following are some milestones in the history of AI which
defines the journey from the AI generation to till date development.
Maturation of Artificial Intelligence (1943-1952)
o Year 1943: The first work which is now recognized as AI was done by Warren
McCulloch and Walter pits in 1943. They proposed a model of artificial neurons.
o Year 1949: Donald Hebb demonstrated an updating rule for modifying the connection
strength between neurons. His rule is now called Hebbian learning.
o Year 1950: The Alan Turing who was an English mathematician and pioneered Machine
learning in 1950. Alan Turing publishes "Computing Machinery and Intelligence" in
which he proposed a test. The test can check the machine's ability to exhibit intelligent
behavior equivalent to human intelligence, called a Turing test.

The birth of Artificial Intelligence (1952-1956)

 o Year 1955: An Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon created the "first artificial
intelligence program"Which was named as "Logic Theorist". This program had proved
38 of 52 Mathematics theorems, and find new and more elegant proofs for some
theorems.
o Year 1956: The word "Artificial Intelligence" first adopted by American Computer
scientist John McCarthy at the Dartmouth Conference. For the first time, AI coined as an
academic field.

At that time high-level computer languages such as FORTRAN, LISP, or COBOL were
invented. And the enthusiasm for AI was very high at that time.

The golden years-Early enthusiasm (1956-1974)

o Year 1966: The researchers emphasized developing algorithms which can solve
mathematical problems. Joseph Weizenbaum created the first chatbot in 1966, which was
named as ELIZA.
o Year 1972: The first intelligent humanoid robot was built in Japan which was named as
WABOT-1.

The first AI winter (1974-1980)

o The duration between years 1974 to 1980 was the first AI winter duration. AI winter
refers to the time period where computer scientist dealt with a severe shortage of funding
from government for AI researches.
o During AI winters, an interest of publicity on artificial intelligence was decreased.

A boom of AI (1980-1987)
o Year 1980: After AI winter duration, AI came back with "Expert System". Expert
systems were programmed that emulate the decision-making ability of a human expert.
o In the Year 1980, the first national conference of the American Association of Artificial
Intelligence was held at Stanford University.

The second AI winter (1987-1993)

o The duration between the years 1987 to 1993 was the second AI Winter duration.
o Again Investors and government stopped in funding for AI research as due to high cost
but not efficient result. The expert system such as XCON was very cost effective.

The emergence of intelligent agents (1993-2011)

 o Year 1997: In the year 1997, IBM Deep Blue beats world chess champion, Gary
Kasparov, and became the first computer to beat a world chess champion.
o Year 2002: for the first time, AI entered the home in the form of Roomba, a vacuum
cleaner.
o Year 2006: AI came in the Business world till the year 2006. Companies like Facebook,
Twitter, and Netflix also started using AI.

Deep learning, big data and artificial general intelligence (2011-present)

o Year 2011: In the year 2011, IBM's Watson won jeopardy, a quiz show, where it had to
solve the complex questions as well as riddles. Watson had proved that it could
understand natural language and can solve tricky questions quickly.
o Year 2012: Google has launched an Android app feature "Google now", which was able
to provide information to the user as a prediction.
o Year 2014: In the year 2014, Chatbot "Eugene Goostman" won a competition in the
infamous "Turing test."
o Year 2018: The "Project Debater" from IBM debated on complex topics with two master
debaters and also performed extremely well.
o Google has demonstrated an AI program "Duplex" which was a virtual assistant and
which had taken hairdresser appointment on call, and lady on other side didn't notice that
she was talking with the machine.

Now AI has developed to a remarkable level. The concept of Deep learning, big data, and data
science are now trending like a boom. Nowadays companies like Google, Facebook, IBM, and
Amazon are working with AI and creating amazing devices. The future of Artificial Intelligence
is inspiring and will come with high intelligence.

According to the above four types of definitions we have four categories of intelligence. They
are: i) Systems that think humanly ii) Systems that act humanly iii) Systems that think rationally
iv) Systems that act rationally

The Turing Test, proposed by Alan Turing (1950), was designed to provide a satisfactory operational
definition of intelligence. A computer passes the test if a human interrogator, after posing some written questions,
cannot tell whether the written responses come from a person or from a computer.

The computer would need to possess the following capabilities:

 • natural language processing to enable it to communicate successfully in English;
• knowledge representation to store what it knows or hears;
• automated reasoning to use the stored information to answer questions and to draw new conclusions;
• machine learning to adapt to new circumstances and to detect and extrapolate patterns .
Turing's test deliberately avoided direct physical interaction between the interrogator
and the computer, because physical simulation of a person is unnecessary for
intelligence. However,
TOTAL TURING TEST the so-called total Turing Test includes a video signal so that the interrogator can

test the subject's perceptual abilities, as well as the opportunity for the interrogator
to pass physical objects "through the hatch." To pass the total Turing Test, the
computer will need

coMPUTER v1s10N • computer vision to perceive objects, and

RosoT1cs robotics to manipulate objects and move about.
•

These six disciplines compose most of Al, and Turing deserves credit for designing
a test that remains relevant 60 years later. Yet AI researchers have devoted little
effort to passing the Turing Test, believing that it is more important to study the
underlying principles of in- telligence than to duplicate an exemplar. The quest for
"artificial flight" succeeded when the Wright brothers and others stopped imitating
birds and started using wind tunnels and learn- ing about aerodynamics. Aeronautical
engineering texts do not define the goal of their field as making "machines that fly so
exactly like pigeons that they can fool even other pigeons."

Need for Artificial Intelligence

1. To create expert systems that exhibit intelligent behavior with the capability to learn,
demonstrate, explain, and advise its users.
2. Helping machines find solutions to complex problems like humans do and applying them
as algorithms in a computer-friendly manner.
3. Improved efficiency: Artificial intelligence can automate tasks and processes that are time-
consuming and require a lot of human effort. This can help improve efficiency and
productivity, allowing humans to focus on more creative and high-level tasks.
4. Better decision-making: Artificial intelligence can analyze large amounts of data and
provide insights that can aid in decision-making. This can be especially useful in domains
like finance, healthcare, and logistics, where decisions can have significant impacts on
outcomes.
5. Enhanced accuracy: Artificial intelligence algorithms can process data quickly and
accurately, reducing the risk of errors that can occur in manual processes. This can improve
the reliability and quality of results.
6. Personalization: Artificial intelligence can be used to personalize experiences for users,
tailoring recommendations, and interactions based on individual preferences and behaviors.
This can improve customer satisfaction and loyalty.
7. Exploration of new frontiers: Artificial intelligence can be used to explore new frontiers
and discover new knowledge that is difficult or impossible for humans to access. This can
lead to new breakthroughs in fields like astronomy, genetics, and drug discovery.
Approaches of AI
There are a total of four approaches of AI and that are as follows:
 Acting humanly (The Turing Test approach): This approach was designed by Alan
Turing. The ideology behind this approach is that a computer passes the test if a human
interrogator, after asking some written questions, cannot identify whether the written
responses come from a human or from a computer.
 Thinking humanly (The cognitive modeling approach): The idea behind this approach is
to determine whether the computer thinks like a human.
 Thinking rationally (The “laws of thought” approach): The idea behind this approach
is to determine whether the computer thinks rationally i.e. with logical reasoning.
 Acting rationally (The rational agent approach): The idea behind this approach is to
determine whether the computer acts rationally i.e. with logical reasoning.
 Machine Learning approach: This approach involves training machines to learn from
data and improve performance on specific tasks over time. It is widely used in areas such
as image and speech recognition, natural language processing, and recommender systems.
 Evolutionary approach: This approach is inspired by the process of natural selection in
biology. It involves generating and testing a large number of variations of a solution to a
problem, and then selecting and combining the most successful variations to create a new
generation of solutions.
 Neural Networks approach: This approach involves building artificial neural networks
that are modeled after the structure and function of the human brain. Neural networks can
be used for tasks such as pattern recognition, prediction, and decision-making.
 Fuzzy logic approach: This approach involves reasoning with uncertain and imprecise
information, which is common in real-world situations. Fuzzy logic can be used to model
and control complex systems in areas such as robotics, automotive control, and industrial
automation.
 Hybrid approach: This approach combines multiple AI techniques to solve complex
problems. For example, a hybrid approach might use machine learning to analyze data and
identify patterns, and then use logical reasoning to make decisions based on those patterns.

Applications of AI include Natural Language Processing, Gaming, Speech Recognition,

Vision Systems, Healthcare, Automotive, etc.

Forms of AI:
1) Weak AI:
 Weak AI is an AI that is created to solve a particular problem or perform a specific task.
 It is not a general AI and is only used for specific purpose.
 For example, the AI that was used to beat the chess grandmaster is a weak AI as that serves
only 1 purpose but it can do it efficiently.
2) Strong AI:
 Strong AI is difficult to create than weak AI.
 It is a general purpose intelligence that can demonstrate human abilities.
 Human abilities such as learning from experience, reasoning, etc. can be demonstrated by
this AI.
3) Super Intelligence
 As stated by a leading AI thinker Nick Bostrom, “Super Intelligence is an AI that is much
smarter than the best human brains in practically every field”.
 It ranges from a machine being just smarter than a human to a machine being trillion times
smarter than a human.
 Super Intelligence is the ultimate power of AI.

An AI system is composed of an agent and its environment. An agent(e.g., human or robot)

is anything that can perceive its environment through sensors and acts upon that
environment through effectors.
Intelligent agents must be able to set goals and achieve them. In classical planning
problems, the agent can assume that it is the only system acting in the world, allowing the
agent to be certain of the consequences of its actions. However, if the agent is not the only
actor, then it requires that the agent can reason under uncertainty. This calls for an agent
that cannot only assess its environment and make predictions but also evaluate its
predictions and adapt based on its assessment.
Natural language processing gives machines the ability to read and understand human
language. Some straightforward applications of natural language processing include
information retrieval, text mining, question answering, and machine translation. Machine
perception is the ability to use input from sensors (such as cameras, microphones, sensors,
etc.) to deduce aspects of the world. e.g., Computer Vision. Concepts such as game theory,
and decision theory, necessitate that an agent can detect and model human emotions.
Many times, students get confused between Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence,
but Machine learning, a fundamental concept of AI research since the field’s inception, is
the study of computer algorithms that improve automatically through experience. The
mathematical analysis of machine learning algorithms and their performance is a branch of
theoretical computer science known as a computational learning theory.
Stuart Shapiro divides AI research into three approaches, which he calls computational
psychology, computational philosophy, and computer science. Computational psychology
is used to make computer programs that mimic human behavior. Computational philosophy
is used to develop an adaptive, free-flowing computer mind. Implementing computer
science serves the goal of creating computers that can perform tasks that only people could
previously accomplish.
AI has developed a large number of tools to solve the most difficult problems in
computer science, like:

 Search and optimization

 Logic
 Probabilistic methods for uncertain reasoning
 Classifiers and statistical learning methods
 Neural networks
 Control theory
 Languages
High-profile examples of AI include autonomous vehicles (such as drones and self-driving
cars), medical diagnosis, creating art (such as poetry), proving mathematical theorems, playing
games (such as Chess or Go), search engines (such as Google search), virtual assistants (such
as Siri), image recognition in photographs, spam filtering, prediction of judicial decisions[204]
and targeted online advertisements. Other applications include Healthcare, Automotive,
Finance, Video games, etc
Are there limits to how intelligent machines – or human-machine hybrids – can be? A
superintelligence, hyperintelligence, or superhuman intelligence is a hypothetical agent that
would possess intelligence far surpassing that of the brightest and most gifted human mind.
‘‘Superintelligence’’ may also refer to the form or degree of intelligence possessed by such an
agent.

Drawbacks of Artificial Intelligence :

1. Bias and unfairness: AI systems can perpetuate and amplify existing biases in data and
decision-making.
2. Lack of transparency and accountability: Complex AI systems can be difficult to
understand and interpret, making it challenging to determine how decisions are being
made.
3. Job displacement: AI has the potential to automate many jobs, leading to job loss and a
need for reskilling.
4. Security and privacy risks: AI systems can be vulnerable to hacking and other security
threats, and may also pose privacy risks by collecting and using personal data.
5. Ethical concerns: AI raises important ethical questions about the use of technology for
decision-making, including issues related to autonomy, accountability, and human dignity.

Technologies Based on Artificial Intelligence:

1. Machine Learning: A subfield of AI that uses algorithms to enable systems to learn from
data and make predictions or decisions without being explicitly programmed.
2. Natural Language Processing (NLP): A branch of AI that focuses on enabling computers
to understand, interpret, and generate human language.
3. Computer Vision: A field of AI that deals with the processing and analysis of visual
information using computer algorithms.
4. Robotics: AI-powered robots and automation systems that can perform tasks in
manufacturing, healthcare, retail, and other industries.
5. Neural Networks: A type of machine learning algorithm modeled after the structure and
function of the human brain.
6. Expert Systems: AI systems that mimic the decision-making ability of a human expert in a
specific field.
7. Chatbots: AI-powered virtual assistants that can interact with users through text-based or
voice-based interfaces.

Issues of Artificial Intelligence :

Artificial Intelligence has the potential to bring many benefits to society, but it also raises some
important issues that need to be addressed, including:
1. Bias and Discrimination: AI systems can perpetuate and amplify human biases, leading to
discriminatory outcomes.
2. Job Displacement: AI may automate jobs, leading to job loss and unemployment.
3. Lack of Transparency: AI systems can be difficult to understand and interpret, making it
challenging to identify and address bias and errors.
4. Privacy Concerns: AI can collect and process vast amounts of personal data, leading to
privacy concerns and the potential for abuse.
5. Security Risks: AI systems can be vulnerable to cyber attacks, making it important to
ensure the security of AI systems.

6. Ethical Considerations: AI raises important ethical questions, such as the acceptable use
of autonomous weapons, the right to autonomous decision making, and the responsibility
of AI systems for their actions.
7. Regulation: There is a need for clear and effective regulation to ensure the responsible
development and deployment of AI.
It’s crucial to address these issues as AI continues to play an increasingly important role in our
lives and society.
The Future of AI Technologies:
1. Reinforcement Learning: Reinforcement Learning is an interesting field of Artificial
Intelligence that focuses on training agents to make intelligent decisions by interacting with
their environment.
2. Explainable AI: this AI techniques focus on providing insights into how AI models arrive
at their conclusions.
3. Generative AI: Through this technique AI models can learn the underlying patterns and
create realistic and novel outputs.
4. Edge AI:AI involves running AI algorithms directly on edge devices, such as smartphones,
IoT devices, and autonomous vehicles, rather than relying on cloud-based processing.
5. Quantum AI: Quantum AI combines the power of quantum computing with AI algorithms
to tackle complex problems that are beyond the capabilities of classical computers.

Types of Artificial Intelligence:

Artificial Intelligence can be divided in various types, there are mainly two types of main
categorization which are based on capabilities and based on functionally of AI.
Following is flow diagram which explain the types of AI.
AI type-1: Based on Capabilities
1. Weak AI or Narrow AI:
o Narrow AI is a type of AI which is able to perform a dedicated task with intelligence.The
most common and currently available AI is Narrow AI in the world of Artificial
Intelligence.
o Narrow AI cannot perform beyond its field or limitations, as it is only trained for one
specific task. Hence it is also termed as weak AI. Narrow AI can fail in unpredictable
ways if it goes beyond its limits.
o Apple Siriis a good example of Narrow AI, but it operates with a limited pre-defined
range of functions.
o IBM's Watson supercomputer also comes under Narrow AI, as it uses an Expert system
approach combined with Machine learning and natural language processing.
o Some Examples of Narrow AI are playing chess, purchasing suggestions on e-
commerce site, self-driving cars, speech recognition, and image recognition.

2. General AI:
o General AI is a type of intelligence which could perform any intellectual task with
efficiency like a human.
o The idea behind the general AI to make such a system which could be smarter and think
like a human by its own.
 o Currently, there is no such system exist which could come under general AI and can
perform any task as perfect as a human.
o The worldwide researchers are now focused on developing machines with General AI.
o As systems with general AI are still under research, and it will take lots of efforts and
time to develop such systems.

3. Super AI:
o Super AI is a level of Intelligence of Systems at which machines could surpass human
intelligence, and can perform any task better than human with cognitive properties. It is
an outcome of general AI.
o Some key characteristics of strong AI include capability include the ability to think, to
reason,solve the puzzle, make judgments, plan, learn, and communicate by its own.
o Super AI is still a hypothetical concept of Artificial Intelligence. Development of such
systems in real is still world changing task.

Artificial Intelligence type-2: Based on functionality

1. Reactive Machines
o Purely reactive machines are the most basic types of Artificial Intelligence.
o Such AI systems do not store memories or past experiences for future actions.
o These machines only focus on current scenarios and react on it as per possible best
action.
o IBM's Deep Blue system is an example of reactive machines.
 o Google's AlphaGo is also an example of reactive machines.

2. Limited Memory
o Limited memory machines can store past experiences or some data for a short period of
time.
o These machines can use stored data for a limited time period only.
o Self-driving cars are one of the best examples of Limited Memory systems. These cars
can store recent speed of nearby cars, the distance of other cars, speed limit, and other
information to navigate the road.

3. Theory of Mind
o Theory of Mind AI should understand the human emotions, people, beliefs, and be able
to interact socially like humans.
o This type of AI machines are still not developed, but researchers are making lots of
efforts and improvement for developing such AI machines.

4. Self-Awareness
o Self-awareness AI is the future of Artificial Intelligence. These machines will be super
intelligent, and will have their own consciousness, sentiments, and self-awareness.
o These machines will be smarter than human mind.
o Self-Awareness AI does not exist in reality still and it is a hypothetical concept.

AI programming focuses on three cognitive aspects, such as learning, reasoning, and

self-correction.

o Learning Processes
o Reasoning Processes
o Self-correction Processes

Learning Processes
This part of AI programming is concerned with gathering data and creating rules for
transforming it into useful information. The rules, which are also called algorithms, offer
computing devices with step-by-step instructions for accomplishing a particular job.
 Reasoning Processes
This part of AI programming is concerned with selecting the best algorithm to achieve
the desired result.

Self-Correction Processes
This part of AI programming aims to fine-tune algorithms regularly in order to ensure
that they offer the most reliable results possible.

Artificial Intelligence is an extensive field of computer science which focuses on

developing intelligent machines capable of doing activities that would normally require
human intelligence. While AI is a multidisciplinary science with numerous
methodologies, advances in deep learning and machine learning create a paradigm
shift in almost every aspect of technology.

Examples of AI-Artificial Intelligence

The following are the examples of AI-Artificial Intelligence:

1. Google Maps and Ride-Hailing Applications

2. Face Detection and recognition
3. Text Editors and Autocorrect
 4. Chatbots
5. E-Payments
6. Search and Recommendation algorithms
7. Digital Assistant
8. Social media
9. Healthcare
10. Gaming
11. Online Ads-Network
12. Banking and Finance
13. Smart Home devices
14. Security and Surveillance
15. Smart Keyboard App
16. Smart Speaker
17. E-Commerce
18. Smart Email Apps
19. Music and Media Streaming Service
20. Space Exploration

Let's discuss the above examples in detail.

1. Google Maps and Ride-Hailing Applications

Travelling to a new destination does not require much thought any longer. Rather than
relying on confusing address directions, we can now easily open our phone's map app
and type in our destination.

So how does the app know about the appropriate directions, best way, and even the
presence of roadblocks and traffic jams? A few years ago, only GPS (satellite-based
navigation) was used as a navigation guide. However, artificial intelligence (AI) now
provides users with a much better experience in their unique surroundings.

The app algorithm uses machine learning to recall the building's edges that are supplied
into the system after the person has manually acknowledged them. This enables the
map to provide simple visuals of buildings. Another feature is identifying and
understanding handwritten house numbers, which assists travelers in finding the exact
house they need. Their outline or handwritten label can also recognize locations that
lack formal street signs.

The application has been trained to recognize and understand traffic. As a result, it
suggests the best way to avoid traffic congestion and bottlenecks. The AI-based
algorithm also informs users about the precise distance and time it will take them to
arrive at their destination. It has been trained to calculate this based on the traffic
situations. Several ride-hailing applications have emerged as a result of the use of
similar AI technology. So, whenever you need to book a cab via an app by putting your
location on a map, this is how it works.

2. Face Detection and Recognition

Utilizing face ID for unlocking our phones and using virtual filters on our faces while
taking pictures are two uses of AI that are presently essential for our day-by-day lives.

Face recognition is used in the former, which means that every human face can be
recognized. Face recognition is used in the above, which recognizes a particular face.
How does it work?

Intelligent machines often match-and some cases, even exceed human performance! -
Human potential. Human babies begin to identifying facial features such as eyes, lips,
nose, and face shapes. A face, though, is more than just that. A number of
characteristics distinguish human faces. Smart machines are trained in order to
recognize facial coordinates (x, y, w, and h; which form a square around the face as an
area of interest), landmarks (nose, eyes, etc.), and alignment (geometric structures).
This improves the human ability to identify faces by several factors. Face recognition is
also used by government facilities or at the airport for monitoring, and security.

3. Text Editors or Autocorrect

When typing a document, there are inbuilt or downloadable auto-correcting tools for
editors of spelling errors, readability, mistakes, and plagiarism based on their difficulty
level.
It should have taken a long time for us to master our language and become fluent in it.
Artificially intelligent algorithms often used deep learning, machine
learning, and natural language in order to detect inappropriate language use and
recommend improvements. Linguists and computer scientists collaborate in teaching
machines grammar in the same way that we learned it in school. Machines are fed large
volumes of high-quality data that has been structured in a way that machines can
understand. Thus, when we misspell a single comma, the editor will highlight it in red
and offer suggestions.

4. Chatbots
Answering a customer's inquiries can take a long time. The use of algorithms to train
machines to meet customer needs through chatbots is an artificially intelligent solution
to this problem. This allows machines to answer as well as take and track orders.
We used Natural Language Processing (NLP) to train chatbots to impersonate
customer service agents' conversational approaches. Advanced chatbots do not require
complex input formats (such as yes/o questions). They are capable of responding to
complex questions that necessitate comprehensive answers. They will appear to be a
customer representative, in fact, another example of artificial intelligence (AI). If you
give a negative rating to a response, the bot will figure out what went wrong and fix it
the next time, ensuring that you get the best possible service.

5. Online-Payments
It can be a time-consuming errand to rush to the bank for any transaction. Good news!
Artificial Intelligence is now being used by banks to support customers by simplifying the
process of payment.
Artificial intelligence has enabled you to deposit checks from the convenience of our
own home. Since AI is capable of deciphering handwriting and making online cheque
processing practicable. Artificial Intelligence can potentially be utilized to detect fraud by
observing consumers' credit card spending patterns. For example, the algorithms are
aware of what items User X purchases, when and where they are purchased, and in
what price range they are purchased. If there is some suspicious behaviour that does
not match the user's profile, then the system immediately signals user X.

6. Search and Recommendation Algorithms

When we wish to listen to our favorite songs or watch our favorite movie or shop online,
we have ever found that the things recommended to us perfectly match our interests?
This is the beauty of artificial intelligence.

These intelligent recommendation systems analyze our online activity and preferences
to provide us with similar content. Continuous training allows us to have a customized
experience. The data is obtained from the front-end, saved as big data, and analysed
using machine learning and deep learning. Then it can predict your preferences and
make suggestions to keep you amused without having to look for something else.
Artificial intelligence can also be utilized to improve the user experience of a search
engine. Generally, the answer we are searching for is found in the top search results.
What cause this?

Data is fed into a quality control algorithm to identify high-quality content from SEO-
spammed, low-quality content. This aids in creating an ascending order of search
results on the basis of the quality for the greatest user experience. Since search
engines are made up of codes, natural language processing technology aids in
understanding humans by these applications. In reality, they can predict what a person
wants to ask by compiling top-ranked searches and guessing their questions when they
begin to type.

Machines are constantly being updated with new features such as image search and
voice search. If we need to find out a song that is playing at a mall, all we have to do is
hold the phone up to it, and a music-identifying app will tell us what it is within a few
seconds. The machine will also offer you song details after searching through an
extensive collection of tunes.
 7. Digital Assistants
When our hands are full, we often enlist the help of digital assistants to complete tasks
on our behalf. We might ask the assistant to call our father while we are driving with a
cup of tea in one hand. For instance, Siri would look at our contacts, recognize the word
"father," and dial the number.

Siri is an example of a lower-tier model which can only respond to voice commands
and cannot deliver complex responses. The new digital assistant is fluent in human
language and uses advanced NLP (Natural Language Processing) and ML (Machine
Learning) techniques. They are capable of understanding complex command inputs and
providing acceptable results. They have adaptive abilities which can
examine preferences, habits, and schedules. It enables them to use prompts,
schedules, and reminders to help us systemize, coordinate, and plan things.

8. Social Media
The advent of social media gave the world a new narrative with immense freedom of
speech. Although, it brought certain social ills like cyberbullying, cybercrime, and abuse
of language. Several social media apps are using AI to help solve these issues while
also providing users with other enjoyable features.

AI algorithms are much quicker than humans at detecting and removing hate speech-
containing messages. It is made possible by their ability to recognize hostile terms,
keywords, and symbols in a variety of languages. These have been entered into the
system, which can also contribute neologisms to its dictionary. Deep learning's neural
network architecture is a vital part of the process.

Emojis have become the most common way to express a wide range of emotions. This
digital language is also understood by AI technology because it can understand the
meaning of a certain piece of text and guess the exact emoji.

Social networking, a perfect example of artificial intelligence, may even figure out what
kind of content a user likes and recommends similar content. Facial recognition is also
used in social media profiles, assisting users in tagging their friends via automatic
suggestions. Smart filters can recognize spam and undesirable messages and
automatically filter them out. Users may also take advantage of smart answers.

The social media sector could use artificial intelligence to detect mental health issues
such as suicidal thoughts by analyzing the information published and consumed. This
information can be shared with mental health professionals.

9. Healthcare
Infervision is using artificial intelligence and deep learning to save lives. In China,
where there are insufficient radiologists to keep up with the demand for checking 1.4
billion CT scans each year for early symptoms of lung cancer. Radiologists essential to
review many scans every day, which isn't just dreary, yet human weariness can prompt
errors. Infervision trained and instructed algorithms to expand the work of radiologists in
order to permit them to diagnose cancer more proficiently and correctly.

The inspiration and foundation for Google's DeepMind are Neuroscience, which aims to
create a machine that can replicate the thinking processes in our own brains. While
DeepMind has effectively beaten people at games, what are truly captivating are the
opportunities for medical care applications. For example, lessening the time it takes to
plan treatments and utilizing machines to help diagnose ailments.

10. Gaming
Artificial Intelligence has been an important part of the gaming industry in recent years.
In reality, one of AI's most significant achievements is in the gaming industry.

One of the most important achievements in the field of AI is DeepMind's AI-based

AlphaGo software, which is famous for defeating Lee Sedol, the world champion in the
game of GO. Shortly after the win, DeepMind released AlphaGo, which trounced its
predecessor in an AI-AI face off. The advanced machine, AlphaGo Zero, taught itself to
master the game, unlike the original AlphaGo, which DeepMind learned over time using
a vast amount of data and supervision.
Not at all like the first AlphaGo, which DeepMind prepared over the long run by utilizing
a lot of information and oversight, the high-level framework, AlphaGo Zero instructed
itself to dominate the game. Another example of Artificial Intelligence in gaming
comprises the First Encounter Assault Recon, also known as F.E.A.R that is the first-
person shooter video game.

11. Online Ads Network

The online advertising industry is the most significant user of artificial intelligence that
uses AI (Artificial Intelligence) to not only monitor user statistics but also to advertise
us on the basis of the statistics. The online advertising industry will struggle if AI is not
implemented, as users will be shown random advertisements that have no relation to
their interests.
Since AI has been so good at determining our preferences and serving us ads, the
worldwide digital ad industry has crossed 250 billion US dollars, with the business
projected to cross the 300 billion mark in 2019. So, the next time remembers that AI is
changing your life while you browse the internet and encounter adverts or product
recommendations.

12. Banking and Finance

The banking and finance industry has a major impact on our daily lives which means the
world runs on liquidity, and banks are the gatekeepers who control the flow. Did you
know that artificial intelligence is heavily used in the banking and finance industry for
things such as customer service, investment, fraud protection, and so on? The
automatic emails we get from banks if we make an ordinary transaction, are a simple
example. That's AI keeping an eye on our account and trying to alert us regarding any
potential fraud. AI is now being trained to examine vast samples of fraud data in order to
identify patterns so that we can be alerted before it happens to us. If we run into a snag
and contact our bank's customer service, we are probably speaking with an AI bot. Even
the largest financial industry use AI to analyse data in order to find the best ways to
invest capital in order to maximize returns while minimizing risk.
Not only that, but AI is set to play an even larger role in the industry, with major banks
around the world investing billions of dollars in AI technology, and we will be able to see
the results sooner rather than later.

13. Smart Home Devices

Another popular example of AI (Artificial Intelligence) is smart home devices. Artificial
intelligence is even being welcomed into our homes. Most of the smart home gadgets
we purchase use artificial intelligence to learn our habits and automatically change
settings to make our experience as seamless as possible.
We have effectively examined how we utilize savvy voice assistants to control these
smart home gadgets. We probably are aware that it is a great example of AI's impact on
our lives. That is to say, there are smart thermostats that change the temperature-
dependent on our preferences, smart lights which change the colour and intensity of
lights dependent on time, and much more. This will not happen when our primary
interaction with all our smart home devices is only through AI.

14. curity and Surveillance

Although we all can debate about the ethics of using a large surveillance system, there's
no denying that it's being used, and AI is playing a significant role in it. It isn't workable
for people to keep monitoring many monitors simultaneously, and thus, utilizing AI
makes well. With technologies such as facial recognition and object
recognition improving every day, it won't be long when all the security camera deals
with are being checked by an AI and not a human. Right now, before AI can be
completely implemented, this is going to be our future.
 15. Smart Keyboard Apps
Smart keyboard apps are another example of AI (Artificial Intelligence). In all actuality,
not every person loves managing on-screen keyboards. Although, they have become
far more intuitive, permitting clients to type comfortably and quickly. What has likely
ended up being a catalyst for them is the integration of AI. The smart keyboard
applications keep a tab on the composing style of a client and predict words and emojis
based on that. Consequently, typing on the touchscreen has gotten quicker and more
advantageous. Not to mention that artificial intelligence is crucial in detecting
misspellings and typos.
 16. Smart Speakers
Not in vain, many thinks that smart speakers are good to go for a major blast in
technology. Besides controlling smart home gadgets, they are likewise capable of
various things like sending fast messages, setting updates, checking the climate, and
getting the most recent news.
Also, it's this flexibility that is ending up being a conclusive factor for them. Driven by the
hugely popular Amazon Echo series, the worldwide brilliant speaker market arrived at
an exceptional high in 2019 with sales of 149.9 million units, which is a huge increment
of 70% in 2018. Additionally, the sales in Q4 2019 also saw another record with an
incredible 55.7 million units. Smart speakers are likely the most unmistakable instances
of the utilization of AI in our reality.

17. E-Commerce
Artificial intelligence algorithms have given the necessary vital impulse to web-based
businesses to give a more customized insight. According to many sources, its use has
significantly improved sales and has also aided in developing long-term consumer
relationships. Thus, organizations take advantage of AI to deploy chatbots to gather
urgent information and predict purchases to make a client-centric experience.
On the way across this shift of technique? Simply invest some time on websites such as
Amazon, and eBay and we will soon see how quickly the scene around you is improving
rapidly!

18. Smart Email Apps

In the event that you actually find your inbox cluttered with an excessive number of
undesirable messages, the possibility is quite high that we can yet stay with an old-
fashioned email application.
Present-day email applications such as Spark make several AI to filter out spam
messages and furthermore arrange messages so you can rapidly get to the significant
ones. Likewise, it additionally provides smart answers dependent on the messages we
get to help us answer to any email rapidly. The "Smart Reply" highlight of Gmail is an
extraordinary illustration of this. It utilizes AI to filter the content of the email and gives
you context-oriented answers.

19. Music and Media Streaming Service

Another amazing illustration of how AI affects our lives is the music and media
streaming features that we utilize reliably. Whether or not you are utilizing Spotify,
Netflix, or YouTube, AI is making the decisions for you.
All things considered as everything, once in a while is great and some of the time is
awful. For instance, I enjoy Spotify's Discover Weekly playlist since it has acquainted
me with a few new artists who I would not have known about if it weren't for Spotify's AI
divine beings.

Then again, I additionally remember going down the YouTube rabbit hole, wasting
uncountable hours simply watching the suggested videos. That suggested videos
section has become so great at knowing my taste that it's alarming. Thus, keep in mind
that AI is at work whenever you are watching a suggested video on YouTube, viewing a
suggested show on Netflix, listening to a pre-made playlist on Spotify, or using any
other media and music streaming service.

20. Space Exploration

Space expeditions and discoveries consistently require investigating immense
measures of information. Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning are the best
approach for dealing with and measure information on this scale. After thorough
astronomers, and research utilized Artificial Intelligence to filter through long periods of
information got by the Kepler telescope to distinguish an inaccessible eight-planet solar
system.'

Agents in Artificial Intelligence

An AI system can be defined as the study of the rational agent and its environment. The
agents sense the environment through sensors and act on their environment through
actuators. An AI agent can have mental properties such as knowledge, belief, intention,
etc.

What is an Agent?
An agent can be anything that perceiveits environment through sensors and act upon
that environment through actuators. An Agent runs in the cycle of perceiving, thinking,
and acting. An agent can be:

o Human-Agent: A human agent has eyes, ears, and other organs which work for
sensors and hand, legs, vocal tract work for actuators.
 o Robotic Agent: A robotic agent can have cameras, infrared range finder, NLP for
sensors and various motors for actuators.
o Software Agent: Software agent can have keystrokes, file contents as sensory input
and act on those inputs and display output on the screen.

Hence the world around us is full of agents such as thermostat, cellphone, camera, and
even we are also agents.

Before moving forward, we should first know about sensors, effectors, and actuators.

Sensor: Sensor is a device which detects the change in the environment and sends the
information to other electronic devices. An agent observes its environment through
sensors.

Actuators: Actuators are the component of machines that converts energy into motion.
The actuators are only responsible for moving and controlling a system. An actuator can
be an electric motor, gears, rails, etc.

Effectors: Effectors are the devices which affect the environment. Effectors can be
legs, wheels, arms, fingers, wings, fins, and display screen.

Agent Terminology
 Performance Measure of Agent − It is the criteria, which
determines how successful an agent is.
 Behavior of Agent − It is the action that agent performs after
any given sequence of percepts.
 Percept − It is agent’s perceptual inputs at a given instance.
 Percept Sequence − It is the history of all that an agent has
perceived till date.
  Agent Function − It is a map from the precept sequence to an
action.

Intelligent Agents:
An intelligent agent is an autonomous entity which act upon an environment using
sensors and actuators for achieving goals. An intelligent agent may learn from the
environment to achieve their goals. A thermostat is an example of an intelligent agent.

Following are the main four rules for an AI agent:

o Rule 1: An AI agent must have the ability to perceive the environment.

o Rule 2: The observation must be used to make decisions.
o Rule 3: Decision should result in an action.
o Rule 4: The action taken by an AI agent must be a rational action.

Rational Agent:
Rationality is nothing but status of being reasonable, sensible, and
having good sense of judgment.

Rationality is concerned with expected actions and results

depending upon what the agent has perceived. Performing actions
with the aim of obtaining useful information is an important part of
rationality.

A rational agent is an agent which has clear preference, models uncertainty, and acts in
a way to maximize its performance measure with all possible actions.

A rational agent is said to perform the right things. AI is about creating rational agents to
use for game theory and decision theory for various real-world scenarios.

For an AI agent, the rational action is most important because in AI reinforcement

learning algorithm, for each best possible action, agent gets the positive reward and for
each wrong action, an agent gets a negative reward.

Note: Rational agents in AI are very similar to intelligent agents.

Rationality:
The rationality of an agent is measured by its performance measure. Rationality can be
judged on the basis of following points:

o Performance measure which defines the success criterion.

o Agent prior knowledge of its environment.
o Best possible actions that an agent can perform.
o The sequence of percepts.

Note: Rationality differs from Omniscience because an Omniscient agent knows the actual
outcome of its action and act accordingly, which is not possible in reality.

What is Ideal Rational Agent?

An ideal rational agent is the one, which is capable of doing

expected actions to maximize its performance measure, on the
basis of −

 Its percept sequence

 Its built-in knowledge base

Rationality of an agent depends on the following −

 The performance measures, which determine the degree of

success.
 Agent’s Percept Sequence till now.
 The agent’s prior knowledge about the environment.
 The actions that the agent can carry out.

A rational agent always performs right action, where the right action
means the action that causes the agent to be most successful in the
given percept sequence. The problem the agent solves is
characterized by Performance Measure, Environment, Actuators,
and Sensors (PEAS).

Structure of an AI Agent
The task of AI is to design an agent program which implements the agent function. The
structure of an intelligent agent is a combination of architecture and agent program. It
can be viewed as:
1. Agent = Architecture + Agent program

Following are the main three terms involved in the structure of an AI agent:

Architecture: Architecture is machinery that an AI agent executes on.

Agent Function: Agent function is used to map a percept to an action.

1. f:P* → A

Agent program: Agent program is an implementation of agent function. An agent

program executes on the physical architecture to produce function f.

PEAS Representation
PEAS is a type of model on which an AI agent works upon. When we define an AI agent
or rational agent, then we can group its properties under PEAS representation model. It
is made up of four words:

o P: Performance measure
o E: Environment
o A: Actuators
o S: Sensors

Here performance measure is the objective for the success of an agent's behavior.

PEAS for self-driving cars:

Let's suppose a self-driving car then PEAS representation will be:

Performance: Safety, time, legal drive, comfort

Environment: Roads, other vehicles, road signs, pedestrian

Actuators: Steering, accelerator, brake, signal, horn

Sensors: Camera, GPS, speedometer, odometer, accelerometer, sonar.

Example of Agents with their PEAS representation

Agent Performance Environment Actuators Sensors
measure

1. Medical Keyboard
Diagnose o Healthy patient o Patient o Tests (Entry of
symptoms)
o Minimized cost o Hospital o Treatments
o Staff

2.
Vacuum o Cleanness o Room o Wheels o Camera
Cleaner
 o Efficiency o Table o Brushes o Dirt
o Battery life o Wood floor o Vacuum detection
Extractor sensor
o Security o Carpet
o Cliff sensor
o Various
obstacles o Bump
Sensor
o Infrared
Wall Sensor

3. Part -
picking o Percentage of o Conveyor belt o Jointed Arms o Camera
Robot parts in correct with parts, o Hand o Joint angle
bins. o Bins sensors.

Agent Environment in AI
An environment is everything in the world which surrounds the agent, but it is not a part
of an agent itself. An environment can be described as a situation in which an agent is
present.

The environment is where agent lives, operate and provide the agent with something to
sense and act upon it. An environment is mostly said to be non-feministic.

Features of Environment
As per Russell and Norvig, an environment can have various features from the point of
view of an agent:

1. Fully observable vs Partially Observable

2. Static vs Dynamic
3. Discrete vs Continuous
4. Deterministic vs Stochastic
5. Single-agent vs Multi-agent
6. Episodic vs sequential
7. Known vs Unknown
 8. Accessible vs Inaccessible

1. Fully observable vs Partially Observable:

o If an agent sensor can sense or access the complete state of an environment at each
point of time then it is a fully observable environment, else it is partially observable.
o A fully observable environment is easy as there is no need to maintain the internal state
to keep track history of the world.
o An agent with no sensors in all environments then such an environment is called
as unobservable.

2. Deterministic vs Stochastic:
o If an agent's current state and selected action can completely determine the next state of
the environment, then such environment is called a deterministic environment.
o A stochastic environment is random in nature and cannot be determined completely by
an agent.
o In a deterministic, fully observable environment, agent does not need to worry about
uncertainty.

3. Episodic vs Sequential:
o In an episodic environment, there is a series of one-shot actions, and only the current
percept is required for the action.
o However, in Sequential environment, an agent requires memory of past actions to
determine the next best actions.

4. Single-agent vs Multi-agent
o If only one agent is involved in an environment, and operating by itself then such an
environment is called single agent environment.
o However, if multiple agents are operating in an environment, then such an environment
is called a multi-agent environment.
o The agent design problems in the multi-agent environment are different from single
agent environment.

5. Static vs Dynamic:
 o If the environment can change itself while an agent is deliberating then such
environment is called a dynamic environment else it is called a static environment.
o Static environments are easy to deal because an agent does not need to continue
looking at the world while deciding for an action.
o However for dynamic environment, agents need to keep looking at the world at each
action.
o Taxi driving is an example of a dynamic environment whereas Crossword puzzles are an
example of a static environment.

6. Discrete vs Continuous:
o If in an environment there are a finite number of percepts and actions that can be
performed within it, then such an environment is called a discrete environment else it is
called continuous environment.
o A chess gamecomes under discrete environment as there is a finite number of moves
that can be performed.
o A self-driving car is an example of a continuous environment.

7. Known vs Unknown
o Known and unknown are not actually a feature of an environment, but it is an agent's
state of knowledge to perform an action.
o In a known environment, the results for all actions are known to the agent. While in
unknown environment, agent needs to learn how it works in order to perform an action.
o It is quite possible that a known environment to be partially observable and an Unknown
environment to be fully observable.

8. Accessible vs Inaccessible
o If an agent can obtain complete and accurate information about the state's environment,
then such an environment is called an Accessible environment else it is called
inaccessible.
o An empty room whose state can be defined by its temperature is an example of an
accessible environment.
o Information about an event on earth is an example of Inaccessible environment.
Types of AI Agents
Agents can be grouped into five classes based on their degree of perceived intelligence
and capability. All these agents can improve their performance and generate better
action over the time. These are given below:

o Simple Reflex Agent

o Model-based reflex agent
o Goal-based agents
o Utility-based agent
o Learning agent

1. Simple Reflex agent:

o The Simple reflex agents are the simplest agents. These agents take decisions on the
basis of the current percepts and ignore the rest of the percept history.
o These agents only succeed in the fully observable environment.
o The Simple reflex agent does not consider any part of percepts history during their
decision and action process.
o The Simple reflex agent works on Condition-action rule, which means it maps the current
state to action. Such as a Room Cleaner agent, it works only if there is dirt in the room.
o Problems for the simple reflex agent design approach:
o They have very limited intelligence
o They do not have knowledge of non-perceptual parts of the current state
o Mostly too big to generate and to store.
o Not adaptive to changes in the environment.
2. Model-based reflex agent
o The Model-based agent can work in a partially observable environment, and track the
situation.
o A model-based agent has two important factors:
o Model: It is knowledge about "how things happen in the world," so it is called a
Model-based agent.
o Internal State: It is a representation of the current state based on percept
history.
o These agents have the model, "which is knowledge of the world" and based on the
model they perform actions.
o Updating the agent state requires information about:

a. How the world evolves

b. How the agent's action affects the world.
3. Goal-based agents
o The knowledge of the current state environment is not always sufficient to decide for an
agent to what to do.
o The agent needs to know its goal which describes desirable situations.
o Goal-based agents expand the capabilities of the model-based agent by having the
"goal" information.
o They choose an action, so that they can achieve the goal.
o These agents may have to consider a long sequence of possible actions before deciding
whether the goal is achieved or not. Such considerations of different scenario are called
searching and planning, which makes an agent proactive.
4. Utility-based agents
o These agents are similar to the goal-based agent but provide an extra component of
utility measurement which makes them different by providing a measure of success at a
given state.
o Utility-based agent act based not only goals but also the best way to achieve the goal.
o The Utility-based agent is useful when there are multiple possible alternatives, and an
agent has to choose in order to perform the best action.
o The utility function maps each state to a real number to check how efficiently each action
achieves the goals.
5. Learning Agents
o A learning agent in AI is the type of agent which can learn from its past experiences, or it
has learning capabilities.
o It starts to act with basic knowledge and then able to act and adapt automatically
through learning.
o A learning agent has mainly four conceptual components, which are:

a. Learning element: It is responsible for making improvements by learning from

environment
b. Critic: Learning element takes feedback from critic which describes that how well
the agent is doing with respect to a fixed performance standard.
c. Performance element: It is responsible for selecting external action
d. Problem generator: This component is responsible for suggesting actions that
will lead to new and informative experiences.
o Hence, learning agents are able to learn, analyze performance, and look for new ways to
improve the performance.
Turing Test in AI
In 1950, Alan Turing introduced a test to check whether a machine can think like a
human or not, this test is known as the Turing Test. In this test, Turing proposed that the
computer can be said to be an intelligent if it can mimic human response under specific
conditions.

Turing Test was introduced by Turing in his 1950 paper, "Computing Machinery and
Intelligence," which considered the question, "Can Machine think?"
The Turing test is based on a party game "Imitation game," with some modifications.
This game involves three players in which one player is Computer, another player is
human responder, and the third player is a human Interrogator, who is isolated from
other two players and his job is to find that which player is machine among two of them.

Consider, Player A is a computer, Player B is human, and Player C is an interrogator.

Interrogator is aware that one of them is machine, but he needs to identify this on the
basis of questions and their responses.

The conversation between all players is via keyboard and screen so the result would not
depend on the machine's ability to convert words as speech.

The test result does not depend on each correct answer, but only how closely its
responses like a human answer. The computer is permitted to do everything possible to
force a wrong identification by the interrogator.

The questions and answers can be like:

Interrogator: Are you a computer?

PlayerA (Computer): No

Interrogator: Multiply two large numbers such as (256896489*456725896)

Player A: Long pause and give the wrong answer.

In this game, if an interrogator would not be able to identify which is a machine and
which is human, then the computer passes the test successfully, and the machine is
said to be intelligent and can think like a human.

"In 1991, the New York businessman Hugh Loebner announces the prize competition,
offering a $100,000 prize for the first computer to pass the Turing test. However, no AI
program to till date, come close to passing an undiluted Turing test".

Chatbots to attempt the Turing test:

ELIZA: ELIZA was a Natural language processing computer program created by
Joseph Weizenbaum. It was created to demonstrate the ability of communication
between machine and humans. It was one of the first chatterbots, which has attempted
the Turing Test.

Parry: Parry was a chatterbot created by Kenneth Colby in 1972. Parry was designed to
simulate a person with Paranoid schizophrenia(most common chronic mental
disorder). Parry was described as "ELIZA with attitude." Parry was tested using a
variation of the Turing Test in the early 1970s.

Eugene Goostman: Eugene Goostman was a chatbot developed in Saint Petersburg in

2001. This bot has competed in the various number of Turing Test. In June 2012, at an
event, Goostman won the competition promoted as largest-ever Turing test content, in
which it has convinced 29% of judges that it was a human.Goostman resembled as a
13-year old virtual boy.

The Chinese Room Argument:

There were many philosophers who really disagreed with the complete concept of
Artificial Intelligence. The most famous argument in this list was "Chinese Room."

In the year 1980, John Searle presented "Chinese Room" thought experiment, in his
paper "Mind, Brains, and Program," which was against the validity of Turing's Test.
According to his argument, "Programming a computer may make it to understand a
language, but it will not produce a real understanding of language or
consciousness in a computer."

He argued that Machine such as ELIZA and Parry could easily pass the Turing test by
manipulating keywords and symbol, but they had no real understanding of language. So
it cannot be described as "thinking" capability of a machine such as a human.

Features required for a machine to pass the Turing

test:
o Natural language processing: NLP is required to communicate with Interrogator in
general human language like English.
o Knowledge representation: To store and retrieve information during the test.
o Automated reasoning: To use the previously stored information for answering the
questions.
o Machine learning: To adapt new changes and can detect generalized patterns.
o Vision (For total Turing test): To recognize the interrogator actions and other objects
during a test.
o Motor Control (For total Turing test): To act upon objects if requested.
Search Algorithms in Artificial Intelligence
Search algorithms are one of the most important areas of Artificial Intelligence. This
topic will explain all about the search algorithms in AI.

Problem-solving agents:
In Artificial Intelligence, Search techniques are universal problem-solving
methods. Rational agents or Problem-solving agents in AI mostly used these search
strategies or algorithms to solve a specific problem and provide the best result.
Problem-solving agents are the goal-based agents and use atomic representation. In
this topic, we will learn various problem-solving search algorithms.

Search Algorithm Terminologies:

o Search: Searchingis a step by step procedure to solve a search-problem in a
given search space. A search problem can have three main factors:

a. Search Space: Search space represents a set of possible solutions,

which a system may have.
b. Start State: It is a state from where agent begins the search.
c. Goal test: It is a function which observe the current state and returns
whether the goal state is achieved or not.
o Search tree: A tree representation of search problem is called Search tree. The
root of the search tree is the root node which is corresponding to the initial state.
o Actions: It gives the description of all the available actions to the agent.
o Transition model: A description of what each action do, can be represented as
a transition model.
o Path Cost: It is a function which assigns a numeric cost to each path.
o Solution: It is an action sequence which leads from the start node to the goal
node.
o Optimal Solution: If a solution has the lowest cost among all solutions.

Properties of Search Algorithms:

Following are the four essential properties of search algorithms to compare the
efficiency of these algorithms:

Completeness: A search algorithm is said to be complete if it guarantees to return a

solution if at least any solution exists for any random input.

Optimality: If a solution found for an algorithm is guaranteed to be the best solution

(lowest path cost) among all other solutions, then such a solution for is said to be an
optimal solution.

Time Complexity: Time complexity is a measure of time for an algorithm to complete

its task.

Space Complexity: It is the maximum storage space required at any point during the
search, as the complexity of the problem.

Types of search algorithms

Based on the search problems we can classify the search algorithms into
uninformed (Blind search) search and informed search (Heuristic search)
algorithms.
Uninformed/Blind Search:
The uninformed search does not contain any domain knowledge such as closeness, the
location of the goal. It operates in a brute-force way as it only includes information about
how to traverse the tree and how to identify leaf and goal nodes. Uninformed search
applies a way in which search tree is searched without any information about the search
space like initial state operators and test for the goal, so it is also called blind search.It
examines each node of the tree until it achieves the goal node.

It can be divided into five main types:

o Breadth-first search
o Uniform cost search
o Depth-first search
o Iterative deepening depth-first search
o Bidirectional Search
Informed Search
Informed search algorithms use domain knowledge. In an informed search, problem
information is available which can guide the search. Informed search strategies can find
a solution more efficiently than an uninformed search strategy. Informed search is also
called a Heuristic search.

A heuristic is a way which might not always be guaranteed for best solutions but
guaranteed to find a good solution in reasonable time.

Informed search can solve much complex problem which could not be solved in another
way.

An example of informed search algorithms is a traveling salesman problem.

1. Greedy Search
2. A* Search

Uninformed Search Algorithms

Uninformed search is a class of general-purpose search algorithms which
operates in brute force-way. Uninformed search algorithms do not have
additional information about state or search space other than how to traverse the
tree, so it is also called blind search.

Following are the various types of uninformed search algorithms:

1. Breadth-first Search
2. Depth-first Search
3. Depth-limited Search
4. Iterative deepening depth-first search
5. Uniform cost search
6. Bidirectional Search

1. Breadth-first Search:
o Breadth-first search is the most common search strategy for traversing a tree or graph.
This algorithm searches breadthwise in a tree or graph, so it is called breadth-first
search.
 o BFS algorithm starts searching from the root node of the tree and expands all successor
node at the current level before moving to nodes of next level.
o The breadth-first search algorithm is an example of a general-graph search algorithm.
o Breadth-first search implemented using FIFO queue data structure.

Advantages:

o BFS will provide a solution if any solution exists.

o If there are more than one solutions for a given problem, then BFS will provide the
minimal solution which requires the least number of steps.

Disadvantages:

o It requires lots of memory since each level of the tree must be saved into memory to
expand the next level.
o BFS needs lots of time if the solution is far away from the root node.

Example:
In the below tree structure, we have shown the traversing of the tree using BFS
algorithm from the root node S to goal node K. BFS search algorithm traverse in layers,
so it will follow the path which is shown by the dotted arrow, and the traversed path will
be:

1. S---> A--->B---->C--->D---->G--->H--->E---->F---->I---->K
Time Complexity: Time Complexity of BFS algorithm can be obtained by the number of
nodes traversed in BFS until the shallowest Node. Where the d= depth of shallowest
solution and b is a node at every state.

T (b) = 1+b2+b3+.......+ bd= O (bd)

Space Complexity: Space complexity of BFS algorithm is given by the Memory size of
frontier which is O(bd).

Completeness: BFS is complete, which means if the shallowest goal node is at some
finite depth, then BFS will find a solution.

Optimality: BFS is optimal if path cost is a non-decreasing function of the depth of the
node.

2. Depth-first Search
o Depth-first search isa recursive algorithm for traversing a tree or graph data structure.
o It is called the depth-first search because it starts from the root node and follows each
path to its greatest depth node before moving to the next path.
o DFS uses a stack data structure for its implementation.
 o The process of the DFS algorithm is similar to the BFS algorithm.

Note: Backtracking is an algorithm technique for finding all possible solutions using
recursion.

Advantage:

o DFS requires very less memory as it only needs to store a stack of the nodes on the
path from root node to the current node.
o It takes less time to reach to the goal node than BFS algorithm (if it traverses in the right
path).

Disadvantage:

o There is the possibility that many states keep re-occurring, and there is no guarantee of
finding the solution.
o DFS algorithm goes for deep down searching and sometime it may go to the infinite
loop.

Example:
In the below search tree, we have shown the flow of depth-first search, and it will follow
the order as:

Root node--->Left node ----> right node.

It will start searching from root node S, and traverse A, then B, then D and E, after
traversing E, it will backtrack the tree as E has no other successor and still goal node is
not found. After backtracking it will traverse node C and then G, and here it will
terminate as it found goal node.
Completeness: DFS search algorithm is complete within finite state space as it will
expand every node within a limited search tree.

Time Complexity: Time complexity of DFS will be equivalent to the node traversed by
the algorithm. It is given by:

T(n)= 1+ n2+ n3 +.........+ nm=O(nm)

Where, m= maximum depth of any node and this can be much larger than d
(Shallowest solution depth)

Space Complexity: DFS algorithm needs to store only single path from the root node,
hence space complexity of DFS is equivalent to the size of the fringe set, which
is O(bm).

Optimal: DFS search algorithm is non-optimal, as it may generate a large number of

steps or high cost to reach to the goal node.

3. Depth-Limited Search Algorithm:

A depth-limited search algorithm is similar to depth-first search with a predetermined
limit. Depth-limited search can solve the drawback of the infinite path in the Depth-first
search. In this algorithm, the node at the depth limit will treat as it has no successor
nodes further.

Depth-limited search can be terminated with two Conditions of failure:

o Standard failure value: It indicates that problem does not have any solution.
o Cutoff failure value: It defines no solution for the problem within a given depth limit.

Advantages:

Depth-limited search is Memory efficient.

Disadvantages:

o Depth-limited search also has a disadvantage of incompleteness.

o It may not be optimal if the problem has more than one solution.

Example:

Completeness: DLS search algorithm is complete if the solution is above the depth-
limit.
Time Complexity: Time complexity of DLS algorithm is O(bℓ).

Space Complexity: Space complexity of DLS algorithm is O(b×ℓ).

Optimal: Depth-limited search can be viewed as a special case of DFS, and it is also
not optimal even if ℓ>d.

4. Uniform-cost Search Algorithm:

Uniform-cost search is a searching algorithm used for traversing a weighted tree or
graph. This algorithm comes into play when a different cost is available for each edge.
The primary goal of the uniform-cost search is to find a path to the goal node which has
the lowest cumulative cost. Uniform-cost search expands nodes according to their path
costs form the root node. It can be used to solve any graph/tree where the optimal cost
is in demand. A uniform-cost search algorithm is implemented by the priority queue. It
gives maximum priority to the lowest cumulative cost. Uniform cost search is equivalent
to BFS algorithm if the path cost of all edges is the same.

Advantages:

o Uniform cost search is optimal because at every state the path with the least cost is
chosen.

Disadvantages:

o It does not care about the number of steps involve in searching and only concerned
about path cost. Due to which this algorithm may be stuck in an infinite loop.

Example:
Completeness:

Uniform-cost search is complete, such as if there is a solution, UCS will find it.

Time Complexity:

Let C* is Cost of the optimal solution, and ε is each step to get closer to the goal
node. Then the number of steps is = C*/ε+1. Here we have taken +1, as we start from
state 0 and end to C*/ε.

Hence, the worst-case time complexity of Uniform-cost search isO(b1 + [C*/ε])/.

Space Complexity:

The same logic is for space complexity so, the worst-case space complexity of Uniform-
cost search is O(b1 + [C*/ε]).

Optimal:

Uniform-cost search is always optimal as it only selects a path with the lowest path cost.

5. Iterative deepeningdepth-first Search:

The iterative deepening algorithm is a combination of DFS and BFS algorithms. This
search algorithm finds out the best depth limit and does it by gradually increasing the
limit until a goal is found.

This algorithm performs depth-first search up to a certain "depth limit", and it keeps
increasing the depth limit after each iteration until the goal node is found.

This Search algorithm combines the benefits of Breadth-first search's fast search and
depth-first search's memory efficiency.

The iterative search algorithm is useful uninformed search when search space is large,
and depth of goal node is unknown.

Advantages:

o Itcombines the benefits of BFS and DFS search algorithm in terms of fast search and
memory efficiency.

Disadvantages:

o The main drawback of IDDFS is that it repeats all the work of the previous phase.

Example:
Following tree structure is showing the iterative deepening depth-first search. IDDFS
algorithm performs various iterations until it does not find the goal node. The iteration
performed by the algorithm is given as:
1'st Iteration-----> A
2'nd Iteration----> A, B, C
3'rd Iteration------>A, B, D, E, C, F, G
4'th Iteration------>A, B, D, H, I, E, C, F, K, G
In the fourth iteration, the algorithm will find the goal node.

Completeness:

This algorithm is complete is ifthe branching factor is finite.

Time Complexity:

Let's suppose b is the branching factor and depth is d then the worst-case time
complexity is O(bd).

Space Complexity:

The space complexity of IDDFS will be O(bd).

Optimal:

IDDFS algorithm is optimal if path cost is a non- decreasing function of the depth of the
node.
6. Bidirectional Search Algorithm:
Bidirectional search algorithm runs two simultaneous searches, one form initial
state called as forward-search and other from goal node called as backward-
search, to find the goal node. Bidirectional search replaces one single search
graph with two small subgraphs in which one starts the search from an initial
vertex and other starts from goal vertex. The search stops when these two graphs
intersect each other.

Bidirectional search can use search techniques such as BFS, DFS, DLS, etc.

Advantages:

o Bidirectional search is fast.

o Bidirectional search requires less memory

Disadvantages:

o Implementation of the bidirectional search tree is difficult.

o In bidirectional search, one should know the goal state in advance.

Example:
In the below search tree, bidirectional search algorithm is applied. This algorithm divides
one graph/tree into two sub-graphs. It starts traversing from node 1 in the forward
direction and starts from goal node 16 in the backward direction.

The algorithm terminates at node 9 where two searches meet.

Completeness: Bidirectional Search is complete if we use BFS in both searches.

Time Complexity: Time complexity of bidirectional search using BFS is O(bd).

Space Complexity: Space complexity of bidirectional search is O(bd).

Optimal: Bidirectional search is Optimal.

Informed Search Algorithms

So far we have talked about the uninformed search algorithms which looked through
search space for all possible solutions of the problem without having any additional
knowledge about search space. But informed search algorithm contains an array of
knowledge such as how far we are from the goal, path cost, how to reach to goal node,
etc. This knowledge help agents to explore less to the search space and find more
efficiently the goal node.

The informed search algorithm is more useful for large search space. Informed search
algorithm uses the idea of heuristic, so it is also called Heuristic search.
 Heuristics function: Heuristic is a function which is used in Informed Search, and it
finds the most promising path. It takes the current state of the agent as its input and
produces the estimation of how close agent is from the goal. The heuristic method,
however, might not always give the best solution, but it guaranteed to find a good
solution in reasonable time. Heuristic function estimates how close a state is to the goal.
It is represented by h(n), and it calculates the cost of an optimal path between the pair
of states. The value of the heuristic function is always positive.

Admissibility of the heuristic function is given as:

1. h(n) <= h*(n)

Here h(n) is heuristic cost, and h*(n) is the estimated cost. Hence heuristic cost
should be less than or equal to the estimated cost.

Pure Heuristic Search:

Pure heuristic search is the simplest form of heuristic search algorithms. It expands
nodes based on their heuristic value h(n). It maintains two lists, OPEN and CLOSED
list. In the CLOSED list, it places those nodes which have already expanded and in the
OPEN list, it places nodes which have yet not been expanded.

On each iteration, each node n with the lowest heuristic value is expanded and
generates all its successors and n is placed to the closed list. The algorithm continues
unit a goal state is found.

In the informed search we will discuss two main algorithms which are given below:

o Best First Search Algorithm(Greedy search)

o A* Search Algorithm

1.) Best-first Search Algorithm (Greedy Search):

Greedy best-first search algorithm always selects the path which appears best at that
moment. It is the combination of depth-first search and breadth-first search algorithms.
It uses the heuristic function and search. Best-first search allows us to take the
advantages of both algorithms. With the help of best-first search, at each step, we can
choose the most promising node. In the best first search algorithm, we expand the node
which is closest to the goal node and the closest cost is estimated by heuristic function,
i.e.

1. f(n)= g(n).
Were, h(n)= estimated cost from node n to the goal.

The greedy best first algorithm is implemented by the priority queue.

Best first search algorithm:

o Step 1: Place the starting node into the OPEN list.

o Step 2: If the OPEN list is empty, Stop and return failure.
o Step 3: Remove the node n, from the OPEN list which has the lowest value of
h(n), and places it in the CLOSED list.
o Step 4: Expand the node n, and generate the successors of node n.
o Step 5: Check each successor of node n, and find whether any node is a goal
node or not. If any successor node is goal node, then return success and
terminate the search, else proceed to Step 6.
o Step 6: For each successor node, algorithm checks for evaluation function f(n),
and then check if the node has been in either OPEN or CLOSED list. If the node
has not been in both list, then add it to the OPEN list.
o Step 7: Return to Step 2.

Advantages:

o Best first search can switch between BFS and DFS by gaining the advantages of
both the algorithms.
o This algorithm is more efficient than BFS and DFS algorithms.

Disadvantages:

o It can behave as an unguided depth-first search in the worst case scenario.

o It can get stuck in a loop as DFS.
o This algorithm is not optimal.

Example:
Consider the below search problem, and we will traverse it using greedy best-first
search. At each iteration, each node is expanded using evaluation function f(n)=h(n) ,
which is given in the below table.
In this search example, we are using two lists which are OPEN and CLOSED Lists.
Following are the iteration for traversing the above example.
Expand the nodes of S and put in the CLOSED list

Initialization: Open [A, B], Closed [S]

Iteration 1: Open [A], Closed [S, B]

Iteration 2: Open [E, F, A], Closed [S, B]

: Open [E, A], Closed [S, B, F]

Iteration 3: Open [I, G, E, A], Closed [S, B, F]

: Open [I, E, A], Closed [S, B, F, G]

Hence the final solution path will be: S----> B----->F----> G

Time Complexity: The worst case time complexity of Greedy best first search is O(bm).

Space Complexity: The worst case space complexity of Greedy best first search is
O(bm). Where, m is the maximum depth of the search space.

Complete: Greedy best-first search is also incomplete, even if the given state space is
finite.

Optimal: Greedy best first search algorithm is not optimal.

2.) A* Search Algorithm:

A* search is the most commonly known form of best-first search. It uses heuristic
function h(n), and cost to reach the node n from the start state g(n). It has combined
features of UCS and greedy best-first search, by which it solve the problem efficiently.
A* search algorithm finds the shortest path through the search space using the heuristic
function. This search algorithm expands less search tree and provides optimal result
faster. A* algorithm is similar to UCS except that it uses g(n)+h(n) instead of g(n).

In A* search algorithm, we use search heuristic as well as the cost to reach the node.
Hence we can combine both costs as following, and this sum is called as a fitness
number.
At each point in the search space, only those node is expanded which have the lowest
value of f(n), and the algorithm terminates when the goal node is found.

Algorithm of A* search:
Step1: Place the starting node in the OPEN list.

Step 2: Check if the OPEN list is empty or not, if the list is empty then return failure and
stops.

Step 3: Select the node from the OPEN list which has the smallest value of evaluation
function (g+h), if node n is goal node then return success and stop, otherwise

Step 4: Expand node n and generate all of its successors, and put n into the closed list.
For each successor n', check whether n' is already in the OPEN or CLOSED list, if not
then compute evaluation function for n' and place into Open list.

Step 5: Else if node n' is already in OPEN and CLOSED, then it should be attached to
the back pointer which reflects the lowest g(n') value.

Step 6: Return to Step 2.

Advantages:

o A* search algorithm is the best algorithm than other search algorithms.

o A* search algorithm is optimal and complete.
o This algorithm can solve very complex problems.

Disadvantages:

o It does not always produce the shortest path as it mostly based on heuristics and
approximation.
o A* search algorithm has some complexity issues.
o The main drawback of A* is memory requirement as it keeps all generated nodes
in the memory, so it is not practical for various large-scale problems.

Example:
In this example, we will traverse the given graph using the A* algorithm. The heuristic
value of all states is given in the below table so we will calculate the f(n) of each state
using the formula f(n)= g(n) + h(n), where g(n) is the cost to reach any node from start
state.
Here we will use OPEN and CLOSED list.

Solution:
Initialization: {(S, 5)}

Iteration1: {(S--> A, 4), (S-->G, 10)}

Iteration2: {(S--> A-->C, 4), (S--> A-->B, 7), (S-->G, 10)}

Iteration3: {(S--> A-->C--->G, 6), (S--> A-->C--->D, 11), (S--> A-->B, 7), (S-->G, 10)}

Iteration 4 will give the final result, as S--->A--->C--->G it provides the optimal path with
cost 6.

Points to remember:

o A* algorithm returns the path which occurred first, and it does not search for all
remaining paths.
o The efficiency of A* algorithm depends on the quality of heuristic.
o A* algorithm expands all nodes which satisfy the condition f(n)<="" li="">

Complete: A* algorithm is complete as long as:

o Branching factor is finite.

o Cost at every action is fixed.

Optimal: A* search algorithm is optimal if it follows below two conditions:

o Admissible: the first condition requires for optimality is that h(n) should be an
admissible heuristic for A* tree search. An admissible heuristic is optimistic in
nature.
o Consistency: Second required condition is consistency for only A* graph-
search.

If the heuristic function is admissible, then A* tree search will always find the least cost
path.

Time Complexity: The time complexity of A* search algorithm depends on heuristic

function, and the number of nodes expanded is exponential to the depth of solution d.
So the time complexity is O(b^d), where b is the branching factor.

Space Complexity: The space complexity of A* search algorithm is O(b^d)