Respiratory System

Human Respiratory System

Figure 10.1
 Warning: terminology!
• “Respiration” is used several different ways:
• Cellular respiration is the aerobic breakdown
of glucose in the mitochondria to make ATP.
• Respiratory systems are the organs in animals
that exchange gases with the environment.
• “Respiration” is an everyday term that is
often used to mean “breathing.”
 Respiratory system
function

• Respiratory systems allow animals to

move oxygen (needed for cellular
respiration) into body tissues and
remove carbon dioxide (waste product
of cellular respiration) from cells.
 • Pulmonary ventilation (Breathing)
Respiration
Includes
• Air moves in and out of lungs

• Continuous replacement of gases in

alveoli (air sacs)

Transport of respiratory gases

• External respiration
•Between the lungs and the cells of the body
• Gas exchange between blood and air at
alveoli •Performed by the cardiovascular system

• O2 (oxygen) in air diffuses into blood •Blood is the transporting fluid

Internal respiration
• CO2 (carbon dioxide) in blood diffuses
into air •Gas exchange in capillaries between blood
and tissue cells

◼ Cellular respiration: •O2 in blood diffuses into tissues

◼ oxygen use to produce ATP, carbon dioxide
as waste •CO2 waste in tissues diffuses into blood

5
 Cellular Respiration
• Oxygen (O2) is used by the cells

• O2 needed in conversion of glucose to cellular energy

(ATP)

• All body cells

• Carbon dioxide (CO2) is produced as a waste

product

• The body’s cells die if either the respiratory or

cardiovascular system fails

6
 Human respiratory
system
• Parts of the
respiratory system
include:

• Trachea

• Bronchi

• Bronchioles

• Alveoli
 The Respiratory Organs
Conducting zone
• Respiratory passages that
carry air to the site of gas
exchange

• Filters, humidifies and

warms air

Respiratory zone
• Site of gas exchange

• Composed of

• Respiratory bronchioles

• Alveolar ducts Conducting zone labeled

8
 Lungs and Pleura
Around each lung is a
flattened sac of serous
membrane called pleura

Parietal pleura – outer layer

Visceral pleura – directly on
lung
Pleural cavity – slit-like potential space filled with pleural
fluid
• Lungs can slide but separation from pleura is resisted
(like film between 2 plates of glass)
• Lungs cling to thoracic wall and are forced to expand
and recoil as volume of thoracic cavity changes during
breathing
 Respiratory
Mucosa
• Pseudostratified

ciliated columnar epithelium

• Scattered goblet cells

• Underlying connective tissue lamina propria

• Mucous cells – secrete mucous

• Serous cells – secrete watery fluid with digestive

enzymes, e.g. lysozyme

• Together all these produce a quart/day

• Dead junk is swallowed 10

• Breathing = “pulmonary ventilation” Ventilatio
• Pulmonary means related to the lungs n
• Two phases
• Inspiration (inhalation) – air in

• Expiration (exhalation) – air out

• Mechanical forces cause the movement of air

• Gases always flow from higher pressure to lower

• For air to enter the thorax, the pressure of the air in it has to
be lower than atmospheric pressure
• Making the volume of the thorax larger means the air inside it is under
less pressure

(the air has more space for as many gas particles, therefore it is under
less pressure)

• The diaphragm and intercostal muscles accomplish this

 Muscles of Inspiration
• During inspiration, the
Together: dome shaped diaphragm
flattens as it contracts
• This increases the height of
the thoracic cavity

• The external intercostal

muscles contract to raise
the ribs
• This increases the
circumference of the
thoracic cavity
12
 Moving air in and out
• During inspiration
(inhalation), the
diaphragm and
intercostal muscles
contract.

• During exhalation,
these muscles relax.
The diaphragm
domes upwards.
 • Quiet expiration in healthy people is
Expiration chiefly passive
• Inspiratory muscles relax

• Rib cage drops under force of gravity

• Relaxing diaphragm moves superiorly

(up)

• Elastic fibers in lung recoil

• Volumes of thorax and lungs decrease

simultaneously, increasing the pressure

• Air is forced out

14
Respiratory Cycle

Figure 10.9
Process of Breathing: Pressure Gradient
◼ Inspiration/Expiration: air in/air out
◼ Cycle:

◼ Relaxed state: diaphragm and intercostal

muscles relaxed
◼ Inspiration: diaphragm contracts, pulling muscle

down, intercostal muscles contract elevating

chest wall and expanding volume of chest,
lowering pressure in lungs, pulling in air
◼ Expiration: muscles relax, diaphragm resumes

dome shape, intercostal muscles allow chest to

lower resulting in increase of pressure in chest and
expulsion of air
• End-point of respiratory tree
Respiratory Zone
• Structures that contain air-exchange chambers are called alveoli

• Respiratory bronchioles lead into alveolar ducts: walls consist of alveoli

• Ducts lead into terminal clusters called alveolar sacs – are microscopic chambers

• There are 3

million alveoli!

17
 Alveoli
• The alveoli are
moist, thin-walled
pockets which are
the site of gas
exchange.

• A slightly oily
surfactant prevents
the alveolar walls
from collapsing and
sticking together.
21
 Microscopic detail of alveoli
• Alveoli surrounded by fine elastic fibers

• Alveoli interconnect via alveolar pores

• Alveolar macrophages – free floating “dust cells”

• Note type I and type II cells and joint membrane

22
 In the alveolus
• The respiratory
surface is made up
of the alveoli and
capillary walls.

• The walls of the

capillaries and the
alveoli may share
the same
membrane.
 Surfactant

• Type II cuboidal epithelial cells are scattered in

alveolar walls

• Surfactant is a detergent-like substance which is

secreted in fluid coating alveolar surfaces – it
decreases tension

• Without it the walls would stick together during

exhalation

• Premature babies – problem breathing is largely

because lack surfactant

24
 Circulation and Gas
Exchange
• The interconnection
between circulation
and the respiratory
system.

• Gas exchange at the

lungs and in the
body cells moves
oxygen into cells
and carbon dioxide
out.
 Gas Exchange & Transport:
A Passive Process
◼ Gases diffuse according to their partial
pressures
◼ External respiration: gases exchanged between
air and blood
◼ Internal respiration: gases exchanged with tissue
fluids
◼ Oxygen transport: bound to hemoglobin in red
blood cells or dissolved in blood plasma
◼ Carbon dioxide transport: dissolved in blood
plasma, bound to hemoglobin, or in the form of
Gas Exchange Between the
Blood and Alveoli

Figure 10.8A
 Physical Principles of Gas
Exchange
• Partial pressure

• The pressure exerted by each type of gas in a

mixture

• Dalton’s law

• Water vapor pressure

• Diffusion of gases through liquids

• Concentration of a gas in a liquid is determined

by its partial pressure and its solubility coefficient

• Henry’s law 23-28

 Gas exchange
• Air entering the lungs
contains more oxygen
and less carbon dioxide
than the blood that
flows in the pulmonary
capillaries.

• How do these
differences in
concentrations assist
gas exchange?
• Air filled alveoli account for most of the lung
volume
• Very great area for gas exchange (1500 sq ft)
• Alveolar wall
• Single layer of squamous epithelial cells (type 1 cells)
surrounded by basal lamina
• 0.5um (15 X thinner than tissue paper)
• External wall covered by cobweb of capillaries

• Respiratory membrane: fusion of the basal laminas

of Respiratory
bronchiole
• Alveolar wall Alveolar
• Capillary wall
duct
(air on one side; Alveoli
blood on the other) Alveolar
• This “air-blood barrier” (the respiratory membrane)
is where gas exchange occurs

• Oxygen diffuses from air in alveolus (singular of

alveoli) to blood in capillary

• Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood in

the capillary into the air in
the alveolus

31
 Measurement of Lung
Lung volumes and vital capacity
◼
Function
◼Tidal volume: volume of air inhaled and
exhaled in a single breath
◼ Dead space volume: the air that remains in
the airways and does not participate in
gas exchange
◼ Vital capacity: the maximal volume that
can be exhaled after maximal inhalation
◼ Inspiratory reserve volume: the amount of
air that can be inhaled beyond the tidal
volume
 Measurement of Lung
Function
◼ Expiratory reserve volume: the amount of
air that can be forcibly exhaled beyond
the tidal volume
◼ Residual volume: the amount of air

remaining in the lungs, even after a

forceful maximal expiration
◼ Measurement: spirometer
Measurement of Lung
Capacity

Figure 10.10A
Regulation of Breathing

Figure 10.13
 Oxygen transport

• Hemoglobin binds
to oxygen that
diffuses into the
blood stream.

• What are some

advantages to using
hemoglobin to
transport oxygen?
Respiratory Response to Exercise Factors affecting Disassociation

BLOOD TEMPERATURE

• increased blood temperature

• reduces haemoglobin affinity for O2

• hence more O2 is delivered to warmed-

up tissue
BLOOD Ph
• lowering of blood pH (making blood
more acidic)
• caused by presence of H+ ions from lactic
acid or carbonic acid
• reduces affinity of Hb for O2
• and more O2 is delivered to acidic sites
which are working harder

CARBON DIOXIDE CONCENTRATION

• the higher CO2 concentration in tissue
• the less the affinity of Hb for O2
• so the harder the tissue is working, the
more O2 is released
 Key Point

• Increased temperature and hydrogen ion

(H+) (pH) concentration in exercising
muscle affect the oxygen dissociation
curve, allowing more oxygen to be
uploaded to supply the active muscles.
Hemoglobin and Oxygen Transport
• Oxygen is transported by hemoglobin
(98.5%) and is dissolved in plasma (1.5%)
• Oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve
shows that hemoglobin is almost completely
saturated when P02 is 80 mm Hg or above.
At lower partial pressures, the hemoglobin
releases oxygen.
• A shift of the curve to the left because of an
increase in pH, a decrease in carbon dioxide,
or a decrease in temperature results in an
increase in the ability of hemoglobin to hold
oxygen 23-47
• A shift of the curve to the right because of
a decrease in pH, an increase in carbon
dioxide, or an increase in temperature
results in a decrease in the ability of
hemoglobin to hold oxygen
• The substance 2.3-bisphosphoglycerate
increases the ability of hemoglobin to
release oxygen
• Fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for
oxygen than does maternal

23-48
 Oxygen-Hemoglobin
Dissociation Curve at Rest

23-49
 Oxygen-Hemoglobin
Dissociation Curve during
Exercise

23-50
Shifting the Curve

23-51
Carbon Dioxide Transport
• Carbon dioxide also relies on the blood
fro transportation. Once carbon dioxide
is released from the cells, it is carried in
the blood primarily in three ways…
• Dissolved in plasma,
• As bicarbonate ions resulting from the
dissociation of carbonic acid,
• Bound to haemoglobin.
Dissolved Carbon Dioxide
• Part of the carbon dioxide released from
the tissues is dissolved in plasma. But
only a small amount, typically just 7 –
10%, is transported this way.
• This dissolved carbon dioxide comes out
of solution where the PCO2 is low, such as
in the lungs.
• There it diffuses out of the capillaries into
the alveoli to be exhaled.
 In Review
1) Oxygen is transported in the blood
primarily bound to haemoglobin though a
small amount is dissolved in blood
plasma.
2) Haemoglobin oxygen saturation
decreases.
1) When PO2 decreases.

2) When pH decreases.

3) When temperature increases.

 In Review
Each of these conditions can reflect
increased local oxygen demand. They
increase oxygen uploading in the needy
area.
3) Haemoglobin is usually about 98%
saturated with oxygen. This reflects a
much higher oxygen content than our
body requires, so the blood’s oxygen-
carrying capacity seldom limits
performance.
 In Review
4) Carbon dioxide is transported in the
blood primarily as bicarbonate ion. This
prevents the formation of carbonic acid,
which can cause H+ to accumulate,
decreasing the pH. Smaller amounts of
carbon dioxide are carried either
dissolved in the plasma or bound to
haemoglobin
 Carbon dioxide transport
• Carbon dioxide is transported as bicarbonate
ions (70%)
• in combination with blood proteins (23%)
• in solution with plasma (7%)
• Hemoglobin that has released oxygen binds
more readily to carbon dioxide than
hemoglobin that has oxygen bound to it
(Haldane effect)
• In tissue capillaries, carbon dioxide combines
with water inside RBCs to form carbonic acid
which dissociates to form bicarbonate ions
and hydrogen ions 23-57
• In lung capillaries, bicarbonate ions and
hydrogen ions move into RBCs and chloride
ions move out. Bicarbonate ions combine
with hydrogen ions to form carbonic acid.
The carbonic acid is converted to carbon
dioxide and water. The carbon dioxide
diffuses out of the RBCs.
• Increased plasma carbon dioxide lowers
blood pH. The respiratory system regulates
blood pH by regulating plasma carbon
dioxide levels

23-59
 Carbon Dioxide
Transport
and Chloride Movement

23-60
 At the cells
• Cells use up oxygen quickly for cellular
respiration. What does this do to the
diffusion gradient? How does this help
cells take up oxygen?
• Cells create carbon dioxide during
cellular respiration, so CO2 levels in the
cell are higher than in the blood coming
to them. How does this help cells get rid
of oxygen?