Fundamentals of

Geotechnical Engineering
Fifth Edition

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 iii

Fundamentals of
Geotechnical Engineering
Fifth Edition

Braja M. Das
Dean Emeritus, California State University
Sacramento, California, USA

Nagaratnam Sivakugan
Associate Professor, College of Science, Technology & Engineering
James Cook University, Queensland, Australia

Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

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 Fundamentals of Geotechnical © 2017, 2013 Cengage Learning®
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Braja M. Das and Nagaratnam Sivakugan
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 To Janice, Rohini, Joe,
Valerie and Elizabeth

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 Contents

1 GEotEChniCal EnGinEErinG—
From thE BEGinninG 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Geotechnical Engineering Prior to the 18th Century 2
1.3 Preclassical Period of Soil Mechanics (1700–1776) 5
1.4 Classical Soil Mechanics—Phase I (1776–1856) 6
1.5 Classical Soil Mechanics—Phase II (1856–1910) 6
1.6 Modern Soil Mechanics (1910–1927) 7
1.7 Geotechnical Engineering after 1927 8
1.8 End of an Era 14
References 15

2 Soil DEpoSitS—oriGin, Grain-SizE,

anD ShapE 17
2.1 Introduction 17
2.2 Rock Cycle and the Origin of Soil 17
2.3 Soil Deposits—General 25
2.4 Residual Soil 25
2.5 Gravity-Transported Soil 25
2.6 Alluvial Deposits 26
2.7 Lacustrine Deposits 28

vii

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 viii Contents

2.8 Glacial Deposits 28

2.9 Aeolian Soil Deposits 29
2.10 Organic Soil 30
2.11 Soil-Grain Size 30
2.12 Clay Minerals 32
2.13 Specific Gravity (Gs) 36
2.14 Mechanical Analysis of Soil 37
2.15 Sieve Analysis 37
2.16 Hydrometer Analysis 40
2.17 Effective Size, Uniformity Coefficient, and Coefficient of Gradation 44
2.18 Grain Shape 50
2.19 Summary 51
Problems 51
Critical Thinking Problem 54
References 55

3 WEiGht–VolumE rElationShipS
anD plaStiCity 56
3.1 Introduction 56
3.2 Weight–Volume Relationships 56
3.3 Relationships among Unit Weight, Void Ratio, Moisture Content,
and Specific Gravity 60
3.4 Relationships among Unit Weight, Porosity, and Moisture Content 62
3.5 Various Unit Weight Relationships 64
3.6 Relative Density 70
3.7 Consistency of Soil 73
3.8 Activity 81
3.9 Liquidity Index 82
3.10 Plasticity Chart 83
3.11 Summary 84
Problems 84
Critical Thinking Problems 87
References 87

4 Soil ClaSSiFiCation 89

4.1 Introduction 89
4.2 AASHTO Classification System 89
4.3 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) 93
4.4 Visual Identification of Soils 100
4.5 Summary 101
Problems 101
Critical Thinking Problems 103
References 103

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 Contents ix

5 Soil CompaCtion 104

5.1 Introduction 104

5.2 Compaction—General Principles 104
5.3 Standard Proctor Test 105
5.4 Factors Affecting Compaction 109
5.5 Modified Proctor Test 111
5.6 Empirical Relationships 115
5.7 Field Compaction 118
5.8 Specifications for Field Compaction 120
5.9 Determination of Field Unit Weight
after Compaction 122
5.10 Effect of Compaction on Cohesive Soil Properties 124
5.11 Other Ground Improvement Methods 126
5.12 Summary 128
Problems 128
Critical Thinking Problem 132
References 133

6 hyDrauliC ConDuCtiVity 135

6.1 Introduction 135

6.2 Bernoulli’s Equation 135
6.3 Darcy’s Law 138
6.4 Hydraulic Conductivity 139
6.5 Laboratory Determination of Hydraulic
Conductivity 141
6.6 Empirical Relations for Hydraulic Conductivity 146
6.7 Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity in Stratified Soil 152
6.8 Permeability Test in the Field by Pumping from Wells 155
6.9 Summary 157
Problems 157
Critical Thinking Problem 161
References 162

7 SEEpaGE 163

7.1 Introduction 163

7.2 Laplace’s Equation of Continuity 163
7.3 Flow Nets 165
7.4 Seepage Calculation from a Flow Net 167
7.5 Flow Nets in Anisotropic Soil 171
7.6 Summary 175
Problems 175
Critical Thinking Problem 178

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 x Contents

8 StrESSES in a Soil maSS 179

8.1 Introduction 179

Effective Stress Concept 180
8.2 Stresses in Saturated Soil without Seepage 180
8.3 Stresses in Saturated Soil with Seepage 183
8.4 Seepage Force 189
8.5 Heaving in Soil Due to Flow Around Sheet Piles 191
Vertical Stress Increase Due to Various Types of Loading 194
8.6 Stress Caused by a Point Load 194
8.7 Vertical Stress Caused by a Line Load 195
8.8 Vertical Stress Below a Uniformly Loaded Circular Area 196
8.9 Vertical Stress Caused by a Rectangularly Loaded Area 199
8.10 Summary 203
Problems 204
Critical Thinking Problems 208
References 210

9 ConSoliDation 211

9.1 Introduction 211

9.2 Fundamentals of Consolidation 212
9.3 One-Dimensional Laboratory Consolidation Test 215
9.4 Void Ratio–Pressure Plots 218
9.5 Normally Consolidated and Overconsolidated Clays 220
9.6 Effect of Disturbance on Void Ratio–Pressure Relationship 222
9.7 Calculation of Settlement from One-Dimensional Primary
Consolidation 223
9.8 Compression Index (Cc) and Swell Index (Cs) 225
9.9 Settlement from Secondary Consolidation 233
9.10 Time Rate of Consolidation 236
9.11 Coefficient of Consolidation 241
9.12 Calculation of Primary Consolidation Settlement
under a Foundation 248
9.13 Skempton-Bjerrum Modification for Consolidation
Settlement 251
9.14 Effects of Initial Excess Pore Pressure Distribution
of U-Tv Relationship 255
9.15 Construction Time Correction of Consolidation
Settlement 257
9.16 Summary 260
Problems 260
Critical Thinking Problems 266
References 266

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 Contents xi

10 ShEar StrEnGth oF Soil 268

10.1 Introduction 268

10.2 Mohr–Coulomb Failure Criteria 268
10.3 Inclination of the Plane of Failure Caused by Shear 271
Laboratory Determination of Shear Strength Parameters 273
10.4 Direct Shear Test 273
10.5 Triaxial Shear Test 280
10.6 Consolidated-Drained Test 282
10.7 Consolidated-Undrained Test 291
10.8 Unconsolidated-Undrained Test 296
10.9 Unconfined Compression Test on Saturated Clay 299
10.10 Selection of Shear Strength Parameters 301
10.11 Sensitivity and Thixotropy of Clay 302
10.12 Anisotropy in Undrained Shear Strength 304
10.13 Summary 305
Problems 306
Critical Thinking Problems 310
References 310

11 GrounD improVEmEnt 312

11.1 Introduction 312

Chemical Stabilization 313
11.2 Lime Stabilization 313
11.3 Cement Stabilization 315
11.4 Fly-Ash Stabilization 316
Mechanical Stabilization 317
11.5 Vibroflotation 317
11.6 Dynamic Compaction 320
11.7 Blasting 322
11.8 Precompression 322
11.9 Sand Drains 327
11.10 Summary 332
Problems 333
Critical Thinking Problem 334
References 335

12 SuBSurFaCE Exploration 336

12.1 Introduction 336

12.2 Subsurface Exploration Program 337
12.3 Exploratory Borings in the Field 340
12.4 Procedures for Sampling Soil 344

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 xii Contents

12.5 Split-Spoon Sampling and Standard Penetration Test 344

12.6 Sampling with Thin Wall Tube 351
12.7 Observation of Water Levels 352
12.8 Vane Shear Test 353
12.9 Cone Penetration Test 358
12.10 Pressuremeter Test (PMT) 364
12.11 Dilatometer Test 366
12.12 Coring of Rocks 368
12.13 Preparation of Boring Logs 370
12.14 Geophysical Exploration 372
12.15 Soil Exploration Report 379
12.16 Field Instrumentation 380
12.17 Summary 382
Problems 383
Critical Thinking Problem 387
References 388

13 SlopE StaBility 390

13.1 Introduction 390

13.2 Factor of Safety 391
13.3 Stability of Infinite Slopes 392
13.4 Finite Slopes 396
13.5 Analysis of Finite Slope with Cylindrical Failure
Surface—General 400
13.6 Mass Procedure of Stability Analysis (Circularly Cylindrical
Failure Surface) 402
13.7 Method of Slices 423
13.8 Bishop’s Simplified Method of Slices 426
13.9 Analysis of Simple Slopes with Steady–State Seepage 430
13.10 Mass Procedure for Stability of Clay Slope
with Earthquake Forces 435
13.11 Summary 439
Problems 440
Critical Thinking Problems 444
References 445

14 latEral Earth prESSurE 446

14.1 Introduction 446

14.2 Earth Pressure at Rest 446
14.3 Rankine’s Theory of Active and Passive Earth Pressures 451
14.4 Diagrams for Lateral Earth Pressure Distribution
against Retaining Walls 458
14.5 Rankine Active Pressure with Sloping Granular Backfill 471

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 Contents xiii

14.6 Coulomb’s Earth Pressure Theory—Retaining Walls

with Friction 472
14.7 Passive Pressure Assuming Curved Failure
Surface in Soil 481
14.8 Summary 483
Problems 484
Critical Thinking Problems 488
References 489

15 rEtaininG WallS, BraCED CutS,

anD ShEEt pilE WallS 490
15.1 Introduction 490
Retaining Walls 491
15.2 Retaining Walls—General 491
15.3 Proportioning Retaining Walls 493
15.4 Application of Lateral Earth Pressure Theories
to Design 494
15.5 Check for Overturning 496
15.6 Check for Sliding along the Base 498
15.7 Check for Bearing Capacity Failure 500
Mechanically Stabilized Earth Retaining Walls 508
15.8 Mechanically Stabilized Earth 508
15.9 General Design Considerations 509
15.10 Retaining Walls with Metallic Strip Reinforcement 509
15.11 Step-by-Step-Design Procedure Using Metallic
Strip Reinforcement 512
15.12 Retaining Walls with Geotextile Reinforcement 518
15.13 Retaining Walls with Geogrid Reinforcement 523
Braced Cuts 528
15.14 Braced Cuts—General 528
15.15 Lateral Earth Pressure in Braced Cuts 532
15.16 Soil Parameters for Cuts in Layered Soil 534
15.17 Design of Various Components of a Braced Cut 535
15.18 Heave of the Bottom of a Cut in Clay 541
15.19 Lateral Yielding of Sheet Piles and Ground Settlement 543
Sheet Pile Walls 545
15.20 Cantilever Sheet Pile Wall in Granular Soils (c′ = 0) 545
15.21 Cantilever Sheet Piles in Cohesive Soils 552
15.22 Anchored Sheet Pile Wall 554
15.23 Deadman Anchor—A Simplified Approach 557
15.24 Summary 558
Problems 559
Critical Thinking Problems 565
References 567

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 xiv Contents

16 ShalloW FounDationS—
BEarinG CapaCity 568
16.1 Introduction 568
16.2 Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundations—
General Concepts 569
16.3 Terzaghi’s Ultimate Bearing Capacity Theory 571
16.4 Modification to Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Equation 573
16.5 Modification of Bearing Capacity Equations
for Water Table 577
16.6 The Factor of Safety 578
16.7 Eccentrically Loaded Foundations (One-Way Eccentricity) 581
16.8 Reduction Factor Method for Eccentrically Loaded Strip Foundation
on Granular Soil 584
16.9 Strip Foundation Under Eccentrically Inclined Load 586
16.10 Foundations with Two-Way Eccentricity 591
16.11 Ultimate Bearing Capacity with Earthquake Condition 599
16.12 Mat Foundations—Common Types 601
16.13 Bearing Capacity of Mat Foundations 604
16.14 Compensated Foundations 605
16.15 Summary 607
Problems 607
Critical Thinking Problems 610
References 611

17 SEttlEmEnt oF ShalloW
FounDationS 612
17.1 Introduction 612
17.2 Elastic Settlement of Foundations on Saturated Clay Soils
(ms = 0.5) 613
17.3 Elastic Settlement Based on Theory of Elasticity (Drained Soil) 615
17.4 Range of Material Parameters for Computing
Elastic Settlement 623
17.5 Improved Method for Settlement Calculation
in Granular Soil 623
17.6 Settlement of Sandy Soil: Use of Strain Influence Factor 629
17.7 Allowable Bearing Pressure for Spread Footing
in Sand Based on Settlement Consideration 634
17.8 Allowable Bearing Pressure of Mat Foundation in Sand 635
17.9 Effects of Water Table Rise on Elastic Settlement
in Granular Soils 636
17.10 Summary 638
Problems 638
Critical Thinking Problems 641
References 641

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 Contents xv

18 pilE FounDationS 643

18.1 Introduction 643

18.2 Need for Pile Foundations 643
18.3 Types of Piles and Their Structural Characteristics 645
18.4 Estimation of Pile Length 653
18.5 Installation of Piles 654
18.6 Load Transfer Mechanism 656
18.7 Equations for Estimation of Pile Capacity 659
18.8 Load Carrying Capacity of Pile Point, Qp 660
18.9 Frictional Resistance, Qs 662
18.10 Allowable Pile Capacity 668
18.11 Load-Carrying Capacity of Pile Point Resting on Rock 669
18.12 Elastic Settlement of Piles 679
18.13 Pile Load Tests 682
18.14 Pile-Driving Formulas 687
18.15 Negative Skin Friction 691
18.16 Group Piles—Efficiency 693
18.17 Elastic Settlement of Group Piles 698
18.18 Consolidation Settlement of Group Piles 698
18.19 Summary 702
Problems 703
Critical Thinking Problem 710
References 711

19 DrillED ShaFt 712

19.1 Introduction 712

19.2 Types of Drilled Shafts 713
19.3 Construction Procedures 714
19.4 Estimation of Load-Bearing Capacity 718
19.5 Drilled Shafts in Sand—Net Ultimate Load 720
19.6 Drilled Shafts in Clay—Net Ultimate Load 723
19.7 Settlement of Drilled Shafts at Working Load 728
19.8 Load-Bearing Capacity Based on Settlement 728
19.9 Summary 736
Problems 736
Critical Thinking Problem 739
References 740

20 loaD anD rESiStanCE FaCtor

DESiGn (lrFD) 741
20.1 Introduction 741
20.2 Design Philosophy 742
20.3 Allowable Stress Design (ASD) 744

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 xvi Contents

20.4 Limit State Design (LSD) and Partial Safety Factors 745
20.5 Summary 750
Problems 750
References 750

appendix a: Geosynthetics 752

answers to Selected problems 758
index 767

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 preface

Principles of Foundation Engineering and Principles of Geotechnical Engineering

were originally published with 1984 and 1985 copyrights, respectively. These texts
were well received by instructors, students, and practitioners alike. Depending
on the needs of the users, the texts were revised and are presently in their eighth
editions. These texts have also been translated in several languages.
Toward the latter part of 1998, there were several requests to prepare a sin-
gle volume that was concise in nature but combined the essential components of
Principles of Foundation Engineering and Principles of Geotechnical Engineering.
In response to those requests, the first edition of Fundamentals of Geotechnical
Engineering was published in 2000. This text includes the fundamental concepts
of soil mechanics as well as foundation engineering, including bearing capac-
ity and settlement of shallow foundations (spread footings and mats), retaining
walls, braced cuts, piles, and drilled shafts.

new to this Edition

This fifth edition has been revised and prepared based on comments received from
several reviewers and users without changing the philosophy on which the text was
originally prepared. Professor Nagaratnam Sivakugan of James Cook University,
Australia, has joined as a co-author of this edition. As in the previous editions,
SI units are used throughout the text. This edition consists of 20 chapters and an
appendix. The major changes from the fourth edition include the following:
●●
About forty additional photographs have been added.
●●
A number of additional example problems and homework problems
have been added in each chapter.
●●
Each chapter has some critical thinking problem(s) added to the home-
work problem set.
xvii

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 xviii preface

●●
An interactive digital version of this text is now available. Please see
the MindTap description on page xix.
●●
In Chapter 2 on “Soil Deposits—Origin, Grain-Size, and Shape” a dis-
cussion has been added for the U.S. sieve size designations. Details for the
British standard sieves and the Australian standard sieves have also been
added.
●●
In Chapter 3 on “Weight-Volume Relationships and Plasticity,” a table
for various unit-weight relationships has been added.
●●
Chapter 4 on “Soil Classification” has a new section on visual identifi-
cation of soils.
●●
In Chapter 5 on “Soil Compaction,” some recently published correla-
tions for maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture content has
been added. Also added in this chapter is a brief description on various
ground improvement methods.
●●
Chapter 9 on “Consolidation” now has a new section on the effects of
initial excess pore water pressure distribution on U–Tv relationships.
Also added to this chapter is a discussion on the construction time
correction of consolidation settlement.
●●
A number of recently published correlations for effective stress fric-
tion angle (f′) and cohesion (c′) for cohesive soils has been added to
Chapter 10 on “Shear Strength of Soils.” Also included in this chapter
are several correlations for the undrained shear strength of remolded
clays with liquidity index.
●●
Chapter 12 on “Subsurface Exploration” now has a section on field
instrumentation.
●●
In Chapter 13 on “Slope Stability,” an analysis to evaluate the factor of safety
of clay slopes with the undrained cohesion increasing with depth has been
added. This chapter now also has a discussion on the mass procedure for sta-
bility analysis of homogeneous clay slopes (f = 0) with earthquake forces.
●●
Chapter 15 has been renamed as “Retaining Walls, Braced Cuts, and
Sheet Pile Walls.” Analyses of cantilever sheet pile walls and anchored
sheet pile walls have been added to this chapter.
●●
The bearing capacity of strip foundation under eccentrically inclined
load has been discussed in greater detail in Chapter 16 on “Shallow
Foundations—Bearing Capacity.”
●●
An improved method for elastic settlement calculation of shallow foun-
dations on granular soil taking into consideration the variation of soil
stiffness with stress level has been added to Chapter 17 on “Settlement
of Shallow Foundations.”
●●
A new chapter (Chapter 20) on “Load and Resistance Factor Design
(LRFD)” has been added to the text.
instructor resource materials
A detailed Instructor’s Solutions Manual and Lecture Note PowerPoint
slides are available for instructors through a password-protected Web site at
www.cengagebrain.com.

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 preface xix

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a personalized learning program. Students who purchase the MindTap have
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plete homework and assessment material online, on their desktops, laptops,
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for this course.
With MindTap, instructors can:
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●●
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acknowledgments
Thanks are due to:
The following reviewers for their comments and constructive suggestions:
●●
Alierza Bayat, University of Alberta
●●
Raymond Haddad, California State University, Northridge
●●
Anne Lemnitzer, University of California, Irvine
●●
Matthew Sleep, Oregon Institute of Technology
●●
Kamal Tawfiq, Florida A&M University
●●
Alexandria Wayllace, Colorado School of Mines
●●
Attila Michael Zsaki, Concordia University, Canada
Several individuals in Cengage Learning, for their assistance and advice in
the final development of the text—namely:
●●
Tim Anderson, Product Director
●●
Mona Zeftel, Senior Content Developer
Thanks are also due to Janice Das for her continuous help in the develop-
ment of the original text and its subsequent four editions.

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 xx preface

It is also fitting to thank Rose P. Kernan of RPK Editorial Services. She has
been instrumental in shaping the style and overseeing the production of this edi-
tion of Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering as well as all previous editions.
Braja M. Das
Henderson, Nevada, USA
Nagaratnam Sivakugan
Townsville, Queensland, Australia

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 pisaphotography/Shutterstock.com

C H AP T ER
Geotechnical
1 Engineering—From
the Beginning
1.1 Introduction
For engineering purposes, soil is defined as the uncemented aggregate of
mineral grains and decayed organic matter (solid particles) with liquid and
gas in the empty spaces between the solid particles. Soil is used as a construc-
tion material in various civil engineering projects, and it supports structural
foundations. Thus, civil engineers must study the properties of soil, such
as its origin, grain-size distribution, ability to drain water, compressibility,
strength, and its ability to support structures and resist deformations. Soil
mechanics is the branch of science that deals with the study of the physical
properties of soil and the behavior of soil masses subjected to various types
of forces. Soil engineering is the application of the principles of soil mechan-
ics to practical problems. Geotechnical engineering is the subdiscipline of
civil engineering that involves natural materials found close to the surface of
the earth. It includes the application of the principles of soil mechanics and
rock mechanics to the design of foundations, retaining structures, and earth
structures.
This chapter is a historical overview of geotechnical engineering and its
challenges, with some mention of the great contributions by two eminent
scholars, Dr. Karl Terzaghi (1883–1963) and Dr. Ralph Peck (1912–2008),
and others.

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 2 Chapter 1: Geotechnical Engineering—From the Beginning

1.2 Geotechnical Engineering Prior

to the 18th Century
The record of a person’s first use of soil as a construction material is lost in an-
tiquity. In true engineering terms, the understanding of geotechnical engineering
as it is known today began early in the 18th century (Skempton, 1985). For years
the art of geotechnical engineering was based on only past experiences through
a succession of experimentation without any real scientific character. Based on
those experimentations, many structures were built—some of which have crum-
bled, while others are still standing.
Recorded history tells us that ancient civilizations flourished along the banks
of rivers, such as the Nile (Egypt), the Tigris and Euphrates (Mesopotamia),
the Huang Ho (Yellow River, China), and the Indus (India). Dykes dating back
to about 2000 b.c. were built in the basin of the Indus to protect the town of
Mohenjo Dara (in what became Pakistan after 1947). During the Chan dynasty
in China (1120 b.c. to 249 b.c.), many dikes were built for irrigation purposes.
There is no evidence that measures were taken to stabilize the foundations or
check erosion caused by floods (Kerisel, 1985). The ancient Greek civilization
used isolated pad footings and strip-and-raft foundations for building struc-
tures. Beginning around 2700 b.c., several pyramids were built in Egypt, most
of which were built as tombs for the country’s Pharaohs and their consorts
during the old and Middle Kingdom periods. Table 1.1 lists some of the major
pyramids identified through the Pharaoh who ordered it built. As of 2008, a
total of 138 pyramids have been discovered in Egypt. Figure 1.1 shows a view of
the three pyramids at Giza. The construction of the pyramids posed formidable
challenges regarding foundations, stability of slopes, and construction of under-
ground chambers. With the arrival of Buddhism in China during the Eastern
Han dynasty in 68 a.d., thousands of pagodas were built. Many of these struc-
tures were constructed on silt and soft clay layers. In some cases the foundation
pressure exceeded the load-bearing capacity of the soil and thereby caused exten-
sive structural damage.
One of the most famous examples of problems related to soil-bearing ca-
pacity in the construction of structures prior to the 18th century is the Leaning
Tower of Pisa in Italy (Figure 1.2). Construction of the tower began in 1173 a.d.

Table 1.1 Major Pyramids in Egypt

Pyramid/Pharaoh Location Reign of Pharaoh
Djoser Saqqara 2630–2612 b.c.
Sneferu Dashur (North) 2612–2589 b.c.
Sneferu Dashur (South) 2612–2589 b.c.
Sneferu Meidum 2612–2589 b.c.
Khufu Giza 2589–2566 b.c.
Djedefre Abu Rawash 2566–2558 b.c.
Khafre Giza 2558–2532 b.c.
Menkaure Giza 2532–2504 b.c.

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 1.2 Geotechnical Engineering Prior to the 18th Century 3

FIG. 1.1 A view of the pyramids at Giza (Courtesy of Braja M. Das, Henderson, Nevada)

FIG. 1.2 Leaning Tower of Pisa, Italy (Courtesy of Braja M. Das, Henderson, Nevada)

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 4 Chapter 1: Geotechnical Engineering—From the Beginning

when the Republic of Pisa was flourishing and continued in various stages for
over 200 years. The structure weighs about 15,700 metric tons and is supported
by a circular base having a diameter of 20 m. The tower has tilted in the past
to the east, north, west and, finally, to the south. Recent investigations showed
that a weak clay layer exists at a depth of about 11 m below the ground surface,
compression of which caused the tower to tilt. It became more than 5 m out of
plumb with the 54 m height (about 5.5 degree tilt). The tower was closed in 1990
because it was feared that it would either fall over or collapse. It has recently
been stabilized by excavating soil from under the north side of the tower. About
70 metric tons of earth were removed in 41 separate extractions that spanned the
width of the tower. As the ground gradually settled to fill the resulting space, the
tilt of the tower eased. The tower now leans 5 degrees. The half-degree change is
not noticeable, but it makes the structure considerably more stable. Figure 1.3 is
an example of a similar problem. The towers shown in Figure 1.3 are located in

FIG. 1.3 Tilting of Garisenda Tower (left) and Asinelli Tower (right) in Bologna, Italy
(Courtesy of Braja M. Das, Henderson, Nevada)

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 1.3 Preclassical Period of Soil Mechanics (1700–1776) 5

Bologna, Italy, and they were built in the 12th century. The tower on the left is the
Garisenda Tower. It is 48 m high and weighs about 4210 metric tons. It has tilted
about 4 degrees. The tower on the right is the Asinelli Tower, which is 97 m high
and weighs 7300 metric tons. It has tilted about 1.3 degrees.
After encountering several foundation-related problems during construc-
tion over centuries past, engineers and scientists began to address the properties
and behavior of soils in a more methodical manner starting in the early part
of the 18th century. Based on the emphasis and the nature of study in the area
of geotechnical engineering, the time span extending from 1700 to 1927 can be
divided into four major periods (Skempton, 1985):
1. Preclassical (1700 to 1776)
2. Classical soil mechanics—Phase I (1776 to 1856)
3. Classical soil mechanics—Phase II (1856 to 1910)
4. Modern soil mechanics (1910 to 1927)
Brief descriptions of some significant developments during each of these
four periods are discussed below.

1.3 Preclassical Period of Soil Mechanics

(1700–1776)
This period concentrated on studies relating to natural slope and unit weights of
various types of soils as well as the semiempirical earth pressure theories. In 1717
a French royal engineer, Henri Gautier (1660–1737), studied the natural slopes
of soils when tipped in a heap for formulating the design procedures of retaining
walls. The natural slope is what we now refer to as the angle of repose. Accord-
ing to this study, the natural slopes of clean dry sand and ordinary earth were
31° and 45°, respectively. Also, the unit weights of clean dry sand and ordinary
earth were recommended to be 18.1 kN/m3 and 13.4 kN/m3, respectively. No test
results on clay were reported. In 1729, Bernard Forest de Belidor (1694–1761)
published a textbook for military and civil engineers in France. In the book, he
proposed a theory for lateral earth pressure on retaining walls that was a fol-
low-up to Gautier’s (1717) original study. He also specified a soil classification
system in the manner shown in the following table.
Unit weight
Classification kN/m3
Rock —
Firm or hard sand, compressible sand 16.7 to 18.4
Ordinary earth (as found in dry locations) 13.4
Soft earth (primarily silt) 16.0
Clay 18.9
Peat —
The first laboratory model test results on a 76 mm high retaining wall built
with sand backfill were reported in 1746 by a French engineer, Francois Gadroy

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 6 Chapter 1: Geotechnical Engineering—From the Beginning

(1705–1759), who observed the existence of slip planes in the soil at failure.
Gadroy’s study was later summarized by J. J. Mayniel in 1808. Another notable
contribution during this period is that by the French engineer Jean Rodolphe
Perronet (1708–1794), who studied slope stability around 1769 and distinguished
between intact ground and fills.

1.4 Classical Soil Mechanics—Phase I

(1776–1856)
During this period, most of the developments in the area of geotechnical engi-
neering came from engineers and scientists in France. In the preclassical period,
practically all theoretical considerations used in calculating lateral earth pressure
on retaining walls were based on an arbitrarily based failure surface in soil. In
his famous paper presented in 1776, French scientist Charles Augustin Coulomb
(1736–1806) used the principles of calculus for maxima and minima to deter-
mine the true position of the sliding surface in soil behind a retaining wall. In
this analysis, Coulomb used the laws of friction and cohesion for solid bodies.
In 1790, the distinguished French civil engineer, Gaspard Claire Marie Riche de
Brony (1755–1839) included Coulomb’s theory in his leading textbook, Nouvelle
Architecture Hydraulique (Vol. 1). In 1820, special cases of Coulomb’s work were
studied by French engineer Jacques Fredéric Francais (1775–1833) and by French
applied-mechanics professor Claude Louis Marie Henri Navier (1785–1836).
These special cases related to inclined backfills and backfills supporting surcharge.
In 1840, Jean Victor Poncelet (1788–1867), an army engineer and professor of
mechanics, extended Coulomb’s theory by providing a graphical method for deter-
mining the magnitude of lateral earth pressure on vertical and inclined retaining
walls with arbitrarily broken polygonal ground surfaces. Poncelet was also the
first to use the symbol f for soil friction angle. He also provided the first ulti-
mate bearing-capacity theory for shallow foundations. In 1846, Alexandre Collin
(1808–1890), an engineer, provided the details for deep slips in clay slopes, cutting,
and embankments. Collin theorized that, in all cases, the failure takes place when
the mobilized cohesion exceeds the existing cohesion of the soil. He also observed
that the actual failure surfaces could be approximated as arcs of cycloids.
The end of Phase I of the classical soil mechanics period is generally
marked by the year (1857) of the first publication by William John Macquorn
Rankine (1820–1872), a professor of civil engineering at the University of
Glasgow. This study provided a notable theory on earth pressure and equilib-
rium of earth masses. Rankine’s theory is a simplification of Coulomb’s theory.

1.5 Classical Soil Mechanics—Phase II

(1856–1910)
Several experimental results from laboratory tests on sand appeared in the lit-
erature in this phase. One of the earliest and most important publications is
by French engineer Henri Philibert Gaspard Darcy (1803–1858). In 1856, he

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 1.6 Modern Soil Mechanics (1910–1927) 7

published a study on the permeability of sand filters. Based on those tests, Darcy
defined the term coefficient of permeability (or hydraulic conductivity) of soil, a
very useful parameter in geotechnical engineering to this day.
Sir George Howard Darwin (1845–1912), a professor of astronomy, con-
ducted laboratory tests to determine the overturning moment on a hinged wall re-
taining sand in loose and dense states of compaction. Another noteworthy contri-
bution, which was published in 1885 by Joseph Valentin Boussinesq (1842–1929),
was the development of the theory of stress distribution under load-bearing
areas in a homogeneous, semi-infinite, elastic, and isotropic medium. In 1887,
Osborne Reynolds (1842–1912) demonstrated the phenomenon of dilatency
in sand. Other notable studies during this period are those by John Clibborn
(1847–1938) and John Stuart Beresford (1845–1925), relating to the flow of wa-
ter through sand bed and uplift pressure. Clibborn’s study was published in the
Treatise on Civil Engineering, Vol. 2: Irrigation Work in India, Roorkee, 1901,
and also in Technical Paper No. 97, Government of India, 1902. Beresford’s 1898
study on uplift pressure on the Narora Weir on the Ganges River has been doc-
umented in Technical Paper No. 97, Government of India, 1902.

1.6 Modern Soil Mechanics (1910–1927)

In this period, results of research conducted on clays were published in which
the fundamental properties and parameters of clay were established. The most
notable publications are described next.
Around 1908, Albert Mauritz Atterberg (1846–1916), a Swedish chemist and
soil scientist, defined clay-sized fractions as the percentage by weight of particles
smaller than 2 microns in size. He realized the important role of clay particles in
a soil and the plasticity thereof. In 1911, he explained the consistency of cohesive
soils by defining liquid, plastic, and shrinkage limits. He also defined the plasticity
index as the difference between liquid limit and plastic limit (see Atterberg, 1911).
In October 1909, the 17 m high earth dam at Charmes, France, failed. It
was built between 1902–1906. A French engineer, Jean Fontard (1884–1962),
carried out investigations to determine the cause of failure. In that context, he
conducted undrained double-shear tests on clay specimens (0.77 m2 in area and
200 mm thick) under constant vertical stress to determine their shear strength
parameters (see Frontard, 1914). The times for failure of these specimens were
between 10 to 20 minutes.
Arthur Langley Bell (1874–1956), a civil engineer from England, worked on
the design and construction of the outer seawall at Rosyth Dockyard. Based on his
work, he developed relationships for lateral pressure and resistance in clay as well as
bearing capacity of shallow foundations in clay (see Bell, 1915). He also used shear-
box tests to measure the undrained shear strength of undisturbed clay specimens.
Wolmar Fellenius (1876–1957), an engineer from Sweden, developed the sta-
bility analysis of undrained saturated clay slopes (that is, f 5 0 condition) with
the assumption that the critical surface of sliding is the arc of a circle. These were
elaborated upon in his papers published in 1918 and 1926. The paper published
in 1926 gave correct numerical solutions for the stability numbers of circular slip
surfaces passing through the toe of the slope.

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 8 Chapter 1: Geotechnical Engineering—From the Beginning

FIG. 1.4 Karl Terzaghi (1883–1963) (SSPL via Getty Images)

Karl Terzaghi (1883–1963) of Austria (Figure 1.4) developed the theory

of consolidation for clays as we know today. The theory was developed when
Terzaghi was teaching at the American Robert College in Istanbul, Turkey. His
study spanned a five-year period from 1919 to 1924. Five different clay soils were
used. The liquid limit of those soils ranged between 36 to 67, and the plasticity
index was in the range of 18 to 38. The consolidation theory was published in
Terzaghi’s celebrated book Erdbaumechanik in 1925.

1.7 Geotechnical Engineering after 1927

The publication of Erdbaumechanik auf Bodenphysikalisher Grundlage by Karl
Terzaghi in 1925 gave birth to a new era in the development of soil mechanics.
Karl Terzaghi is known as the father of modern soil mechanics, and rightfully
so. Terzaghi (Figure 1.4) was born on October 2, 1883 in Prague, which was then
the capital of the Austrian province of Bohemia. In 1904, he graduated from
the Technische Hochschule in Graz, Austria, with an undergraduate degree in

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 1.7 Geotechnical Engineering after 1927 9

mechanical engineering. After graduation he served one year in the Austrian

army. Following his army service, Terzaghi studied one more year, concentrating
on geological subjects. In January 1912, he received the degree of Doctor of
Technical Sciences from his alma mater in Graz. In 1916, he accepted a teaching
position at the Imperial School of Engineers in Istanbul. After the end of World
War I, he accepted a lectureship at the American Robert College in Istanbul
(1918–1925). There he began his research work on the behavior of soils and
settlement of clays and on the failure due to piping in sand under dams. The
publication Erdbaumechanik is primarily the result of this research.
In 1925, Terzaghi accepted a visiting lectureship at Massachusetts Institute
of Technology, where he worked until 1929. During that time, he became recog-
nized as the leader of the new branch of civil engineering called soil mechanics.
In October 1929, he returned to Europe to accept a professorship at the Tech-
nical University of Vienna, which soon became the nucleus for civil engineers
interested in soil mechanics. In 1939, he returned to the United States to become
a professor at Harvard University.
The first conference of the International Society of Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering (ISSMFE) was held at Harvard University in 1936 with
Karl Terzaghi presiding. The conference was possible due to the conviction and
efforts of Professor Arthur Casagrande of Harvard University. About 200 indi-
viduals representing 21 countries attended this conference. It was through the
inspiration and guidance of Terzaghi over the preceding quarter-century that
papers were brought to that conference covering a wide range of topics, such as
●
Effective stress
●
Shear strength
●
Testing with Dutch cone penetrometer
●
Consolidation
●
Centrifuge testing
●
Elastic theory and stress distribution
●
Preloading for settlement control
●
Swelling clays
●
Frost action
●
Earthquake and soil liquefaction
●
Machine vibration
●
Arching theory of earth pressure
For the next quarter-century, Terzaghi was the guiding spirit in the devel-
opment of soil mechanics and geotechnical engineering throughout the world.
To that effect, in 1985, Ralph Peck (Figure 1.5) wrote that “few people during
Terzaghi’s lifetime would have disagreed that he was not only the guiding spirit
in soil mechanics, but that he was the clearing house for research and appli-
cation throughout the world. Within the next few years he would be engaged
on projects on every continent save Australia and Antarctica.” Peck continued
with, “Hence, even today, one can hardly improve on his contemporary assess-
ments of the state of soil mechanics as expressed in his summary papers and

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 10 Chapter 1: Geotechnical Engineering—From the Beginning

FIG. 1.5 Ralph B. Peck (Photo courtesy of Ralph B. Peck)

presidential addresses.” In 1939, Terzaghi delivered the 45th James Forrest Lec-
ture at the Institution of Civil Engineers, London. His lecture was entitled “Soil
Mechanics—A New Chapter in Engineering Science.” In it, he proclaimed that
most of the foundation failures that occurred were no longer “acts of God.”
Following are some highlights in the development of soil mechanics and
geotechnical engineering that evolved after the first conference of the ISSMFE
in 1936:
●
Publication of the book Theoretical Soil Mechanics by Karl Terzaghi
in 1943 (Wiley, New York);
●
Publication of the book Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice by
Karl Terzaghi and Ralph Peck in 1948 (Wiley, New York);
●
Publication of the book Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics by Donald
W. Taylor in 1948 (Wiley, New York); and
●
Start of the publication of Geotechnique, the international journal of
soil mechanics in 1948 in England.
After a brief interruption for World War II, the second conference of
ISSMFE was held in Rotterdam, The Netherlands, in 1948. There were about

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 1.7 Geotechnical Engineering after 1927 11

600 participants, and seven volumes of proceedings were published. In this con-
ference, A. W. Skempton presented the landmark paper on f 5 0 concept for
clays. Following Rotterdam, ISSMFE conferences have been organized about
every four years in different parts of the world. The aftermath of the Rotterdam
conference saw the growth of regional conferences on geotechnical engineering,
such as
●
European Regional Conference on Stability of Earth Slopes,
Stockholm (1954)
●
First Australia-New Zealand Conference on Shear Characteristics of
Soils (1952)
●
First Pan American Conference, Mexico City (1960)
●
Research conference on Shear Strength of Cohesive Soils, Boulder,
Colorado (1960)
Two other important milestones between 1948 and 1960 are (l) the pub-
lication of A. W. Skempton’s paper on A and B pore pressure parameters
which made effective stress calculations more practical for various engineer-
ing works and (2) publication of the book entitled The Measurement of Soil
Properties in the Triaxial Text by A. W. Bishop and B. J. Henkel (Arnold,
London) in 1957.
By the early 1950s, computer-aided finite difference and finite element solu-
tions were applied to various types of geotechnical engineering problems. When
the projects become more sophisticated with complex boundary conditions, it
is no longer possible to apply closed form solutions. Numerical modeling, using
a finite element (e.g., Abaqus, Plaxis) or finite difference (e.g., Flac) software,
is increasingly becoming popular in the profession. The dominance of numeri-
cal modeling in geotechnical engineering will continue in the next few decades,
due to new challenges and advances in the modeling techniques. Since the early
days, the profession of geotechnical engineering has come a long way and has
matured. It is now an established branch of civil engineering, and thousands
of civil engineers declare geotechnical engineering to be their preferred area of
speciality.
In 1997, the ISSMFE was changed to ISSMGE (International Society of
Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering) to reflect its true scope. These
international conferences have been instrumental for exchange of information
regarding new developments and ongoing research activities in geotechnical
engineering. Table 1.2 gives the location and year in which each conference of
ISSMFE/ISSMGE was held.
In 1960, Bishop, Alpan, Blight, and Donald provided early guidelines and
experimental results for the factors controlling the strength of partially satu-
rated cohesive soils. Since that time advances have been made in the study of
the behavior of unsaturated soils as related to strength and compressibility and
other factors affecting construction of earth-supported and earth-retaining
structures.
ISSMGE has several technical committees, and these committees organize
or cosponsor several conferences around the world. A list of these technical

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