Unit 2

Moduli of Elasticity
Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Learning Outcomes
3.0 Learning Content
3.1 Young’s Modulus
3.2 Bulk Modulus
3.3 Shear Modulus or Modulus Rigidity
3.4 Poisson’s Ratio
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
In the last unit, we introduced the elastic properties of matter. The law that governs the
elastic nature of a material, most especially solid object was discussed. Here in this unit
we shall look in to what happens if liquids are subjected to stress and strain.
Thus, in considering the elastic nature of liquids in this unit, we shall embark on other
concept of elasticity which involves the moduli of elasticity. These are the Young’s
modulus, Bulk modulus and the shear modulus. Liquids also experience stresses and
strains when forces are applied on them. Besides we shall also consider the energy
involve in the stretching of a wire.

2.0 Learning Content

By the end of this unit you should be able to:
1. Define Young’s modulus of elasticity
2. Measure the Young’s modulus of a material
3. Define bulk modulus of elasticity
4. Define shear modulus of elasticity
5. Relate young’s modulus with thermal expansion of a metal
6. Determine the energy stored in a stretched wire
7. Solve simple problems based on the topic.

3.0 Learning Content

3.1 Young’s modulus
This is defined as the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain within the elastic limit. That is
Young showed that tensile stress is directly proportional to the tensile strain. But
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹
𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴

But area of wire is given by

𝐴 = 𝜋2
And tensile strain is given by
𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒
𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑙

Thus,
𝐹 𝑒
∝
𝐴 𝑙

Therefore
 𝐹 𝑒
=𝐸𝑙
𝐴

Where E = constant called Young’s modulus.

Hence,
𝐹𝑙
𝐸 = 𝐴𝑒

The unit of Young’s modulus is the same as that of stress since strain has no unit. So unit
of Young’s modulus E is Nm-2.
If a graph of tensile stress is plotted against tensile strain. The slope of the linear portion
of the graph gives the value of the Young’s modulus of the given material.

Self-Assessment Exercises
A wire of 2kg is attached to the end of a vertical wire of length 2m and diameter 2mm
and the wire extend 1mm. calculate the young’s modulus of wire.

Self-Assessment Answer(s)

3.1.1 Measurement of Young’s Modulus

The Young’s modulus, E of a given wire P can be measured using the diagram shown in
fig.1.6. The original length, L of the wire BC is measured with a metre rule, the diameter,
d of the wire is also measure with a micrometer screw gauge and the radius is hence
calculated.
fig.1.6
The wires used are thin and long in other that a larger extension is obtained. A larger
extension gives a higher degree of accuracy. By using two identical materials, any error
due to thermal expansion or the support yielding can be eliminated.
Two prevent kinks along the wire, constant weight; D is hung from the lower ends of the
wire Q. Since any kink in the wire will produce an error in the measurement of the
extension. Since the extension produced is rather small, a vernier scale, m fixed on Q is
use for its measurement. Further loads are added and the corresponding extensions are
noted.
To check whether the elastic limit has been exceeded, the extension is also measured
when the load is slowly removed. The extension during loading and unloading would be
the same within experimental error, provided the elastic limit is not exceeded.
The value of the tensile stresses and tensile strains are calculated accordingly. A graph
of extension, e against mass, m of the load is then plotted. A straight-line graph is
obtained fig.1.7 The slope of the graph gives the value of the Young’s modulus of the
wire.

3.1.2 Force on a bar heated under restriction of contraction or expansion

Consider an iron bar fixed at both ends of length, L, cross-sectional area A heated from
Ɵ1 to Ɵ2 so that it is restricted lateral expansion. The force developed can be derived as
follows
𝐹𝐿
𝐸 = 𝐴𝑒
𝐸𝐴𝑒
∴ 𝐹= (2.1)
𝐿

Also, the coefficient of linear expansion is given as:

∆𝐿 𝑒
𝛼 = 𝐿∆𝜃 = 𝐿∆𝜃

For 𝑒 = ∆𝐿 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

∴ 𝑒 = 𝛼𝐿∆𝜃 (2.2)
Substituting Eq. (2.2) in Eq.(2.1) gives
𝐸𝐴
𝐹= × 𝛼𝐿∆𝜃
𝐿

𝐹 = 𝐸𝐴𝛼∆𝜃
Self-Assessment Exercise(s)
A steel rod of cross-sectional area 2.0cm2 heated to 100oC and then prevented from
contracting when it cooled to 10oC. If linear expansivity of steel is 12x10-6 k-1 and
Young’s Modulus = 2.0x1011Nm2. Calculate the force exerted on contraction.

Self-Assessment Answer(s)

3.1.3 Energy stored in a stretched wire.

Work done is defined as the product of the force and the distance moved by the force
i.e. work done = force × distance
For a given wire, the work in stretching it is given by
Work done = average force × extension
Average force is used here to show that the force increases from zero to a certain value
provided the elastic limit is not exceeded. Therefore, the energy stores in a stretched wire
or work done in stretching a wire is given by
𝐹𝑒 1
𝑊𝑠 = = 2 𝐹𝑒 (2.3)
2

But
𝐹 ∝ 𝑒 (Hooke’s law)
𝐹 = 𝐾𝑒 (2.4)
Where K = coefficient of proportionality known as the stiffness of the wire
The energy stored is the gain in molecular potential energy of the molecules due to their
displacement from their mean position.
This energy stored can be expressed in terms of Young’s modulus by substituting Eq. 2.1
inEq.2.3 thus
1 𝐸𝐴𝑒 2 1 𝐸𝐴𝑒 2
𝑊𝑠 = 2 × =2 (2.5)
𝐿 𝐿

The strain energy per unit volume W v is given by

𝑠 𝑊 1 𝐹𝑒 1 𝐹 𝑒
𝑊𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑚𝑒 = 2 × 𝐴𝐿 = 2 × 𝐴 × 𝐿
1
𝐹𝑒 1
𝑊𝑣 = 2𝐴𝐿 = 2 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
1
𝐹𝑒 1 𝑒2 1 𝐸𝐴𝑒
𝑊𝑣 = 2𝐴𝐿 = 2 𝐸 × 𝐿2 = 2 𝐸 × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 (𝐹 = )
𝐿
Where E = Young’s modulus
A =cross-sectional area of the material
L = length of the wire.
Area under stress – strain is the strain energy per unit volume W V.

Self-Assessment Exercise(s)
1. A wire of length 4m, radius 1mm is extended by 2.5mm by a load of 200N.
Calculate the energy stored in the wire and the strain energy per unit volume.

Self-Assessment Answers

A wire of length 4m, radius 1mm is extended by 2.5mm by a load of 200N. Calculate the
energy stored in the wire and the strain energy per unit volume.

3.2 Bulk Modulus of Elasticity

When a gas or liquid is subjected to an increase pressure, it contracts. A change in the
bulk thus occurs. The bulk strain is defined as the change in volume, ∆𝑉 of gas or liquid
to the original volume, V
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑

Fig. 1.8: Bulk Stress & Bulk Strain

Change in volume is −∆𝑉
And the original volume is 𝑉𝑆
Therefore,
 −∆𝑉
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = (2.6)
𝑉

Negative sign indicates that the volume decreases

𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ∆𝐹
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = = (2.7)
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴

Bulk modulus is then given as:

𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠, 𝐾 = 𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

i.e.
−∆𝑉 −𝑉∆𝑃
𝐾 = ∆𝑃 ÷ = (2.8)
𝑉 ∆𝑉

The reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity K is called compressibility of the material.

i.e.
1 1 𝑑𝑉
= 𝑉 𝑑𝑃 (2.9)
𝐾

3.3 Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity

When a body is put under a force in such a way that it shapes changes only without
changing in the size of the body, the body is said to be sheared. Normally a force applied
tangentially changes the shape of the body without affecting it volume and so modulus of
rigidity may be defined as the:
Ratio of the longitudinal force per unit area to angular deformation produced in the body.
In order to find the volume of shearing strain, let consider a solid cube ABCDEFGH fig.9.
The lower face CDGF is fixed and a tangential force F is applied under the face ABEF so
that it changes to new position A’B’E’F’. Each of the of the horizontal layer of the cube is
displaced and the displacement is proportional to its distance from fixed plane. Then
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
𝐴𝐴′ 𝑙
= = 𝐿 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝐴𝐷

If the displacement is small

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝜃
∴ 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝜃
Hence
𝑓⁄
𝑎 𝑓 𝑇
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐺 = = 𝑎𝜃 = 𝜃
𝜃

Where “a” is the area of the tangential force applied

3.4 Poison’s Ratio
If a body is subjected to some force or a system of forces, then the deformation in the
body is not in one direction only but throughout the body. For example, if a wire is
stretched its length increases but its diameter decreases. The strain produced along the
direction of the force is called longitudinal strain and that produced along the
perpendicular direction is called lateral strain.
Thus, the ratio of the lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is called poison ratio.
If the original length of the wire is represented by L and the diameter = D is subjected to
a tensile stress in the direction shown in fig.10, therefore the new length is L + l and
increase in length = l, the corresponding decrease in diameter is d. Then
𝑑⁄ 𝛽
𝐷
𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝜎 = 𝑙⁄ =𝛼
𝐿

Where β =lateral strain and α = longitudinal strain.

Young’s modulus E is related to the rigidity modulus G by the expression
𝐸 = 2𝐺(1 + 𝜎)
And it is also related to bulk modulus by the expression
𝐸 = 3𝐾(1 − 2𝜎)

Self-Assessment Exercises
A material has a poison ratio 0.2 if a uniform rod of it suffers longitudinal strain 4.0x10 -
3. Calculate the change in volume.

Self-Assessment Answer(s)

4.0 Conclusion
The ratio of stress and the strain defines the modulus of elasticity. There are three types
of moduli of elasticity namely
1. Young’s modulus
2. Bulk modulus
3. Shear modulus
These three types of moduli and poison ratio are related by the expressions
𝐸
𝐺 = 2(1+𝜎)
And
𝐸
𝐾 = 3(1−2𝜎)

5.0 Summary
In this unit you have learnt that
Young’s modulus E of elasticity is defined as
𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐸=
𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

The force in the contraction or expansion of a wire is given by

𝐹 = 𝐸𝐴𝛼∆𝜃
The energy stored, W s in a wire is given by the expression
1 𝐸𝐴𝑒 2
𝑊𝑠 = 2 𝐿

The bulk modulus of elasticity is given by the expression

𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐾 = 𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
−𝑉𝑑𝑃
𝐾= 𝑑𝑉

The negative sign indicates that volume decreases with increases in pressure. And the
compressibility of a material is the reciprocal of the bulk modulus and this is given as:
1 1 𝑑𝑉
= − 𝑉 𝑑𝑃
𝐾

The shear modulus or modulus of rigidity, G is defined by the expression

𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝜏
𝐺 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝜃 = 𝜃
𝑓
Where 𝜏 = 𝑎 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎.

Poison ratio, 𝜎is define by the expression

𝑑⁄ 𝛽
𝐷
𝜎= 𝑙⁄ =𝛼
𝐿

Where β = lateral strain and α =longitudinal strain.

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)

1. Define Young’s modulus of elasticity
2. Measure the Young’s modulus of a material
3. Define bulk modulus of elasticity
4. Define shear modulus of elasticity
5. Relate young’s modulus with thermal expansion of a metal
6. Determine the energy stored in a stretched wire

7.0 References/Further Reading

Vasudeva, A.S, (2010) Modern Engineering Physics for BE/BTech/B Arch students.
Chand & Company LTD.
Gaur R. K and Gupta S. L. (2010) Engineering Physics, Dhanpat Rai Publications (P)
LTD.
Emeka E. I, (2004) Fundamental Principles of Phyiscs, Mechanics and Property of Matter.
ENIC Publishers.
OludotunJ.S.O., (2008) Heat and Property of Matter, National Open University of Nigeria.