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QUIZ #12 your answers as an email text

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1. D
2. C
3. E
4. A

Electrical Potential Energy Electric Potential Energy

 When a test charge q is placed in an electric field, it  The work done by the electric field on the charge is
experiences a force 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐅𝐅𝑒𝑒 ⋅𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬 = 𝑞𝑞𝐄𝐄⋅𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬
 Fe = qE
 As this work is done by the field, the potential
 The force is conservative because the force energy of the charge-field system is changed by
between charges described by Coulomb’s law is
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −𝑞𝑞𝐄𝐄⋅𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬
conservative
 ds is an infinitesimal displacement vector that is  For a finite displacement of the charge from A to B,
oriented tangent to a path through space the change in electric potential energy of the
 The path may be straight or curved and the integral system ∆U = UB − UA is
performed along this path is called either a path integral B
or a line integral 3
∆𝑈𝑈 = −𝑞𝑞 � 𝐄𝐄⋅𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬
4
A
 Electric Potential Energy
E-46

 Because the force qE is conservative, the  Uniform E, AB = l

line integral does not depend on the
path taken by the charge from A to B B B B
−𝑊𝑊AB = − � 𝑞𝑞 𝐄𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬 = −𝑞𝑞 � 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 cos 180° = 𝑞𝑞𝐸𝐸 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑞𝑞𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
A A A

C B
−𝑊𝑊ACB = −(𝑊𝑊AC + 𝑊𝑊CB ) = −𝑞𝑞 �� 𝐄𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬 + � 𝐄𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬�
A C
C C
= −𝑞𝑞 � 𝐄𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬 = − 𝑞𝑞 � 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 cos(180 − α) = 𝑞𝑞𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
A A

∆𝑈𝑈 = 𝑈𝑈B − 𝑈𝑈A = 𝑞𝑞𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

5 6

Electric potential

∆𝑈𝑈 = 𝑈𝑈B − 𝑈𝑈A = 𝑞𝑞𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸  The potential energy per unit charge, U/q, is the
electric potential
 If q > 0, ∆U > 0 (“uphill”)  The potential is characteristic of the field only
 If q < 0, ∆U < 0 (“downhill”)  The potential energy is characteristic of the charge-field
system
 The potential is independent of the value of q
 The potential has a value at every point in an electric field
 The electric potential is 𝑈𝑈
𝑉𝑉 =
𝑞𝑞
 Because the potential energy is a scalar quantity,
7
electric potential also is a scalar quantity 8
 Electric potential difference Work and Electric Potential
B B
∆𝑈𝑈
∆𝑈𝑈 = −𝑞𝑞 � 𝐄𝐄⋅𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬 ∆𝑉𝑉 ≡ = − � 𝐄𝐄⋅𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬
A 𝑞𝑞 A

 The potential difference ∆V = VB − VA between two points A  Assume an external agent moves charge q from A to B without
and B in an electric field is defined as changing the its kinetic energy
B  The agent performs work that changes the potential energy of the
∆𝑈𝑈
∆𝑉𝑉 ≡ = − � 𝐄𝐄⋅𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬 system: W = ∆U = q∆V
𝑞𝑞 A
 The work done by an external agent in moving a charge q through
 Just as with potential energy, only differences in electric an electric field at constant velocity is 𝑊𝑊 = 𝑞𝑞∆𝑉𝑉
potential are meaningful  The SI unit of both electric potential and electric potential
 Potential difference ≠ Change in potential energy difference is volt (V): 1V ≡ 1 J/C
B
We often take the value of the potential to be zero at some N V

∆𝑉𝑉 = − � 𝐄𝐄⋅𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬 → 1 = 1
convenient point in an electric field A C m
 Electric potential is a scalar characteristic of an electric field,  New interpretation of the electric field: it is the measure of the
independent of any charges that may be placed in the field rate of change of the electric potential with respect to position
9 10

Electron-Volts Potential Difference in a Uniform Electric Field

B B B
°
𝑉𝑉B − 𝑉𝑉A = ∆𝑉𝑉 = − � 𝐄𝐄⋅𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬 = − � 𝐸𝐸⋅𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠�cos 0 � = − � 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
∆𝑈𝑈 = 𝑞𝑞∆𝑉𝑉 A A A

B
 Another unit of energy that is commonly used in ∆𝑉𝑉 = −𝐸𝐸 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
A
atomic and nuclear physics is the electron-volt ∆𝑉𝑉 = −𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
 One electron-volt (eV) is defined as the energy  The negative sign ∆V indicates that
the electric potential at point B is
a charge-field system gains or loses when a
lower than at point A
charge of magnitude e (an electron or a proton)
 Electric field lines always point in
is moved through a potential difference of 1 volt the direction of decreasing electric
 1 eV = 1.60 × 10−19 C⋅V = 1.60 × 10−19 J potential
∆𝑈𝑈 = 𝑞𝑞∆𝑉𝑉 = −𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞
 When a positive test charge moves
from A to B, the charge-field
11 system loses potential energy 12
More About Directions An Analogous Situation with a Gravitational Field

 A system consisting of a positive  When a particle of mass m is

charge and an electric field loses released in a gravitational
electric potential energy when the field, it accelerates downward,
charge moves in the direction of
the field gaining kinetic energy
 An electric field does work on a  At the same time, the
positive charge when the charge gravitational potential energy
moves in the direction of the electric
field
of the object-field system
decreases
 The charged particle gains kinetic
energy equal to the potential
energy lost by the charge-field
system
 Another example of Conservation of
Energy 13 14

The Equipotential Suface

Directions

 If q is negative, then ΔU = −qEd is positive  A→B

 A system consisting of a negative charge and
an electric field gains potential energy when
 A→C
the charge moves in the direction of the field
(if a negative charge is released from rest in
an electric field, it accelerates in the direction
opposite the direction of the field)
 In order for a negative charge to move in the  All points in a plane perpendicular
direction of the field, an external agent must do to a uniform electric field are at
positive work on the charge 15
the same electric potential 16
The Equipotential Suface

 The name equipotential surface

is given to any surface consisting
of a continuous distribution of
points having the same electric
potential

The equipotential surfaces associated with a uniform

electric field are parallel planes that are all perpendicular
to the electric field

17 18

Potential and Point Charges Potential and Point Charges

 It is customary to choose a
reference potential of V = 0 at
rA = ∞
 Then the potential due to a
point charge at any distance r
 The integral of E⋅ds is independent of from the charge is
the path between points A and B  V is constant on a spherical
 The integral of qE⋅ds, which is the work surface of radius r →
done by the electric force on the charge
q, is also independent of path → the equipotential surfaces are
electric force is conservative 19 surfaces of a sphere 20
 Potential Energy of Multiple Charges

Electric Potential with Multiple Charges

 The electric potential due to several point

charges is the sum of the potentials due to
each individual charge  An external agent brings the charge q2 from infinity to point P.
The work that must be done to do this is W = q2∆V. But, W = ∆U
 This is another example of the superposition (U – the electric potential energy).
principle
 The sum is the algebraic sum

 If the two charges are of the same sign, U is positive and work
must be done by an external agent to bring the charges together
 If the two charges have opposite signs, U is negative and work
21 is done by an external agent to keep the charges apart 22

U with Multiple Charges Finding E From V

Assume that E has only an x component Ex :

 If there are more than two
charges, then find U for each pair
of charges and add them
 For three charges:
Similar statements would apply to the y and z components

The electric field is a measure of a rate of change with position of the

electric potential
When a test charge undergoes a displacement ds on equipotential surface,
then dV = 0: E must be perpendicular to ds

 The result is independent of Equipotential surfaces must always be perpendicular to the

the order of the charges 23 electric field lines passing through them 24
 Equipotential surfaces (the dashed blue lines) and electric field lines

 In general, V (x,y,z). Given V (x,y,z), one can find Ex , Ey , and

Ez as partial derivatives:

 For the charge distribution with spherical symmetry,

 is called the gradient operator

 The electric potential of a point charge

25 26

Electric Potential for a Continuous Charge Distribution Another Method for Calculating the Electrical Potential

 Consider a small charge element dq

If the electric field is already known from other
 Treat it as a point charge

 The potential at some point due to this

considerations, for example, such as Gauss’s
charge element is law , then ∆V between any two points
dq
dV = ke can be calculated from
r
 To find the total potential at point P,
one needs to integrate the above
equation

 This value for V uses the reference of V = 0

when P is infinitely far away from the
charge distributions
27 28
 V for a Uniformly Charged Ring V for a Uniformly Charged Ring

 P is located on the perpendicular

central axis of the uniformly
charged ring
 The symmetry of the situation
means that all the charges on the
ring are the same distance from
point P
 The ring has a radius a and a total
charge Q

29 30

V for a Uniformly Charged Disk V for a Finite Line of Charge

 The ring has a radius R and A rod of length ℓ has a total charge
surface charge density of σ of Q and a uniform linear charge
 P is along the perpendicular density of λ. E(P) = ?
central axis of the disk
 Symmetry indicates that all points
in a given ring are the same
distance from P

𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅
2𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝑉𝑉 = π𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒 σ � = π𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒 σ � (𝑟𝑟 2 + 𝑥𝑥 2 )−1/2 𝑑𝑑(𝑟𝑟 2 )
0 √𝑟𝑟 2 + 𝑥𝑥 2 0

31 32
 A long, positively charged conducting cylinder
An Infinite Line of Charge (λ - charge
(with charge per unit length λ) of radius R
per unit length)

λ λ λ
𝐄𝐄 = 2𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒 𝐫𝐫� 𝐸𝐸𝑟𝑟 = 2𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒 𝐄𝐄 · 𝑑𝑑𝐬𝐬 = 𝐸𝐸𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐸𝐸𝑟𝑟 = 2𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒 (𝑟𝑟 ≥ 𝑅𝑅 )
𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟
B 𝑟𝑟0
𝑉𝑉B − 𝑉𝑉A = − � 𝐄𝐄 · 𝑑𝑑s = 𝑉𝑉 = 2𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒 λ ln � �
𝑟𝑟
A
B 𝑟𝑟 B
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑟𝑟B  If one chooses r0 to be the radius R, so that
− � 𝐸𝐸𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −2𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒 λ � = −2𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒 λ ln � � V = 0 when r = R, then at any point for
A 𝑟𝑟 A 𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟A
which r > R,
For rA = ∞, VA = ∞ 𝑅𝑅

𝑉𝑉 = 2𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒 λ ln � �
 Let VA = 0 at rA = r0 𝑟𝑟
𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟0
𝑉𝑉 − 0 = −2𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒 λ ln � � → 𝑉𝑉 = 2𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒 λ ln � �  Inside the cylinder, E = 0, and V has the
𝑟𝑟0 𝑟𝑟
same value (zero) as on a cylinder’s surface
 If λ > 0, then V decreases as r increases
 V decreases as one moves in the direction of E
33 34

V for a Uniformly Charged Insulating Sphere V for a Uniformly Charged Insulating Sphere

 A solid sphere of radius R and total

charge Q
 For r > R,

 Choosing point A at ∞,  The curve for VD is for the potential

inside the sphere
 It is parabolic
 Potential must be continuous at r = R,  It joins smoothly with the curve for
 For r < R, VB
 The curve for VB is for the potential
outside the sphere
 It is a hyperbola
35 36
 V Due to a Charged Conductor

 Consider two points on the surface

of the charged conductor as shown
 E is always perpendicular to the
displacement ds
 Therefore, E⋅ds = 0

 Therefore, the potential difference

between A and B is also zero
 V is constant everywhere on the
surface of a charged conductor in
equilibrium
 ΔV = 0 between any two points on
37 38
the surface

E Compared to V: a solid metal conducting sphere of

V Due to a Charged Conductor radius R and total positive charge Q

 The surface of any charged conductor  (a) The excess charge on the
in electrostatic equilibrium is an conducting sphere is
equipotential surface uniformly distributed on its
surface
 Because the electric field is zero inside  (b) Electric potential versus
the conductor, one concludes that the distance r from the center of
electric potential is constant everywhere the charged conducting
inside the conductor and equal to the sphere
value at the surface  (c) Electric field magnitude
versus distance r from the
center of the charged
39 conducting sphere 40
Demo: E-60’

Irregularly Shaped Objects

 Demo: Van der Graaf  The surface charge density, σ, is

high where the radius of curvature
and fluorescent tube is small, and it is low where the
radius of curvature is large
 Because the electric field just
outside the conductor is
proportional to the surface charge
density (E = σ/ε0), the electric field
is large near the convex points
having small radii of curvature and
reaches very high values at sharp
points
41 42

Cavity in a Conductor
Irregularly Shaped Objects

Electric field pattern of a charged  Assume an irregularly shaped cavity

is inside a conductor
conducting plate placed near an
oppositely charged pointed  Assume no charges are inside the
cavity → the electric field inside the
conductor. Small pieces of thread
cavity must be zero regardless of
suspended in oil align with the
the charge distribution on the
electric field lines. The field outside surface of the conductor
surrounding the pointed conductor
 Proof: any two points A and B on
is most intense near the pointed the cavity’s surface must be at the
end and at other places where the same potential → VB − VA = 0
radius of curvature is small.
 But → E=0

43 44
 Cavity in a Conductor Corona Discharge

A cavity surrounded by conducting walls is a  If the electric field near a conductor is

field-free region as long as no charges are inside sufficiently strong (∼ 3 × 106 V/m),
the cavity electrons resulting from random
This phenomenon is used in a Faraday cage, ionizations of air molecules near the
which is a conducting material, either solid or conductor accelerate away from their
mesh, surrounding an interior space
parent molecules
A Faraday cage is used to protect sensitive
electronic equipment and it protects you inside a  These electrons can ionize additional
car during a lightning storm (the metal body of molecules near the conductor
the car acts as a Faraday cage) 45 46

Corona Discharge
 This creates more free electrons  Demo: Pinwheel on Van de Graaff
The corona discharge is the glow that
Films: 17-09 (Van de Graaff and


results from the recombination of these
free electrons with the ionized air Wand), 17-11 (Lightning Rod), 17-12
molecules (Pinwheel), 17-13 (Point and Candle)
 The ionization and corona discharge are
most likely to occur near very sharp
points

47 48
Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment: Determination of e and Demonstration of the Quantized Nature of the Charge
Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment

 (1) A potential difference ∆V is applied

between the plates separated by a distance d,
causing a downward electric field between
 Oil droplets are sprayed from an atomizer above the upper plate them
 Some of them pass through a small hole in the upper plate  The upper plate has a higher potential
 Millikan used x-rays to ionize the air in the chamber so that freed electrons  ∆V is adjusted to a value ∆Vrest at which a
would adhere to the oil drops, giving them a negative charge − q given oil drop is suspended at rest: the
 A horizontally directed light beam illuminates the oil droplets, which are magnitude of the upward electric force equals
viewed through a telescope whose long axis is also horizontal but that of the downward gravitational force
perpendicular to the light beam
 Also visible through the telescope is a calibrated scale that shows the
vertical position of the oil drop at any time
 Millikan’s oil drops were much too small to
49 measure their radii directly 50

Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment

Van de Graaff Generator

 (2) The electric field is cut off → the  Charge is delivered continuously to a high-
gravitational mg force and the drag force FD potential electrode by means of a moving belt
(viscous force = 6πηrv) act on the droplet; of insulating material
when FD = mg, the droplet falls with the  The high-voltage electrode is a hollow metal
terminal speed vT, which is then measured dome mounted on an insulated column
 The belt is charged at point A by means of a
corona discharge
 The positive charge on a moving belt is
 Thus, transferred to the dome by a second comb of
needles at point B
 Because the electric field inside the dome is
 After many experiments, Millikan determined: negligible, the positive charge on the belt is
 q = ne, where n = 1, 2, 3, … easily transferred to the conductor regardless
 e = 1.60 × 10−19 C 51
of its potential 52
 If a person insulated from the ground touches the sphere of a Van de Graaff
generator, her body can be brought to a high electric potential. Her hair
acquires a net positive charge and each strand is repelled by all the others
Van de Graaff Generator
 In practice, it is possible to increase the electric potential of
the dome until electrical discharge occurs through the air

 The “breakdown” electric field in air is 3 × 106 V/m

 A sphere 1.00 m in radius, can be raised to a maximum
potential of
 Van der Graaff generators produce potential differences as
large as 20 million volts
 Protons accelerated through such large potential differences
receive enough energy to initiate nuclear reactions between
themselves and various target nuclei 53 54

Electrostatic Precipitator
Precipitator turned off Precipitator turned on

 An application of electrical discharge in gases is the

electrostatic precipitator
 It removes particulate matter from combustion gases
 The air to be cleaned enters the duct and moves
near the wire
 As the electrons and negative ions created by the
discharge are accelerated toward the outer wall by
the electric field, the dirt particles become charged
by collisions and ion capture
 Most of the dirt particles are negatively charged and
are drawn to the duct walls by the electric field
 When the duct is periodically shaken, the particles
break loose and are collected at the bottom
55 56
 M2-6, 7, 9
 F-28

57