NSW Education Standards Authority

Mathematics Extension 2

Proof Topic Guide

The Mathematics syllabuses are the documents used to inform the scope of content that will
be assessed in the HSC examinations.

Topic Guides provide support for the Mathematics Stage 6 courses. They contain information
organised under the following headings: Terminology; Use of technology; Background
information; General comments; Future study; Considerations and teaching strategies;
Suggested applications and exemplar questions.

Topic Guides illustrate ways to explore syllabus-related content and consequently do not
define the scope of problems or learning experiences that students may encounter through
their study of a topic. The terminology list contains terms that may be used in the teaching and
learning of the topic. The list is not exhaustive and is provided simply to aid discussion.

Please provide any feedback to the Mathematics and Numeracy Curriculum Inspector.

Effective from 2019 Year 11, and Term 4, 2019 Year 12

Publication date April 2018
Updated December 2018 – new NESA template implemented
June 2020 – editorial corrections

Content
s
Topic focus..........................................................................................................................3

Terminology........................................................................................................................3

Use of technology...............................................................................................................3

Background information....................................................................................................3

General comments..............................................................................................................4

Future study........................................................................................................................4

Subtopics............................................................................................................................4
MEX-P1: The Nature of Proof........................................................................................................ 5

Subtopic focus......................................................................................................................... 5

Considerations and teaching strategies....................................................................................5

Suggested applications and exemplar questions......................................................................5

MEX-P2: Further Proof by Mathematical Induction........................................................................6

Subtopic focus......................................................................................................................... 6

Considerations and teaching strategies....................................................................................6

Suggested applications and exemplar questions......................................................................6

Mathematics Extension 2 Year 12 Topic guide: Proof, updated June 2020 Page 2 of 8
Topic focus
The topic Proof involves the communication and justification of an argument for a
mathematical statement in a clear, concise and precise manner.

A knowledge of proof enables a level of reasoning, justification and communication that is

accurate, concise and precise and lays the foundations for understanding the structure of a
mathematical argument.

The study of proof is important in developing students’ ability to reason, justify, communicate
and critique mathematical arguments and statements necessary for problem-solving and
generalising patterns.

Terminology
arithmetic mean graphical technique principle of mathematical
assumption identity induction
contrapositive implication proof
converse inequality proof by contradiction
counter-example irrationality proof by induction
deduction mathematical induction sigma notation
first-order recursive formulae multiple variation
geometric mean negation

Use of technology
Many interesting results can be conjectured by observing patterns in graphs and then proved
using deductive methods.

Spreadsheets can be used to explore patterns in sequences of numbers.

Computer algebra systems may assist students to check work in this topic.

Background information
Mathematical induction is a useful proof technique, used across most areas of Mathematics
including trigonometry, geometry, algebra, combinatorics, complex numbers, graph theory etc.
It has an interesting and diverse history in terms of its evolution.

While the principle of mathematical induction is not explicitly found in ancient documents,
quasi-inductive arguments are evident in works such as Euclid’s (323–283 BC) proof of the
infinity of primes. In Marcus Tullius Cicero’s (106–43 BC) translation of works of Aristotle
(384–322 BC) he replaced the Greek word ‘epagoge’ meaning ‘leading to’ with the Latin
word ‘inductio’. One of the earliest proofs using an inductive process was seen in the work of
Francesco Maurolico, an Italian mathematician, in 1575 who used it to prove that the sum of
the first n odd natural numbers sums to n2 .

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The process of mathematical induction was extended through the works of Blaise Pascal
(1623–1662), Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665) and John Bernoulli (1667–1748). The modern
treatment of the principle of mathematical induction was formalised in the 19th century. Most
notably in 1889 Giuseppe Peano (1858–1932) published the Peano Axioms, which is a set of
axioms for the natural numbers of which one axiom is the Principle of Mathematical Induction.
Giuseppe Peano was an important contributor to the development of set theory, mathematical
logic and the formal language of logic.

Mathematical induction is often likened to climbing a ladder. When ascending a ladder a lower
rung must be stepped on in order to reach to a higher rung and so on. Hence when any one
rung is reached then the next rung can also be reached. Linking the process of induction to the
ladder analogy, the initial step is that the first rung is reachable (ie n=1¿ , the inductive step is
that given the k th rung is reachable (ie n=k , the inductive hypothesis), then the ( k +1 )th rung is
reachable, so all rungs of the ladder are reachable.

General comments
This topic familiarises students with mathematical arguments and proofs particularly in the
areas of algebra and number and extend their knowledge and use of the principle of
mathematical induction to prove propositions which is a valuable tool in many areas of
advanced mathematics.

The material in this topic builds on the content from the Mathematics Extension 1 syllabus
including the year 12 topic of Proof.

While the subtopic MEX-P1: The Nature of Proof is independent to the study of ME-P1:
Introduction to Proof by Mathematical Induction from the Mathematics Extension 1 course,
ME-P1 should be taught either concurrently with or prior to the subtopic MEX-P2: Further
Proof by Mathematics Induction.

Students are required to develop a strong conceptual understanding of mathematical

arguments, methods of proof and the principle of mathematical induction.

The logical sequence of steps in the proof technique needs to be understood and carefully
justified. The use of common acronyms such as RTP (required to prove) is acceptable.

Future study
Students need to ensure that they can clearly, precisely and efficiently communicate and
justify mathematical arguments and statements and use Mathematical induction.

An important result of this study is the realisation that in Mathematics, different representations
lead to new investigations and the posing and solution of new problems.

Subtopics
 MEX-P1: The Nature of Proof
 MEX-P2: Further Proof by Mathematical Induction

Mathematics Extension 2 Year 12 Topic guide: Proof, updated June 2020 Page 4 of 8
Mathematics Extension 2 Year 12 Topic guide: Proof, updated June 2020 Page 5 of 8
MEX-P1: The Nature of Proof

Subtopic focus
The principal focus of this subtopic is to develop rigorous mathematical arguments and proofs,
specifically in the context of number and algebra.

Students develop an understanding of the necessity for rigorous and robust methods to prove
the validity of a variety of concepts related to number and algebra. The level of clear and
concise communication developed will be used in further pathways.

Considerations and teaching strategies

 Many important results are established through the use of inequalities. Inequalities are
also important in many applications of Mathematics, where they are used, for example, to
obtain estimates of the accuracy of approximations in the field of numerical analysis,
allowing computer software programs that solve equations numerically to be used with
confidence.
 Examples should be given which use the result that a> b if and only if ( a−b )> 0.
1 1 1 1
 If 0< a<b , considering the sign of − establishes that < , and this result may be
a b b a
used in solving problems.
 To perform a proof by contradiction, consider the proposition to be proven, and investigate
the effect of assuming the opposite is true. If this leads to a contradiction, then it follows
that the original proposition is true.
 To show that a statement is false, a counterexample can be used. For example, to
disprove the statement: ‘All prime numbers are odd’, then stating ‘2 is a prime number and
2 is even’ is a counterexample that shows the original statement to be false.

Suggested applications and exemplar questions

 Prove that if x , y , z are real and not all equal then x 2+ y 2+ z 2 > yz + zx + xy . Deduce that if
1
additionally x + y + z=1, then yz + zx + xy < .
3
1 1 4 1 1 8
 Given that x + y= p and x >0 and y >0 , prove that + ≥ , and 2 + 2 ≥ 2 .
x y p x y p
 Let x be a fixed, non-zero number satisfying x >−1.
(a) Use the method of mathematical induction to prove that ( 1+ x )n >1+nx for
n=2 ,3 , …

( )
n
1 1
(b) Deduce that 1− > for n=2 ,3 , …
2n 2
 Use a graphical method to solve the inequality 3 x 2−2 x −2≤|3 x|.
 Prove that if n and m are both odd, then nm is odd; otherwise nm is even.

Mathematics Extension 2 Year 12 Topic guide: Proof, updated June 2020 Page 6 of 8
MEX-P2: Further Proof by Mathematical Induction

Subtopic focus
The principal focus of this subtopic is to use the technique of proof by mathematical induction
to prove results in series, divisibility, inequality, algebra, probability, calculus and geometry.

Students further develop the use of formal mathematical language across various
mathematical topics to rigorously and robustly prove the validity of given situations using
inductive reasoning. The logical sequence of steps in the proof technique needs to be
understood and carefully justified in each application, thus encouraging clear and concise
communication which is vital for further study.

Considerations and teaching strategies

 Review of the following may be needed to meet the needs of students:
˗ Mathematical Induction – in particular the material in Mathematics Extension 1 topic
ME-P1: Introduction to Proof by Mathematical Induction
˗ Proof by induction is an axiom and therefore cannot itself be proved true.
˗ The principle of mathematical induction may be stated as follows:
˗ Suppose the following can be proved about a statement or proposition P(n)
about positive integers:
(a) the statement is true when n=1, and
(b) the statement is true for n=k +1 whenever it is true for n=k .
Then the statement is true for all positive integers.
˗ Both steps in mathematical induction must be verified before the proof is valid.
This can be illustrated by ‘proofs’ of false results.
 In some cases, the starting point is not n=1. It may be that P(n) is true only for positive
integers n ≥ M , where M is a given positive integer. In such cases, it needs to be proved
that:
(a) the statement is true when n=M , and
(b) the statement is true for n=k +1 whenever it is true for n=k , where k ≥ M ,
then the statement is true for all positive integers n ≥ M .
 Examples should be given which use mathematical induction to prove results in topics
such as geometry, inequalities, sequences and series, calculus and algebra.

Suggested applications and exemplar questions

 Examples of results to be proved by mathematical induction include:
N N
N ( N +1 )( 2 N +1 )
(a) ∑ n =
2
6
(b) ∑ ( 2 n+1 )1( 2 n−1 ) =¿ 2 NN+1 ¿
n =1 n =1

 Prove that 7 n+19 n is divisible by 13 if n is odd.

Mathematics Extension 2 Year 12 Topic guide: Proof, updated June 2020 Page 7 of 8
 Prove that n2 +2 n is a multiple of 8 if n is even.
 (a) Show that 4 n3 +18 n2 +23 n+9 can be written as ( n+1 ) ( 4 n2 +14 n+ 9 ) .
(b) Using the result in part (i), or otherwise, prove by mathematical induction that, for
1
n ≥ 1, 1 ×3+3 ×5+ 5× 7+…+ ( 2n−1 ) ( 2n+1 )= n ( 4 n +6 n−1 ).
2
3
 Find the values of 2n +2+3 2 n+1 when n=0 , 1, 2 and 3. Make a conjecture about a number
which divides 2n +2+3 2 n+1 and prove your conjecture by induction.
 Prove by mathematical induction that:
n
1 4
n < ∑ r 3 ≤n 4 .
4 r =1

 Suppose we draw on a plane n lines in ‘general position’, ie with no three concurrent and
no two parallel. Let sn be the number of regions into which these lines divide the plane, for
example s3=7 in the following diagram:

(a) By drawing diagrams, find s1 , s 2 , s 3 , s 4 and s5.

(b) From these results, make a conjecture about a formula for sn .
(c) Prove this formula by mathematical induction.

Mathematics Extension 2 Year 12 Topic guide: Proof, updated June 2020 Page 8 of 8