Unit 8: EXTENSIONS AND PROTOTYPES.

A predicate is a word with meaning, and the expression is just the utterance
The word “bird” is a predicate because it carries meaning, and it is used in an expression within a context.

SENSE: Sense refers to the meaning or conceptual understanding of an expression, connotation and associations. It is
about the understanding of the meaning of a word or phrase. It is the meaning or conceptual understanding in our
minds
The sense of a word or expression refers to its meaning or the conceptual understanding of it. This includes its
connotation (the ideas or feelings associated with that word) and the associations made with it. For example, the word
"dog" not only refers to a specific animal but also has a set of characteristics and associations (such as loyalty, pet,
etc.). Sense is more abstract and does not refer to a concrete set of things
The Notions of sense and reference are related to each other in determining the meaning of a linguistic expression.
Referring expressions: a word or phrase used to identify or refer to something or someone. It could be a noun, a
pronoun or a phrase. Ex: “the red car parked on the street belongs to Sarah” referring expression: “the red car”
because it refers to a specific car.
REFERENCE Reference is a relationship between certain uttered expressions and things in the world. It Is about
identifying the actual object or concepts to which that word or phrase refers. The REFERENT of a referring
expression is the thing picked out by the use of that expression on a particular occasion of utterance.

Reference: This is the specific relationship between an expression and a concrete individual in the real world. When
we say that a speaker refers to something, we are talking about a specific object or concept.

The context of the utterance helps the listener identify the specific member being referred to. For example, in the
utterance "The cat’s stolen your pork chop," the referent is the specific cat that performed the action, identified
through the context of the speaker’s household.

The EXTENSION of a predicate is the set of all individuals to which that predicates can be applied. It is the set of
things which can potentially be referred to by using an expression whose main element is that predicate. (Set of all
possible things) Ex: the extension of dog is the set of all dogs in the universe. Every time we say "is a dog," we are
referring to a member of that set. If the predicate "is a cat" has an extension that includes all real and potential cats.

Relationship between Sense, Extension, and Reference (pag 82, COMMENT)

(1) The notions of reference and extension are closely linked and contrasted with the notion of sense. The relationship
between these notions can be understood as follows:

The sense of a predicate provides an understanding of its meaning, which determines the extension of the predicate,
i.e., the set of individuals to which the predicate can be applied.

The main idea is that knowledge of the sense of a predicate (i.e., how we understand the word) gives us an idea of its
extension (i.e., the set of things to which the predicate can be applied). For example, if we know what "cat" means
(sense), we can determine which animals are considered cats (extension). Some semanticists say that the sense “fixes”
the extension, meaning that the sense of a word determines which elements are included in its extension.
(Pag 83) Since clearly one can refer to things which no longer exist and to things which do not yet exist, and since the
notion of the extension of a predicate is defined as a set of potential referents, we are forced to postulate that
extensions are relative to all times, past, present, and future. Thus, the extension of window, for example, includes
all past windows, all present windows, and all future windows. Similarly, the extension of dead includes all things
which have been dead in the past (and presumably still are, if they still exist), which are dead now, and which will be
dead in the future. Predicates are tenseless, i.e. unspecified for past, present, or future.
se debe considerar una extensión que abarque todas las instancias posibles en todos los tiempos.
In actual use, predicates are almost always accompanied in sentences by a marker of tense (past or present) or a future
marker, such as will. These have the effect of restricting the extensions of the predicates they modify, so that, for
example, the extension of the phrase is dead could be said to be the set of all things in the past, or alive in the present.

The ideas of PROTOTYPE and STEREOTYPE are closely related. (pag 87)
A PROTOTYPE of a predicate is a typical member of its extension. It is an example or an object that is considered
very typical or representative of the kind of objects that can be referred to by that predicate. In other words, . A typical
or most representative example of a category.
For instance, a robin is a prototype of a bird.
A man of medium height and average build, between 30 and 50 years old, with brownish hair, with no particularly
distinctive characteristics or defects, could be a prototype of the predicate man in certain areas of the world.
The notion of prototype can be use in any field of study, for example, a prototypical subject, is a noun phrase “the cat
is on the table. A prototype fruit is an apple, a prototype cloth for teens is jeans and trainers.
In children’s books, zoo animals are prototypes. When the teachers teach “parts of the house” they use a prototype
house, according the culture.
The concept of a prototype helps in understanding how we categorize and identify objects. It provides a mental image
or standard that people use to decide whether something belongs to a particular category or not. For example, when
you hear the term "dog," you might think of a Labrador Retriever because it is often seen as a typical example of a
dog.

Contrast with Extension: While the extension of a predicate includes all possible members that the predicate can
apply to (e.g., all birds, all dogs), the prototype is the most typical member of this set. Not all members of the
extension need to match the prototype exactly, but the prototype represents the core characteristics that are most
commonly associated with the predicate.

(pag 89 ) The idea of a prototype is perhaps most useful in explaining how people learn to use (some of) the predicates
in their language correctly. Recent research on the acquisition of categories in human language indicates that the
prototypical members of the extension of a predicate are usually learned earlier than non-prototypical members.
Predicates like man, cat, dog are often first taught to toddlers by pointing out to them typical examples of men, cats,
dogs, etc. A mother may point to a cat and tell her child ‘That’s a cat’, or point to the child’s father and say ‘Daddy’s a
man’. This kind of definition by pointing is called ostensive definition. A child’s first concepts of many concrete
terms are induced by ostensive definition involving a prototype. Obviously, however, not all concepts can be learned
in this way.

However, not all concepts can be learned this way. Some concepts may require more complex information or different
teaching methods. The predicate bottle can be defined ostensively, but electricity o battle cannot. These are abstract
concepts and cannot be physically shown in the same way as a bottle. There is no concrete object you can point to and
say “this is electricity.” Similarly, a battle is an event or process and is not a physical object that can be directly
shown.
Prototypes can be shaped by cultural, contextual, and individual factors. They adapt to the perspectives and
experiences of different people and societies.
Cultural differences can lead to variations in prototypes. For example, what is considered a “prototype” of a given
category may vary across cultures. A typical cat in one culture might not be the same in another, depending on
common characteristics and cultural experiences related to that category. In some cultures, a Persian cat might be the
prototype of a cat, while in others, a street cat might be more representative.
In terms of technology, what is considered a “typical smartphone” can vary, with different features and brands seen as
prototypes in different regions or demographic groups.

Prototypes are flexible and can vary based on cultural, contextual, and individual differences. What one person
considers a typical example of a predicate might differ from another person's perspective.

The context in which a term is used can also affect the prototype. For example, the term “typical food” at a restaurant
might refer to specific national dishes considered prototypical in that context, while in another place, it might refer to
different dishes.

Personal experiences and individual preferences can also influence prototypes. A person who has had a specific
breed of dog for years might consider that breed as the prototype of a “typical dog,” while another person might have
a different perspective based on their own experiences.

(pag 90)
Some predicates which do not have clearly defined extensions (e.g. colour terms like red and blue) do in fact have
clear prototypes. Thus the idea of prototype has at least some advantage over that of extension.
Some predicates, such as colour terms (e.g., "red" and "blue"), do not have clearly defined extensions. This is because
colours can vary in tone, intensity, and perception, making it difficult to establish a precise boundary on what fits into
the category.
Despite the lack of a clearly defined extension, these terms can have clear prototypes. For example, although there is
no precise definition of “red” that covers all possible shades, people commonly consider certain colours as more “red”
than others (such as the red of an apple), and these colours can serve as prototypes.

The idea of a prototype is useful because it allows people to identify and categorize objects based on common and
representative examples, even when the boundaries of the category are not exact. This makes understanding and
communicating about concepts that are difficult to define precisely easier.

Prototype

A prototype is an example that is most representative of a category. It captures the most common or typical features of
that category.

1. Bird:
o Prototype: A robin or a sparrow is often considered a prototype of a bird because they are common,
have typical bird features (like feathers, a beak, and the ability to fly), and are easily recognizable.
2. Vehicle:
o Prototype: A sedan car might be seen as a prototype of a vehicle. It usually has four wheels, seats for
passengers, and an engine, which are common features found in many vehicles.
3. Fruit:
o Prototype: An apple is often considered a prototype of a fruit. It has the typical characteristics of a
fruit: it is edible, has seeds, and grows on trees.
Stereotype

a stereotype implies a simplified and often rigid view of a group or category, based on preconceived ideas and
generalizations.

1. Bird:
o Stereotype: Assuming all birds can fly is a stereotype. While many birds can fly, this is not true for
all birds (e.g., penguins and ostriches cannot fly).

2. Vehicle:
o Stereotype: Believing that all vehicles must have four wheels is a stereotype. While many vehicles do
have four wheels, there are many exceptions, such as motorcycles and bicycles.

3. Fruit:
o Stereotype: Thinking that all fruits are sweet is a stereotype. Many fruits are not sweet, such as
lemons, limes, and tomatoes.

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