Captive Husbandry Manual

for the
Sacred Kingfisher
(Todiramphus sancta)

Claire Gilder

May, 2009

Cover photograph by Ian Montgomery (2004).

 Contents
1.0 Introduction 5

1.1 General features

1.2 History in captivity
1.3 Taxonomy

2.0 Natural History 6

2.1 Morphometrics
2.2 Distribution and habitat
2.3 Conservation status
2.4 Diet and feeding behaviour in the wild
2.5 Longevity

3.0 Housing Requirements 8

3.1 Exhibit design

3.2 Holding area design
3.3 Spatial requirements
3.4 Weather protection
3.5 Position of enclosures
3.6 Temperature requirements
3.7 Substrate
3.8 Enclosure furnishings

4.0 General Husbandry 11

4.1 Hygiene and cleaning

4.2 Pest control
4.3 Record keeping
4.4 Methods of identification
4.5 Sex identification methods

5.0 Feeding Requirements 13

5.1 Captive diet

5.2 Supplements
5.3 Presentation of food

6.0 Handling and Transport 14

6.1 Timing of capture and handling

6.2 Capture bags
6.3 Capture and restraint techniques

2
 6.4 Weighing and examination
6.5 Release
6.6 Transport requirements

7.0 Health Requirements 16

7.1 Daily health checks

7.2 Detailed physical examination
7.3 Routine treatments and vaccinations
7.4 Known health problems
7.5 Quarantine requirements

8.0 Behaviour 20

8.1 Activity
8.2 Social behaviour
8.3 Reproductive behaviour
8.4 Bathing
8.5 Captive behavioural problems and signs of stress
8.6 Behavioural enrichment
8.7 Introductions and removals
8.8 Intraspecific compatibility
8.9 Interspecific compatibility
8.10 Suitability to captivity

9.0 Breeding 22

9.1 Mating System

9.2 Ease of breeding in captivity
9.3 Breeding data
9.4 Nesting/hollow or other requirements
9.5 Breeding diet
9.6 Incubation period
9.7 Clutch Size
9.8 Age at Fledging
9.9 Age at removal from parents
9.10 Growth and development
9.11 Techniques used to control breeding

10.0 Artificial Incubation and Rearing 24

10.1 Benefits of artificial incubation

10.2 Record keeping
10.3 Incubation data
10.4 Housing after hatching
10.5 Diet and feeding routine

3
 10.6 Weaning
10.7 Imprinting
10.8 Cross fostering

Acknowledgements 27

References 28

Appendices 30

4
1.0 Introduction

1.1 General features

Kingfishers are known for their vibrant colours, mainly blues and oranges (Holland,
1999). Other characteristic features of kingfishers include an oversized bill, tubby body
and a short tail. They vary in size from 10g up to 500g and are found all over the world.
Out of the 91 species found worldwide, Australia has 10 species of kingfisher. One of
which is the sacred kingfisher (Todiramphus sancta) (Holland, 1999). Found in temperate
woodland areas, they feed on worms, insects, small crabs, fish and small lizards (Strahan,
1994; Knowles and Nitchen, 1995; Holland, 1999). During winter the sacred kingfisher
migrates northward to north Queensland, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea (Fry, Fry and
Harris, 1992; Knowles and Nitchen, 1995). During the breeding season sacred kingfishers
establish nests in tree hollows or termite mounds (Fry et al, 1992; Strahan, 1994;
Knowles and Nitchen, 1995).

1.2 History in captivity

The sacred kingfisher can be found in various zoos throughout Australasia. This species
was previously managed at level 1b to minimize inbreeding and manage captive
population size. However captive populations are now at acceptable levels and the
species is no longer under population management by ARAZPA (Lekos, pers. comm.;
ARAZPA, 2009). Sacred kingfishers are kept in captivity for educational reasons as it is
one of the most abundant and recognisable species of kingfisher in Australia (Strahan,
1994).

1.3 Taxonomy

1.3.1 Nomenclature

Class: Aves
Order: Coraciiformes
Suborder: Alcedines
Family: Alcedinidae
Subfamily: Halcyonidae
Genus: Todiramphus
Species: Todiramphus sancta
Common name: Sacred Kingfisher
(Knowles and Nitchen, 1995; Holland, 1999; del Hoyo, Elliott and Sargatal, 2001).

1.3.2 Subspecies

Todiramphus sancta sancta – Australian mainland and Tasmania

Todiramphus sancta macimillani – Loyalty islands of Mare, Lifou and Uvea
Todiramphus sancta canacorum – New Caledonia
Todiramphus sancta vagans – New Zealand, Lord Howe Island, and Norfolk Island

5
Todiramphus sancta recurvirostris – Western Samoa
(Fry et al, 1992; Knowles and Nitchen, 1995; del Hoyo et al, 2001).

1.3.3 Other common names

New Zealand Kingfisher, Green Kingfisher, Wood Kingfisher, Tree Kingfisher, Flat
billed kingfisher.
(Strahan, 1994; Knowles and Nitchen, 1995; del Hoyo et al, 2001).

2.0 Natural History

Sacred kingfishers are very common throughout Australia. They therefore are easily
recognisable and are useful animals for educational purposes (Strahan, 1994). Sacred
kingfishers have adapted so well to European settlement that the increase in forest
clearance has actually resulted in an increase in suitable habitat and therefore an increase
in population size (del Hoyo et al, 2001).

Taxonomy for kingfishers has undergone many changes due to recent genetic studies.
Previously sacred kingfishers were part of the genus Halcyon but it is now recognised as
part of a different genus, Todiramphus (Christidis and Boles, 2008). There is also some
confusion over which species are subspecies of the sacred kingfisher and which are full
species. The above listed subspecies are what are currently recognised (del Hoyo et al,
2001). However further changes may need to be made as new genetic evidence comes to
light.

There have been very few studies conducted on the biology of the sacred kingfisher
specifically. However biological similarities exist between kingfishers. Much of the
information presented in this husbandry manual has been taken from individual
observations of keepers who work with this species as well as information presented for
similar species of kingfisher, such as the Micronesian kingfisher (Halcyon cinnamomina
cinnamomina). In particular, further studies need to be conducted on the growth and
development of sacred kingfishers, so as to make available growth and development
charts for future reference.

2.1 Morphometrics

2.1.1 Measurements

Length: 19.0-23.0 cm
Wing: 8.7-9.9 cm
Tail: 5.8-6.5 cm
Bill: 4.1-4.7 cm
Tarsus: 1.3-1.8 cm
Weight: 35-51.5 g
(Strahan, 1994)

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2.1.2 Description

The sacred kingfisher is a medium-sized kingfisher. It has a turquoise crown and back,
while the wings and tail are more blue. The chest, throat and underparts are off white
(buff) with a off white collar forming a ring around the neck (most other subspecies have
pure white chest, throat and underparts). Above this ring is a black collar that rings each
eye and runs around to the nape of the neck. The sacred kingfisher has a black bill, brown
eyes and the legs and feet are dirty brown to black (Fry et al, 1992; Strahan, 1994;
Knowles and Nitchen, 1995; del Hoyo et al, 2001; Simpson and Day, 2004). The female
is generally duller in colour, with a whiter chest and collar and is slightly larger in body
length than the male (Strahan, 1994; Knowles and Nitchen, 1995).

2.2 Distribution and habitat

The sacred kingfisher and its subspecies are found throughout coastal Australia, New
Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and surrounding islands. It is abundant across
much of Australia, although there is only a small population found in Tasmania (Fry et al,
1992; Strahan, 1994; Knowles and Nitchen, 1995; del Hoyo et al, 2001).

Figure 1 Distribution map of the sacred kingfisher (Todiramphus sancta) (Global

biodiversity information facility, n.d.). See appendix 1 for distribution maps throughout
the year as this displays migratory patterns.

The sacred kingfisher is found in open eucalypt and malaleuca forests, near water as well
as in mangroves (Fry et al, 1992; Strahan, 1994). They avoid spinifex, mallee and
saltbush areas and are mainly found in lowlands, although they have been found up to
2500 m. During the winter they migrate northward to northern Queensland and Papua
New Guinea and surrounding islands. During this time they prefer parkland where they
have clear view of food on the ground below (Fry et al, 1992; del Hoyo et al, 2001).

2.3 Conservation status

This species is listed as of Least Concern on the IUCN redlist due to the fact that the
population is not decreasing and may in fact be increasing (del Hoyo et al, 2001; IUCN
Species Survival Commission, 2008). Total estimated population in Australia is

7
60,000,000 birds (del Hoyo et al, 2001). However sacred kingfishers do face competition
from introduced species, such as the common myna (Acridotheres tristis).

2.4 Diet and feeding behaviour in the wild

Sacred kingfishers feed on worms, insects (such as locusts and grasshoppers), small
crabs, fresh water fish, small lizards (such as skinks) and sometimes mice (Fry et al,
1992; Strahan, 1994; Knowles and Nitchen, 1995; Holland, 1999; del Hoyo et al, 2001).
Sacred kingfishers perch, scanning the ground for prey, pouncing down when they see
prey. They have also been known to dive into the water for fish, take food, such as
insects, in the air and hover briefly to catch food in shrubbery (Fry et al, 1992; del Hoyo
et al, 2001).

2.5 Longevity

2.5.1 In captivity

Approximately 7-10 years (Lekos, pers. comm.).

2.5.2 In the wild

Kingfishers may live longer in the wild than in captivity (Bahner, Baltz and Diebold,
1998) due to the fact that overfeeding may occur, decreasing their life span in captivity
(Lekos, pers. comm.).

3.0 Housing Requirements

3.1 Exhibit design

An exhibit in a zoological institution should abide by standards set out in state or national
legislation. Exhibits should provide a safe place for the animal to reside in which the
health and well being of the animal is maintained. Exhibits not only prevent the escape of
the animal but protect the animal for predators, vermin, disease and the weather whilst
also protecting visitors from injury. A good exhibit can also serve to educate the public
about the animal being displayed (Bureau of Animal Welfare, 2001).

Sacred kingfishers can be housed singly, in pairs or in mixed exhibits (providing the
correct species choices) (Lekos, pers. comm.). For this reason sacred kingfishers can be
housed in large walk through exhibits as well as smaller view only exhibits. However
both types of exhibits should be large enough to allow keeper entry into the exhibit for
ease of maintaining hygiene standards (Bureau of Animal Welfare, 2001). Keeper entry
should be through 2 doors to prevent the birds form escaping.

Depending on the size of the enclosure and the number of species being kept in the
enclosure, a separate feed area or areas may be needed that can be closed off to allow for

8
capture of the birds, additional breeding areas or for extra holding areas. This area(s)
should have more than one entrance/exit (that can be closed if necessary) so that the birds
are not trapped when going into feed and can escape out another entrance if being chased
by another bird (Lekos, pers. comm.). See appendix 2 for photos of an example of this
area found at Healesville Sanctuary.

The enclosure can be made of wire mesh, glass or other solid material. Mesh size should
not be larger than 2.5cm and for outdoor enclosures smaller mesh sizes are preferred to
prevent pests entering the exhibit. Kingfishers have been known to attack reflections in
glass so sacred kingfishers kept in this type of enclosure should be monitored. Piano wire
can not be used for this species as kingfishers of this size can escape from this type of
enclosure (Bahner et al, 1998).

3.2 Holding area design

Holding areas do not have to be as large as the exhibit areas. Bahner et al, (1998)
recommends that holding areas be a minimum of 1.2m3. Holding areas should be placed
away from the permanent exhibit so that animals can also be quarantined in this area
(Lekos, pers. comm.). Holding pens should be easily accessible to maintain ease of
cleaning. It is recommended that holding areas have a concrete or other easily cleaned
material as flooring so that these areas can be adequately disinfected after the birds have
been moved to their permanent enclosures (Foresio, pers. comm.). See appendix 3 for
examples of these areas at Melbourne Zoo.

3.3 Spatial requirements

Legislation regarding exhibit sizes does not specifically cover this species of bird,
however it does include minimum exhibit sizes for the kookaburra of 15 m2, with a
minimum height of 3 m, for two animals (Bureau of Animal Welfare, 2001). The
Micronesian kingfisher husbandry manual recommends a minimum enclosure size, for a
breeding pair of kingfishers (of similar size to the sacred kingfisher), of 3m by 2.4m with
a height of 3m (Bahner et al, 1998). However larger sizes are recommended, especially if
both kingfishers are to remain in the enclosure all year round or the kingfishers are to be
kept with other species (Lekos, pers. comm.). It has been seen that kingfishers can get up
to high speeds during flight in large enclosures, resulting in injuries when they hit the
wire mesh. This can be prevented by suitably planting the enclosure so that there are
numerous landing places for the kingfishers. They will then quickly learn the limits of
their enclosure (Lekos, pers. comm.).

3.4 Weather protection

If the exhibit is planted correctly, sacred kingfishers do not need a covered up area to
escape the weather (if the zoological institution displaying them is found in a similar
environment to their natural habitat, such as zoos in Melbourne or Sydney). However the
feed area should have a roof covering, such as plastic so that the food trays do not
become overly wet. Shade cloths can also be used over parts of the enclosure to increase

9
shaded areas (Lekos, pers. comm.). If an overseas institution, that is found in very cold
areas, such as in parts of North America, is looking at displaying sacred kingfishers, the
exhibit should be built to include a covered, heated area (Foresio, pers. comm.). For
temperature needs within the enclosure see temperature requirements below.

3.5 Position of enclosures

Sacred kingfishers can be kept in open wire mesh aviaries and therefore no particular
position is required for this exhibit as long as the exhibit is adequately planted to provide
cover for the kingfishers.

3.6 Temperature requirements

The sacred kingfisher is found throughout Australia, New Zealand and Papua New
Guinea. Most migrate north during the winter months. Average temperatures throughout
Australia during the summer period (November – March) are around 25°C (Bureau of
Meteorology, 2009). While the average temperature in Papua New Guinea during the
winter months (May – September) is 30°C (World Meteorological Association, 2009).
Therefore similar temperatures are required in the enclosure. See appendix 4 for monthly
temperature charts for both Melbourne, Australia and Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea.

3.7 Substrate

Bahner et al, (1998) recommends a substrate that can easily be cleaned and disinfected
such as concrete covered with bark mulch or wood chip shavings. Most enclosures
however, use a soil substrate covered with back mulch (Bahner et al, 1998). The choice
of substrate depends largely on the type of enclosure being built. For instance a walk
through enclosure has to be built to incorporate aesthetic appeal and a soil substrate
would be much better suited to this type of enclosure. However if the enclosure is small,
or is not subject to public scrutiny, such as a holding area, other easier to clean substrates
can be used. The choice of substrate may also depend on whether breeding is a priority as
some sacred kingfishers may choose to burrow into the ground (as opposed to using tree
hollows or nest boxes). If the institution is wanting to breed sacred kingfishers, allowing
them their choice of nesting material is the best way to maximize the chances of a
successful pairing (Lekos, pers. comm.).

3.8 Enclosure furnishings

The enclosure for the sacred kingfishers should be adequately planted to provide shelter,
perches, and tree hollows for nesting. Hollow logs, rocks and smaller plants may also be
included in the enclosure, not only for aesthetic appeal but to also give the kingfishers
some cover if they decide to burrow into the soil substrate. Nest boxes can also be
provided to give the kingfishers choice of nest site. A pond should also be included in the
enclosure as the kingfishers need a water source, not only for drinking but for bathing.
This pond should have a drain at the bottom to allow for cleaning and an overflow drain
in case the area is subject to heavy rainfall (Lekos, pers. comm.).

10
4.0 General Husbandry

4.1 Hygiene and cleaning

Most aviaries found in zoological institutions have a soil substrate, limiting the ability to
clean and disinfect adequately. However, if food areas are hosed everyday, food bowls
kept clean and pest free, and soil areas, plants and perches are hosed regularly to remove
bird excretions, enclosures should stay relatively clean and disease free (Foresio, pers.
comm.).

Water sources in these enclosures should always be constantly flowing to prevent

stagnation. However, small ponds can be cleaned out regularly, for example once or
twice a week. If need be, chlorine can be used to aid in cleaning ponds. Large water
sources cannot be cleaned out in this manner and therefore should only be done once per
year. This is mainly to minimize water wastage, but in mixed exhibits specific species of
birds may require the food that can be found on the bottom of such ponds (Foresio, pers.
comm.).

Nest boxes should be removed from the exhibit after the breeding season and cleaned and
disinfected with a veterinary disinfectant, such as F10 SC. Nest boxes should only be
replaced at the beginning of the breeding season. During the breeding season nesting
material should not be removed as it may disturb the breeding pair (Foresio, pers.
comm.).

In quarantine and hospital areas that have concrete floors, disinfecting should be carried
out more regularly. Again the disinfectant that should be used is F10 SC (which can be
bought from various distributors). Floors should be cleaned daily with F10 SC and cages
can be disinfected with F10 SC once an animal has been permanently moved from the
cage, for example, once the quarantine period is over (Foresio, pers. comm.).

4.2 Pest control

Pests such as rats and mice can carry diseases, get into food sources and disrupt
kingfisher nests (Bahner et al, 1998). Food trays should be placed in rat/mice proof areas
and if possible outdoor enclosures should have wire small enough to prevent access by
rats and mice (Bahner et al, 1998; Foresio, pers. comm.). This will also prevent larger
predators, such as foxes, from accessing the enclosure (Bahner et al, 1998). Poisoning
and trapping of rats and mice should be handled with care to avoid accidental
poisoning/trapping of the birds (Bahner et al, 1998).

4.3 Record keeping

Records should be kept on:

- date of birth
- sex
- tag number

11
- births
- deaths
- transfers
- internal movements
- captures
- physical condition
-weight
-body condition
- medical notes
-veterinary treatments
-veterinary diagnosis
-veterinary procedures
- diet and feeding
- behaviours
-reproductive behaviours
-social behaviours
- breeding
-matings
-clutch size
-chicks hatched

All records should be kept on ARKS which should be updated regularly by the records
officer at the zoo (Foresio, pers. comm.).

4.4 Methods of identification

Birds in zoological institutions can be banded for identification purposes. The band size
and type recommended for the sacred kingfisher by the Australian Bird and Bat Banding
Scheme is a size 05 alloy band (internal diameter: 4mm; height: 5.5mm; gauge: 0.5mm).
Alloy bands are light weight and durable and are estimated to last 15 years (Australian
Bird and Bat Banding Scheme, 2000).

4.5 Sex identification methods

The sacred kingfisher is sexually dimorphic. The male has buff chest and collar while the
female is whiter in these areas. The male has a turquoise crown and back, with blue
wings and tail, while in the female these colours are duller. The female is also slightly
larger than the male. Juvenile sacred kingfishers are similar in colour to the adults of each
sex but the female has dark brown on collar and underparts while the male has a bright
light blue rump (Strahan, 1994; Knowles and Nitchen, 1995). However as these
differences are slight it is possible to genetically assess the sex of the bird. This can be
done by plucking a couple of feathers from the kingfisher and sending it to a laboratory
for testing (Foresio, pers. comm.).

12
5.0 Feeding Requirements

5.1 Captive diet

5.1.1 Non breeding season

- Daily diet at Healesville Sanctuary, Victoria:

20g Meat mix (see appendix 5 for details of how to make the meat mix).
2g meal worms.
1 or 2 small goldfish (live).

Mice (fuzzy or pinky) can be fed in addition to the above diet as necessary.
(Lekos, pers. comm.).

- Daily diet at Melbourne Zoo, Victoria:

10g Meat mix (includes chicken mince).

1 or 2 pinky mice/ chopped mice
6 meal worms
3 or 4 crickets
(Foresio, pers. comm.).

Both the above diets meet the nutritional requirements of sacred kingfishers (Foresio,
pers. comm.; Lekos, pers. comm.). Differences in diet are due entirely to the fact that the
kingfishers are at different institutions with different keeper and veterinary staff.
However, Healesville Sanctuary have a breeding pair of sacred kingfishers while
Melbourne Zoo only has one sacred kingfisher. This may influence diet choices at these
institutions.

5.1.2 Breeding season

- Daily diet at Healesville Sanctuary, Victoria:

20g Meat mix

5g meal worms.
1 or 2 small goldfish (live).

Mice (fuzzy or pinky) can be fed in addition to the above diet as necessary
(Lekos, pers. comm.).

5.2 Supplements

A calcium supplement can be added as a powder to the food or mealworms and crickets
can be gut-loaded with calcium (so exact amount ingested can be calculated from amount
of mealworms/crickets ingested). Calcium is especially important during the breeding

13
season. Other vitamin supplements can be added to the meat mix such as vitamin E, to
prevent such problems as myocardial degeneration (Bahner et al, 1998; Foresio, pers.
comm.).

5.3 Presentation of food

Food can be presented in a number of ways. Main feedings are usually fed on trays in
feed areas. A scatter feed can also be used daily in the mornings. This allows for the
keepers to note any health problems as the birds come down to feed. This type of feeding
also has the added advantage of providing behavioural enrichment as the sacred
kingfishers would naturally take prey off the forest floor. Live fish are fed in a shallow
bowl of water as opposed to being placed in the pond in the exhibit where they may go
uncaught (Lekos, pers. comm.).

6.0 Handling and Transport

6.1 Timing of capture and handling

The birds should be caught directly after feeding as feed areas can be closed off to allow
for easier netting. Once the kingfisher has come into the feed area to feed, doors can be
closed and the kingfisher can easily be netted and placed in a capture bag (Foresio, pers.
comm.; Lekos, pers. comm.). See appendix 6 for photos of the types of nets used and
appendix 7 for contact details of the net manufacturer. Some birds after being caught
once may take longer to return to the feed area if they think they are going to be caught
again. Therefore it may take up to several weeks before a capture can take place (Foresio,
pers. comm.)

6.2 Capture bags

These bags are made from calico and are used for short distance transportation of birds
(Lekos, pers. comm.). The bags do not need to be very large but there needs to be enough
room for the bird to be placed into or removed safely from the bag without injury.

6.3 Capture and restraint techniques

6.3.1 Physical restraint

As sacred kingfishers are not very large, they can easily be restrained using one hand.
The forefinger and middle finger should be place either side of the head while the other
figures and thumb lightly wrap around the body to restrain the feet (Greco, n.d.). If need
be a small towel can be placed over the head to reduce stress (Bahner et al, 1998).

14
Figure 2 Physical restraint technique for small birds (Greco, n.d.).

6.3.2 Chemical restraint

Darting or other means of chemical restraint is not needed in a bird this size (Foresio,
pers. comm.).

6.3.3 Precautions to take during capture

When netting a kingfisher, caution should be taken to prevent missing the bird and hitting
it with the side of the net. Netting should be fast and accurate to prevent stress and injury
to the bird from flying into the wire to escape (Lekos, pers. comm.). Precautions should
also be taken to prevent stress to the kingfisher while restrained, such as placing a towel
over the kingfishers head (Bahner et al, 1998).

6.4 Weighing and examination

Kingfishers can be weighed by placing them in a capture bag on a set of scales (Foresio,
pers. comm.). Kingfishers should not be weighed more than twice and year and then only
if necessary, and never during the breeding season (Bahner et al, 1998).

6.5 Release

The kingfisher should be released in the morning so that it has enough hours of light to
adjust to the enclosure and to relax after the stress of being caught (Foresio, pers.
comm.).

6.6 Transport requirements

6.6.1 Box Design

Please see appendix 8 for photos of a transport box designed and made at Healesville
Sanctuary. The box is approximately half a metre in length, and approximately 25-30cm
high and 15-20cm wide. The box is made of plywood with wire mesh on both sides that
can be covered by a sliding piece of plywood containing air holes to reduce stress during
longer trips. The box can be split into two compartments, and includes a door at each end

15
that slides off to reveal a rubber door that allows the captured bird to placed inside the
box, easily, without escape (Lekos, pers. comm.). The ceiling of the transport box may
also need to have a soft covering for long trips, such as foam rubber (Bahner et al, 1998).

6.6.2 Furnishings

Straw can be placed on the ground of the transport box for insulation. A perch may also
be placed inside the box (Bahner et al, 1998).

6.6.3 Water and food

Spill proof water dishes and meal worms can be placed inside the box for extended trips
(Lekos, pers. comm.).

6.6.4 Animals per box

Two birds can be placed inside the box provided the box is separated into two
compartments. The box is unable to hold more than two birds (Lekos, pers. comm.).

6.6.5 Timing of transportation

Animals should be transported only when the whether is moderate. They should not be
transported during very hot or very cold days (Bahner et al, 1998).

6.6.6 Release from box

The kingfishers should be pulled out head first (the same way it should be placed into the
box) so as not to ruffle or destroy any feathers (Lekos, pers. comm.).

7.0 Health Requirements

7.1 Daily health checks

Daily health checks are undertaken by using a scatter feed to entice the birds down to the
ground where observations such a general appearance, feather structure and flight
patterns can be made. Behavioural changes should also be noted during the day, such as
increased displays of aggression towards other birds. Appearance of faecal matter can
also be noted, however this would be impossible to accomplish in a mixed species exhibit
(Lekos, pers. comm.).

7.2 Detailed physical examination

If a detailed physical examination is needed due to injury or ill health a gas anaethetic
(isoflurane) should be used to anaesthetise kingfishers as the depth of anaesthesia can
easily be controlled. Induction and recovery times are also fast when using this technique.

16
A mask can be held over the kingfisher while restrained during short procedures.
However longer procedures may require the kingfisher to be intubated and attached to a
nonrebreathing circuit (Bahner et al, 1998).

7.2.1 Parameters used gauge the health of the species

These would include feather colour, feather loss, amount of food consumption, perching
ability and flight ability. In addition physiological parameters for the Micronesian
kingfisher have been collated which may be referenced until data for the sacred
kingfisher becomes available (Bahner et al, 1998). See appendix 9 for this data.

7.3 Routine treatments and vaccinations

There are no routine treatments or vaccinations. However when new birds are bought into
a zoological institution and placed in quarantine they are routinely tested or observed for
signs of internal parasites (worms), various species of mycobacteria, and chlamydiosis
(Foresio, pers. comm.).

7.4 Known health problems

7.4.1 Avian mycobacteriosis

Avian mycobacteriosis is a contagious disease which is shed in the faeces of infected

birds. Disease spreads when other birds either ingest or inhale the mycobacteria (Bahner
et al, 1998; Witte, Hungerford, Papendick, Stalis and Rideout, 2008). Incubation periods
very between species of birds and some birds once exposed do not develop an active
infection (Bahner et al, 1998).

Cause: This diseased is mainly caused by four species of mycobacteria: Mycobacterium

avium, Mycobacterium intracellulare, Mycobacterium genavense and Mycobacterium
simiae (Shivaprasad, 2002; Travis, Junge and Terrell, 2007; Witte et al, 2008).

Signs: This disease is hard to diagnose pre-mortem and clinical signs that do appear only
do so after the disease is well established in the individual. Clinical signs include
lethargy, loss of feather condition, weight loss, anaemia and decreased egg production
(Bahner et al, 1998; Shivaprasad, 2002).

Diagnosis: Is usually accomplished post-mortem when characteristic intestinal and

respiratory lesions can be seen and tissue cultures can be used to confirm the presence of
the disease (Witte et al, 2008). However, cultures of faeces may provide diagnosis
(Bahner et al, 1998).

Treatment: There is no treatment for avian mycobacteriosis and often euthanasia is the
only acceptable solution (Bahner et al, 1998; Witte et al, 2008).

17
Prevention: To prevent the spread of the disease, infected individuals should be removed
from the population and either euthanized or placed in quarantine. The enclosure should
then be disinfected with a disinfectant such as F10 SC and soil substrate and perches
removed (Bahner et al, 1998; Foresio, pers. comm.).

7.4.2 Chlamydiosis

Chlamydiosis is a common disease found in many species of birds and is spread through
the inhalation of infected faecal or feather dust (Bahner et al, 1998; Association of avian
veterinarians, 2008). This disease can be transferred to humans (although rarely) and
precautions need to be taken around suspected cases of chlamydiosis (Association of
Avian Veterinarians, 2008).

Cause: This disease is caused by the bacteria Chlamydia psittaci (Bahner et al, 1998;
Shivaprasad, 2002; Association of Avian Veterinarians, 2008).

Signs: Clinical signs include respiratory and intestinal disease, laboured breathing, nasal
discharge, diarrhoea, excessive urination, weight loss, loss of appetite and lethargy
(Bahner et al, 1998; Shivaprasad, 2002; Association of Avian Veterinarians, 2008).

Diagnosis: This is usually accomplished using cultures and serological tests such as
ELISA or latex agglutination (Bahner et al, 1998; Association of Avian Veterinarians,
2008). Post-mortem diagnosis usually involves identifying lesions in various organs as
well as observing characteristic LCL bodies (Bahner et al, 1998).

Treatment: Involves quarantining the infected kingfisher and long term treatment with
tetracycline, which has been used to good effect in other bird species (Bahner et al,
1998). Further research needs to be done on the effects of this disease and its treatment in
kingfishers.

Prevention: Good hygiene practices and adequate quarantine measures usually reduces
the spread of this disease (Association of Avian Veterinarians, 2008).

7.4.3 Parasites

This includes both nematodes and protozoa that infect various species of birds and are
found in the gastrointestinal tract of bird species (Bahner et al, 1998; Shivaprasad, 2002).

Cause: Species is usually host specific but some genera that may be found in kingfishers
include Ascaridia, Capillaria (nematodes) or Giardia (protozoa) (Bahner et al, 1998;
Shivaprasad, 2002).

Signs: Weight loss is one of the few clinical signs to indicate the presence of worms in
the gastrointestinal tract (Shivaprasad, 2002).

18
Diagnosis: Can be diagnosed by taking a faecal sample for laboratory testing using
cultures (Foresio, pers. comm.; Lekos, pers. comm.).

Treatment: The main anthelmentic used is ivermectin (one dose injected at 0.2mg/kg;
repeated after two weeks) but this would depend on the type of worm present in the
kingfisher (Bahner et al, 1998).

Prevention: Good hygiene practices and adequate quarantine measures usually reduces
the spread of this disease (Foresio, pers. comm.; Lekos, pers. comm.).

7.4.4 Metabolic disease: Hemochromatosis

This is the clinical disease. Accumulation of iron in the liver is not that uncommon and
rarely results in the clinical disease (i.e. liver disease) presenting but does indicate an
underlying problem (Bahner et al, 1998).

Cause: Excessive deposition of iron into the liver resulting in liver disease. May be the
result of genetics or more likely an excess of iron in the diet (Bahner et al, 1998;
Shivaprasad, 2002).

Signs: Hepatic degeneration, fibrosis and myocardial degeneration (Shivaprasad, 2002).

Diagnosis: Can be diagnosed pre-mortem using a liver biopsy but is most likely
diagnosed post-mortem (Bahner et al, 1998).

Treatment: No treatment

Prevention: Reduce dietary intake of iron (Bahner et al, 1998).

7.4.5 Obesity

Captive kingfishers have been known to suffer from obesity due to a diet too rich in fat
and protein. Obesity reduces breeding potential and life span. Therefore monitoring of the
diet and half yearly weighing of birds to monitor weight gain will reduce obesity in
captive birds (Bahner et al, 1998; Lekos, pers. comm.).

7.4.6 Other injuries

Sacred kingfishers are often bought into zoological institutions with injuries related to
hitting windows, cars etc. This usually occurs during the migratory season. Injured birds
should be placed in a warm, dry, dark place to recover (please see appendix 10 for photos
of the recovery boxes at Melbourne Zoo). If injuries are not too severe the birds may be
able to be released back into the wild once recovery is complete (Foresio, pers. comm.).

19
7.5 Quarantine requirements

All birds when they come into a new institution (no matter where they have come from)
should be quarantined for a minimum of 30 days. During this time observations are made
about health and tests are carried out for mycobacteriosis, chlamydiosis and parasites.
Any treatment required is given during this period. After the 30 day period, if the bird is
healthy, it can be moved to its new enclosure (Foresio, pers. comm.; Lekos, pers. comm.).

8.0 Behaviour

8.1 Activity

Sacred kingfishers are diurnal and crepuscular (Strahan, 1994). They prefer to forage
during the day when prey are easier to see (del Hoyo et al, 2001). They are quiet, solitary
birds during the non breeding season, only pairing up when the breeding season begins
(Strahan, 1994). During the non breeding season sacred kingfishers spend the day
searching for food, bathing, or sitting perched high up in the trees. At night they roost in
trees or shrubs in their territory (Strahan, 1994; del Hoyo et al, 2001). During the winter
months (usually beginning in March) sacred kingfishers migrate northward to northern
Australia, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. Sacred kingfishers migrate directly north at
night (Fry et al, 1992). Flying swiftly, young kingfishers and frequently killed by
collisions with windows (Strahan, 1994).

8.2 Social behaviour

Sacred kingfishers are solitary except during the breeding season (Strahan, 1994). When
the breeding season begins, the amount of vocalisations heard increases dramatically. The
kingfisher has several vocal calls: the territorial “staccato call” (kek kek kek), mainly
given by the male kingfisher; an “ascending role” given when approaching a mate; a
“shriek” which is heard mainly from the female to attract attention; an “attack screech”
when attacking predators; and a “predation scream” heard when the kingfisher is caught
by a predator (del Hoyo et al, 2001). The male territorial “staccato call” is also used to let
unattached females know that he is looking for a mate. Once the mate appears this call is
often heard interspersed with the female “shriek” (Hollands, 1999). Sacred kingfishers
are aggressively territorial during the breeding season, often attacking other birds and
animals in their territory. When attacking another bird or animal they utter the “attack
screech” and dive at the animal, striking it with its bill (del Hoyo et al, 2001).

8.3 Reproductive behaviour

The breeding season begins in September and can finish as late as March. Courtship
displays by sacred kingfishers often involve loud vocalisations by the male to attract a
mate. Afterwards the male is seen chasing the female around is territory (Lekos, pers.
comm.). Courtship feeding is also undertaken by the male who feeds the female,
strengthening the pair bond (del Hoyo et al, 2001; Lekos, pers. comm.). Pairs of sacred

20
kingfishers then undertake the task of finding a suitable nest site. Nest choice depends on
what is available within their territory. Nests have been found in hollow trees, termite
mounds, or burrows in the ground. Sacred kingfishers excavate nests in these places,
often having to fly repeatedly at the surface of the tree or termite mound and hitting it
with force (Hollands, 1999; del Hoyo et al, 2001).

8.4 Bathing

Sacred kingfishers, like many other species of kingfisher, bathe by diving into and out of
the water. Afterwards they perch on a branch and preen themselves. Kingfishers can
spend up to several hours a day preening (del Hoyo et al, 2001).

8.5 Captive behavioural problems and signs of stress

In captivity sacred kingfishers can get easily spooked when approached, so care has to be
taken when moving through the enclosure (Lekos, pers. comm.). Signs of stress might
include not eating, breeding or bathing.

8.6 Behavioural enrichment

Behavioural enrichment for this species mostly includes food enrichment activities such a
scattering the food around the enclosure or feeding live food that must be caught (Lekos,
pers. comm.).

8.7 Introductions and removals

When introducing a pair of sacred kingfishers, the process should begin with the
monitoring of interactions between the two kingfishers while in adjacent cages. This is
due to the fact that sacred kingfishers display intraspecies aggression in the wild and
therefore this step should continue for a minimum of 2 weeks (Bahner et al, 1998; del
Hoyo et al, 2001; Lekos, pers. comm.). During this time aggressive behaviours,
vocalisations, and perch preferences should be noted (Bahner et al, 1998). After this, if
behaviours toward each other are acceptable, the kingfishers should be placed in a neutral
enclosure and monitored (Bahner et al, 1998). If this is not possible the resident
kingfisher should be removed from the enclosure and the new kingfisher allowed time to
settle into the enclosure before the resident kingfisher is replaced (Lekos, pers. comm.).
Interactions between the sacred kingfishers should be continuously monitored for
aggression once placed together.

8.8 Intraspecific compatibility

Sacred kingfishers are aggressively territorial, especially during the breeding season,
towards other sacred kingfishers (except their mate) and so in captivity should be housed
singly or in mating pairs (del Hoyo et al, 2001; Lekos, pers. comm.). Once the young
from any mating has reached independence, they should be removed from the enclosure
so as to prevent aggressive encounters (Lekos, pers. comm.).

21
8.9 Interspecific compatibility

Sacred kingfishers are aggressively territorial, especially during the breeding season,
towards other species of birds (del Hoyo et al, 2001). However sacred kingfishers have
successfully been housed with other species at various institutions including Healesville
Sanctuary and Melbourne Zoo. This is due to the fact the exhibits are large walk through
enclosures with enough space for all species, preventing aggressive encounters (Lekos,
pers. comm.). Most of the species found in these enclosures are larger than the sacred
kingfisher, such as the gang gang cockatoo (Callocephalon fimbriatum), and the satin
bowerbird (Ptilonorhynchus violaceus), however smaller species such as finches are also
housed in the exhibit at Healesville Sanctuary and there is some evidence to suggest the
sacred kingfishers have resulted in the death of a number of these smaller birds, due to
head injuries (Lekos, pers. comm.). Therefore, although sacred kingfishers can be
housed with other species of birds, it is not recommended that significantly smaller
species of birds be housed with the sacred kingfisher.

8.10 Suitability to captivity

Sacred kingfishers have been housed successfully in captivity for a number of years, and
given the right environment can thrive and reproduce in captivity (Lekos, pers. comm.).
These kingfishers do not need an especially large enclosure and can be housed singly, in
breeding pairs or in multi-species exhibits. Feeding requirements are relatively normal
and disease susceptibility is low. Sacred kingfishers are striking birds because of their
colouring and are easily recognisable to the public making them an excellent educational
species.

9.0 Breeding

9.1 Mating System

Monogamous: pairs remain together for breeding season, separating during the non
breeding season (Strahan, 1994, del Hoyo et al, 2001), although pairs can live
continuously together throughout the year in captivity given an appropriately sized
enclosure (Lekos, pers. comm.).

9.2 Ease of breeding in captivity

Given an adequate sized enclosure, the right pairing, a number of suitable nest sites to
choose from, and a suitable diet, sacred kingfishers breed relatively easy in captivity. At
Healesville Sanctuary the sacred kingfisher pair even double clutched during the last
breeding season (2008-2009) (Lekos, pers. comm.). An increase in food availability is the
key to how well kingfishers will breed in captivity (Kelly and Van Horne, 1997).

22
9.3 Breeding data

9.3.1 Timing of breeding

Sacred kingfishers are seasonal breeders with breeding occurring during the months of
September through to March (mainly October to January) (del Hoyo et al, 2001).

9.3.2 Age at first and last breeding

It is thought sacred kingfishers reach sexual maturity at one year of age (del Hoyo et al,
2001). Kingfishers can continue breeding throughout their lives (the female sacred
kingfisher at Healesville Sanctuary is seven years old, while the male is nine years old)
(Lekos, pers. comm.). However peak fecundity for the Micronesian kingfisher is between
2 and 5 years and this may be similar for the sacred kingfisher (Bahner et al, 1998).

9.3.3 Ability to breed every year and more than once in a year

Sacred kingfishers are able to breed every year and can raise up to two clutches per
season (del Hoyo et al, 2001).

9.4 Nesting/hollow or other requirements

Sacred kingfishers create their nest in a variety of mediums, including tree hollows,
termite mounds and burrows in the ground (del Hoyo et al, 2001). Therefore a number of
nesting options should be provided in the enclosure. For example, logs, trees (of an
appropriate species) and nest boxes could be provided to give the sacred kingfishers some
choice on where to nest.

9.5 Breeding diet

-Diet at Healesville Sanctuary, Victoria:

20g Meat mix

5g meal worms.
1 or 2 small goldfish (live).

Mice (fuzzy or pinky) can be fed in addition to the above diet as necessary
(Lekos, pers. comm.).

The difference between this diet and the non breeding season diet is the amount of meal
worms given. More meal worms are given during this period as they are very high in
protein (Lekos, pers. comm.).

9.6 Incubation period

Incubation takes 16-18 days (Strahan, 1994; del Hoyo et al, 2001; Lekos, pers. comm.).

23
9.7 Clutch Size

Average clutch size for sacred kingfishers is 4-6 eggs with a hatching success of 77-85%.
(del Hoyo et al, 2001; Lekos, pers. comm.). Eggs are glossy white and nearly spherical.
Size: 26 by 22 mm (Strahan, 1994).

9.8 Age at Fledging

Nestling period is 24-29 days: young are fed every 20 minutes in the first week and then
every 10 minutes. Young are fed by both parents. Age at fledging is between 24 and 29
days. The fledging success rate is 68% (del Hoyo et al, 2001; Lekos, pers. comm.).

9.9 Age at removal from parents

The chicks become independent from the parents at approximately 8 weeks of age and
will need to be removed from the enclosure shortly after independence is reached to
prevent aggression between the parents and the young (Lekos, pers. comm.).

9.10 Growth and development

No growth and development charts have been developed for this species. However
growth and development charts have been developed for the Micronesian kingfisher
(Bahner et al, 1998). This species has a similar fledging age and therefore if need be these
growth and development charts may be referred to until ones for the sacred kingfisher
have been developed. Please see appendix 11 for these charts.

9.11 Techniques used to control breeding

To prevent breeding from occurring the easiest way is to separate the pair of kingfishers.
As kingfishers are solitary when not breeding there should be no effect on their welfare in
captivity (Strahan, 1994, del Hoyo et al, 2001). Another way to control breeding would
be to remove the eggs from the nest, however this may either upset the pair of kingfishers
so that behavioural problems may begin to be seen, or may induce the pair to clutch
again.

10.0 Artificial Incubation and Rearing

10.1 Benefits of artificial incubation

Artificial incubation can be useful when the parents abandon the eggs (due to a variety of
reasons) or the eggs need to be pulled to induce the breeding pair to clutch again (Gauge
and Duerr, 2007). This would only be done if the species being cared for was an
endangered or threatened species under a population management plan. At this point in
time sacred kingfishers are not threatened and therefore none have been hand-reared in
captivity to date. This section is therefore only a guide to general kingfisher artificial

24
incubation and hand-rearing protocols as there is no specific information for the sacred
kingfisher.

10.2 Record keeping

Detailed records need to be kept in order for the process to be repeated, if successful.
Records should be kept on the following:
-location of institution
-identification of eggs/chicks
-genetic history, i.e. their parents
-age of eggs/chicks when removed
-reason for removal
-condition of egg/chick at time of removal
-diets, feeding schedules, target feeding amounts, actual feeding amounts
-weight gain/loss
-incubation temperatures and humidity
-brooder temperatures
-general appearance and behaviour
(Gauge and Duerr, 2007).

10.3 Incubation data

10.3.1 Incubation temperatures and humidity

The incubator should be kept at a temperature of 37.5°C and the relative humidity should
start at 50-66%. The relative humidity can be adjusted according to the egg’s weight loss.
If the eggs are not losing enough weight the humidity should be lowered while if the eggs
are losing too much weight the humidity can be increased. This can be done by changing
the surface area of water found in the incubator. Relative humidity should be changed
slowly, not all at once, and should not be increased or decreased by more than 10% each
week (Gauge and Duerr, 2007).

10.3.2 Desired percent egg mass loss

In kingfishers the desired percent egg mass loss is 10-14%. Eggs are weighed two times a
week and the equation to calculate percent egg mass loss is: (((S-E)/D) x I)/S where S=
set weight; E= end weight; D= number of days incubated since set weight; I= incubation
period (Gauge and Duerr, 2007).

10.3.3 Hatching temperatures and humidity

Eggs should be removed from the incubator three days before hatching and placed into
hatchers where temperatures are set at 0.3-0.6°C lower than the incubator and relative
humidity is set at 63-73% (Gauge and Duerr, 2007).

25
10.3.4 Normal pip to hatch interval

The pip to hatch interval is between 12 and 71 hours (Bahner et al, 1998).

10.4 Housing after hatching

10.4.1 Brooder types/description

Chicks are housed in electronic acrylic brooders. Chicks are placed in plastic bowls (nest
cup) lined with paper towel, tissue paper and vinyl mats to prevent the chicks from
slipping. Brooders should be covered to simulate a nest cavity and reduce stress to the
chicks (Gauge and Duerr, 2007). Paper should be changed daily. Chicks should not be
housed in the same nest cup as aggression between siblings may occur (Bahner et al,
1998)

10.4.2 Brooder temperatures and humidity

The brooder temperature begins at 34.4-35.6°C and is reduced daily by 0.3-0.6°C, while
the brooder humidity is kept at 50-59% for 10 days.

10.5 Diet and feeding routine

Diets for newly hatched chicks should be high in protein but avoid insects that may create
indigestible chitin. Neonate mice, 3 week old crickets and white molted mealworms are
all high in protein. Food should be cut up small to begin with and pieces should become
larger as the kingfisher grows. Adult foods should be incorporated slowly in to the diet as
the chick grows to ensure that the kingfisher will eat a well balanced diet after weaning.
Calcium and other vitamin supplements can also be added to the food to ensure
nutritional requirements during growth and development are met (Gauge and Duerr,
2007).

In the beginning chicks should be fed between 6 and 8 times a day, every 1 and a half -2
hours, and should be fed approximately 20% of their body weight. This should increase
to approximately 50% of their body weight in the first week after hatching. This amount
can then be reduced slowly as the chick reaches weaning age (Bahner et al, 1998; Gauge
and Duerr, 2007).

Chicks should be weighed daily before feeding and comparisons about weight gain
should be made with known growth charts (in this case, comparisons can be made with
the Micronesian kingfisher growth chart (appendix 7)) (Bahner et al, 1998; Gauge and
Duerr, 2007).

26
10.6 Weaning

Weaning begins when the chick can pick up food on its own and starts to refuse hand
feeding and is complete when the chick does not need prompting to start feeding and
refuses any had feeding (Gauge and Duerr, 2007).
10.7 Imprinting

This can be prevented by the use of puppets that look like parent birds that cover the
hand. Sheets can be used to cover the body of the keeper while feeding (Bahner et al,
1998; Gauge and Duerr, 2007).

10.8 Cross fostering

It is unknown at this stage whether this species could be used as a foster species for
chicks of another species. However, it may be possible even though the species is known
for its aggression. Previously other aggressive species (such as the Yellow-tufted
honeyeater) have been used for cross fostering without problems (Underwood, pers.
comm.). Therefore more research needs to be completed on this subject to make a
definitive judgment.

Acknowledgments

I would especially like to thank both Chris Lekos at Healesville Sanctuary and Ange
Foresio at Melbourne Zoo for letting me talk their ears off! Without their help I would
have been unable to complete this husbandry manual as there is very little information
available for the sacred kingfisher. I hope this manual rectifies this situation. Thank you
again to both of you. I would also like to thank Margaret Watson at Charles Sturt
University and Geoff Underwood at Australasian Zoo keeping for their valuable insights
in editing this manual.

27
 References

ARAZPA. (2009). ASMP regional census and plan: Aves. Retrieved May 8, 2009, from
http://www.arazpa.org.au/ASMP-Census-and-Plan/default.aspx

Association of Avian Veterinarians. (2008). Chlamydiosis in birds [Brochure]. Retrieved

May 8, 2009, from www.nasphv.org/Documents/ChlamydiosisInBirds.pdf

Australian Bird and Bat Banding Scheme. (2000). Recommended band size list. Canberra,
Australia: Environment Australia.

Bahner, B., Baltz, A., and Diebold, E. (Eds.).(1998). Micronesian kingfisher species
survival plan: Husbandry manual. USA: American Association of Zoo and
Aquariums.

Barret, G., Silcocks, A., Barry, S., Cunningham, R., and Poulter, R. (2003). The new atlas
of Australian birds. Melbourne, Australia: Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union.

Bureau of Animal Welfare. (2001). Code of practice for the public of exhibition of
animals. Attwood, Australia: Department of Primary Industries.

Bureau of Meteorology. (2009). Climate data online. Retrieved May 8, 2009, from
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/

Christidis, L., and Boles, W.E. (2008). Systematic taxonomy of Australian birds.
Melbourne, Australia: CSIRO Publishing.

Del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A., and Sargatal, J. (Ed.). (2001). Handbook of the birds of the
world: Volume 6. Barcelona, Spain: Lynx Editions.

Fry, C.H., Fry, K., and Harris, A. (1992). Kingfishers, bee-eaters and rollers. London,
England: Christopher Helm Publishers.

Global Biodiversity Information Facility. (n.d.). Todiramphus sancta: Sacred kingfisher.

Retrieved May 8, 2009, from http://data.gbif.org/species/13847255/.

Greco, C. (n.d). Handling and restraint of companion animals [Lecture notes]. Retrieved
May 8, 2009, from http://www.ualbanycphp.org/Media/upload/data/
Handling%20and%20Restraint%20of%20Companion%20Animals.pdf.

Gage, L.J., and Duerr, R.S. (2007). Hand-rearing birds. Victoria, Australia: Blackwell
Publishing.

Holland, D. (1999). Kookaburras and kingfishers. Sydney, Australia: Reed New Holland.

28
IUCN Species Survival Commission. (2008). IUCN redlist of threatened species.
Retrieved May 8, 2009, from http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/142173.

Kelly, J.F., and Van Horne, B. (1997). Effects of food supplementation on the timing of
nest initiation in belted kingfishers. Ecology, 78(8), 2504-2511.

Knowles, L., and Nitchen, J. (1995). Kingfishers of the world. Singapore: Times Editions.

Montgomery, I. (2004). Photos of global kingfishers and kookaburras. Retrieved May 8,

2009, from http://www.birdway.com.au/coraciiformes/index.htm.

Shivaprasad, H.L. (2002). Pathology of birds. Paper presented at C.L. Davis Foundation
Conference on Gross Morbid Anatomy of Animals, April 8-12, 2002. Retrieved May
8, 2009, from www.oldworldaviaries.com/text/pdfs/AviPath20021.pdf.

Simpson, K., and Day, N. (2004). Field guide to the birds of Australia (7th ed).
Melbourne: Penguin group publishing.

Strahan, R. (Ed.). (1994). Cuckoos, night birds and kingfishers of Australia. Sydney,
Australia: Angus and Robertson Publications.

Travis, E.K., Junge, R.E., and Terrell, S.P. (2007). Infection with Mycobacterium simiae
complex in four captive Micronesian kingfishers. Journal of the American Veterinary
Association, 230 (10), 1524-1529.

Witte, C.L., Hungerford, L.L., Papendick, R., Stalis, I.H., and Rideout, B.A. (2008).
Investigation of characteristics and factors associated with avian mycobacteriosis in
zoo birds. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation, 20, 186-196.

World Meteorological Association. (2009). World weather information service. Retrieved

May 8, 2009, from http://www.worldweather.org/.

29
Appendix 1 Maps of Australia showing the distribution of the sacred kingfisher
throughout the year.

(Barrett, Silcocks, Barry, Cunningham and Poulter, 2003)

30
Appendix 2 Photos of feed area in the walk through exhibit that houses the sacred
kingfishers at Healesville Sanctuary. Note the doors that can be closed so area can be
used for trapping birds. Photos taken by Claire Gilder (2009).

31
Appendix 3 Photos of the different quarantine/hospital areas at Melbourne Zoo. Photos
taken by Claire Gilder (2009).

32
Appendix 4 Monthly temperature charts for both Melbourne, Australia and Port
Moresby, Papua New Guinea. Data for graphs sourced from Bureau of Meteorology,
(2009) and the World Meteorological Association, (2009).

Average monthly temperatures for Melbourne, Australia

30

25

20
Temperature (°C)

Mean minimum temperatures

15
Mean maximum temperatures

10

0
Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month

Average monthly temperatures for Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea

35

30

25
Temperature (°C)

20
Mean minimum Temperature
Mean maximum Temperature
15

10

0
Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month

33
Appendix 5 Ingredients found in the meat mix that is fed to the sacred kingfishers at
Healesville Sanctuary.

-5kg Ecopet lamb and vegetable meat loaf

-6 Hard boiled eggs, shell included
-200g Cheese, grated
-200g Frozen fly pupae
(Lekos, pers. comm.).

Appendix 6 Photo of type of nets used to catch sacred kingfishers at Healesville

Sanctuary and details of where to acquire such nets. Photos taken by Claire Gilder
(2009).

34
Appendix 7 Contact details for suppliers.

7.1 Identification equipment

Australian Bird and Bat Banding Database

Postal Address
PO Box 8,
Canberra, ACT
Australia, 2601
Phone
02 62742407
Email
[email protected]
Internet
www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/science/abbbs/

7.2 Food products

Wombaroo Food Products

Postal Address
PO Box 151,
Glen Osmond, SA
Australia, 5064
Phone
08 8391 1713
Email
[email protected]
Internet
www.wombaroo.com.au/

Pet Health Food Products: Ecopet

Postal Address
17 Amberley Crescent
Dandenong, Vic
Australia, 3175
Phone
03 97921505
Internet
www.ecopet.com.au/

7.3 Catching and handling equipment

Aces Animal Care and Equipment Services

Postal Address
PO Box 591
Cheltenham, Vic

35
Australia, 3192
Phone
03 9585 4908
Email
[email protected]
Internet
www.animalcare.com.au

Tony’s Tackle
Postal Address
PO Box 66
Lara, Vic
Australia, 3212
Phone
0411 799 825
Email
[email protected]
Internet
www.tonystackle.com.au/

7.4 Cleaning products

Chemical Essentials
Postal Address
13 Abelia Street
Doncaster East, Vic
Australia, 3109
Phone
03 8821 0025
Email
[email protected]
Internet
www.chemicalessentials.com.au/

36
Appendix 8 Photos of the transport box used for sacred kingfishers at Healesville
Sanctuary. Photos taken by Claire Gilder (2009).

37
Appendix 9 Physiological data for the Micronesian kingfisher: to be used as a reference
for the normal physiological parameters of the sacred kingfisher (Bahner et al, 1998).

38
Appendix 10 Photos of recovery boxes for injured sacred kingfishers at Melbourne Zoo.
Photos taken by Claire Gilder (2009).

39
Appendix 11 Growth and development charts for the Micronesian kingfisher: to be used
as a reference for the growth and development of sacred kingfishers (Bahner et al, 1998).

40