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CHAPTER 1. THE EARTH AND UNIVERSE

Earth’s shape & size:

● Geodesy: science that attempt to define earth’s shape & size by survey & mathematical
calculation.
● Newton (1687): Earth along with all planets could not be perfectly sphere – earlier
Perfect spherical model (assumption).
● Earth is slightly unique shaped because of its spin – bulges out at equator & flattens at
poles – known as Oblate sphere/Geoid (shape of Earth – uniquely earth sahped).

Latitude
● Angular distance measure north/south of equator.
● Parallel: Imaginary line connecting all points on same latitude – known so – parallel to all
other lines of latitude.

Longitude
● Angular distance between meridian passing through a given point & prime meridian
measured towards East & West of prime meridian – varies from 0ᵒ to 180ᵒ

CHAPTER 2. THE EARTH AND UNIVERSE

Interior of Earth
● Crust/lithosphere – 1.14% of Earth’s volume & 0.53% mass – divided into two parts
Oceanic Crust & Continental Crust.
○ Oceanic Crust: Avg. thickness – 5 km – made up of SIMA/MAFIC (Mg + Fe) –
contains basaltic.
○ Continental Crust: Avg. thickness – 40 km – made up of SIAL (FELSIC) –
contains Graphite.

● Mantle/Mesosphere: 2900 km thick – 82.5% of Earth’s volume & 66% of its mass –
compose of Olivine – rich in oxide & silicates of Mg & Fe – densely packed - ↑ in temp
with depth.

● Core: radius 3500 km – 16.32% earth’s volume & 33.4% of mass – contains Ni (6%) &
Fe (89%) – rest Sulphur & O2 – divide into two parts – Inner Core & Outer Core.

○ Inner Core: solid despite very ↑ temp – due to very ↑ pressure.

○ Outer Core: molten due to dominance of temp over pressure – cause magnetism
of Earth.
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○ Discontinuity

Types of Rocks
Igneous Rocks:
● formed by cooling & solidification of molten magma – normally crystalline in structure –
don’t occur in strata/layers – don’t contain fossils.
● Types on basis of mineral composition – Acid igneous (lighter in color & less denser) &
Basic igneous (denser & darker in color).
● Types on basis of origin – plutonic rock (cooled inside earth crust) & volcanic rock
(cool on surface of earth crust).

Sedimentary Rocks:
● Formed from sediment accumulated over long periods – found in layer/stratified rocks –
non crystalline
● Mechanically formed sedimentary rocks: formed from accumulation of material
derived from other rocks which been cemented together.
● Organically formed sedimentary rocks: remains of living organisms, further two type
Calcareous (Ca) & Carbonaceous ©.
● Chemically formed sedimentary rocks:rocks are precipitated chemically from
solutions of one kind or another – derived from strata – once formed beds of seas.

Metamorphic Rocks:
● changed rocks – under great heat & pressure – alter their original character.

Types of Mountains

● Fold Mountains: Most widespread – caused by large-scale earth movement when

stresses/compression set up in earth’s crust – due to increased load, flow movement of
mantle or expansion or contraction of earth – further types – asymmetric fold(equal fold),
Over-fold, recumbent fold, Overthrust fold (nappe).
● Block Mountains: take place when crust cracks – faulting caused by tension or
compression forces.
● Volcanic Mountains: Volcanoes which built up from material ejected from fissures in
earth’s crust – also called mountains of accumulation.
● Residual Mountains: Mount evolved by denudation – general level of land – lowered by
agents of denudation.
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Types of Plateau:

● Tectonic Plateau: formed by earth movement – cause uplift – include continental

blocks.
● Inermont Plateau: enclosed by Fold Mountains.
● Volcanic Plateau: Molten lava – spreads over surface to form successive sheets of
basaltic lava – solidify.
● Dissected Plateau: Continual process of weathering & erosion – worn down extensive
plateau – forming valley.

Types of Plains

● Structural Plains: structurally depressed areas – formed by horizontally bedded rocks –

relatively undisturbed by crustal movements of earth.

● Depositional Plains: formed by deposition of material brought by various agents of

transportation – rise gently towards adjacent highland.
○ Outwash Plains: consist of gravels –formed by glaciers.
○ Till/Drift Plains: consist of boulders & clays – by glaciers.
○ Alluvial Plains: formed by rivers in upper course.
○ Flood Plains: formed by rivers in middle course.
○ Deltaic Pains: formed by rivers lower course.
○ Coastal Plains: formed by wind & waves.
○ Losses Plains: formed by winds in interior desert.

● Erosional Plains: carved by agents of erosion – known as peneplains means almost

plains.
● Pediments/Pediplains: formed by mechanical weathering in arid & semi-arid area.

CHAPTER 3. THE EARTH AND UNIVERSE

Origin of volcanoes
● Volcanoes occur because of crustal disturbance – particularly zones of weakness – due
to folding or faulting.
● Gases and vapour increases: mobility and explosiveness of lavas – emitted through
orifice or vent of volcano.

Types of Lavas

● Acid Lavas: Highly viscous – high melting point – light colored – low density – high
percentage of Silica – flow slowly – travel small distance – form steep sided cones –
rapid solidification of lava in vent obstruct flow of out pouring lava – loud explosion –
volcanic bombs or pyroclasts - Sometime form spine or plug – very resistant to erosion.
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● Basic lavas: Highly fluid, dark color like basalt – rich in iron and magnesium but poor in
silica – flow quietly not very explosive – forms thin sheet over great distance before
solidify – form lava dome or shield volcanoes – gently rising slope and board, flatted
tops.

Volcanism
● Plutonic Rocks: inside crust – form intrusive landform
● Volcanic Rocks:solidifies on surface – form extrusive landform.

Landforms (Intrusive)

1. Sill: horizontally along bedding planes of sedimentary rock.

2. Dykes: vertically – as narrow walls of igneous rock within sedimentary.
3. Laccolith: Large blister or igneous mound – dome shaped upper surface and level base
fed by pipe like conduit.
4. Lopolith: Saucer shaped – form shallow basin.
5. Phacolith: Lens shaped – crest anticline or bottom of syncline.
6. Batholith: Huge mass – usually granite – after removal of overlying rock forms massive
and resistant upland region. Metamorphosed rock together with solidified magma gives
rise to extensive batholiths.

Types of Volcanoes

● Active: Frequently erupt.

● Dormant: Shows signs of possible eruption
● Extinct: Not erupted at all – but retains feature of volcanoes.

Extrusive Landforms

● Determined by nature and composition of lava.

● Basic lava/Basaltic lava: form lava plains & basalt plateau – because flowing for long
distance – forms shield/dome shaped cone - slope with wide diameter.
● Acidic/less fluidic lava – explode more violently – form ash and cinder cones – with
large central crater and steep slopes – form Lava dammed lakes/tongues – in valley.
● Volcanic Dust: Shot so high into sky – falls as black snow.
● Pyroclasts: Coarser fragments of rocks include – cinders/ lappilli, scoria, pumice and
volcanic bombs.
● Composite cone/ Stratovolcanoes: Because built up by – several eruptions.
● Parasitic cones: Subsidiary dykes/pipe reach surface as feeders.
● Mt. Stromboli – Light house of Mediterranean.
● Calderas: Greatly enlarge depression because top of the cone blown off or collapses
into vent widening.
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Geysers
● Fountains of hot water and super heated steam – associated with thermal/volcanic
region – water below heated beyond boiling point – emitted with an explosion – often
triggered off by gases seeping out.

Hot Spring/Thermal spring

● Common where water sinks deep enough beneath surface to be heated by interior
forces – water raises to surface without explosion – dissolved mineral contains – medical
value.

Earthquake

● Earth quake – release of energy that built up during stress of increase deformation of
rocks – energy release takes form of seismic wave that radiate in all direction from place
of movement.
● All rocks – certain rupture strength – continue to bend rather break – as long as stress
imposed doesn’t exceed rupture strength – Stress too great – rock suddenly moves
along fault plains – may or may not exist before deformation began.
● H.F. Reid: Elastic Rebound Hypothesis (1906): rocks under stress & when they fail to
cope stress – they displace.
○ Stage I: Rock sticking with each other.
○ Stage II: Due to stress rocks deform.
○ Stage III: Rocks return to almost original shape after release stress.

● Pattern of Energy Released: Fore shock – Major shock (EQ) – After shock.
● Focus: is point of origin of EQ i.e. where movement get initiated (Hypocenter).
● Epicenter: vertical trace of focus on earth’s surface – max damage not at epicenter but
around it.

● Types of Earthquakes
○ Tectonic EQ: associated with faulting
○ Volcanic EQ: accompany volcanic eruption.

● On Basis of Depth
○ Shallow EQ: focal depth < 70km – most destructive.
○ Intermediate EQ: focal depth 70-300 km
○ Deep EQ: Focal between 300-700km – never reached surface

● Measurement of EQ
○ Richter scale: (1935) base on logarithmic scale – on basis of shaking of ground.
○ Mercalli scale: measure intensity of EQ. (1905) – assigned roman no.
○ Moment Magnitude scale: consider area of fault along which rupture occurs &
amount of movement of rocks adjacent to fault.
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CHAPTER 4. WEATHERING,MASS MOVEMENT & GROUND WATER

Phases of Denudation
○ Weathering: disintegration of rocks by atmospheric or weathering forces.
○ Erosion: Active wearing of earth’s surface by agent like running water & wind
etc.
○ Transportation: removal of eroded debris to new position.
○ Deposition: Dumping of debris in certain part of earth.

● Rate of Denudation depend on

○ Nature of relief
○ Structure of rock
○ Local climate
○ Interference by man
○ Mineral composition and structure
○ Density of joint/cracks

Type of Weathering

Biological weathering
● Biological weathering is caused by the movements of plants and animals. For
example, a rabbit can burrow into a crack in a rock making it bigger and eventually
splitting the rock, or a plant may grow in a crack in a rock and, as its roots grow, cause
the crack to widen.
● Even you can be a source of weathering! Boots and shoes walking over the same patch
of rock may eventually wear down the rock.

Chemical weathering
● Chemical weathering describes the process of chemicals in rainwater making changes
to the minerals in a rock.
● Carbon dioxide from the air is dissolved in rainwater, making it slightly acidic. A reaction
can occur when the rainwater comes into contact with minerals in the rock, causing
weathering.

Physical weathering
● Repeated temperature change: Outer surface expand much faster than cooler interior
of rocks – like in desert – Onion peeling/Exfoliation gradually split off – various layers
look like layer of an onion.
● Repeated wetting and drying: Repeated drying and wetting of face layers – mostly
tropical area and coast.
● Frost Action: Temperate latitude – rock contains crack, rain/snow collect in it – repeated
freezing weaken rocks.
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● Mountain peaks with such feature Frost Shattered peak. Screes: Angular fragment of
rock – moved apart by gravity from mountain to foot of slope.

Biotic factors
● by roots of plant and movement of living being.

Mass Movement
● Movement of weathered materials down a slope due to gravitational forces – movement
depends on:
○ Gradient of slope
○ Weight ofweathered debris
○ Any lubricating moisture – rain water.

Type of Mass Movement

● Soil Creeps: slow gradual – continuous movement of soil downhill slopes – common in
damp soil as water act as lubricant. Found in area – animals grazing on slopes. Soil
accumulates at foot of slope.
● Slumping: permeable rock layer over lie impermeable rock – water sinks through
permeable material – halted by clay – provide smooth slippery surface.
● Note: Man – enhance possibility of landslides by clearing natural vegetation for
agriculture or housing.
● Ground Water: Water percolates downwards into soil and rocks – known as ground
water – vital role in weathering, mass movement, natural water storage.
● Water availability depend up on: climate and Nature of rocks or soil.
● Water Table: Surface of saturated area. Aquifer: Permeable rock in which water is
stored.

● Springs: Ground water stored in rock is released on to surface at points where water
table reaches surface.

● Types of springs
○ Tilted Strata: Permeable and impermeable rocks alternate – water emerges at
base of permeable layer.
○ Well Jointed Rocks: Water percolate downwards until it reaches a joint which
emerges at surface
○ Dyke or Sill: Dyke or sill of impermeable rock – intruded through permeable
rocks causes water table to reach surface and water issues as spring.
○ Lime Stone or chalk escarpment: permeable rock lies between impermeable
strata – water issues at foot of scarp as Scrap Foot Spring.
○ Karst region: river disappear – underground flow re-emerge when limestone –
give place to some impermeable rock – known as vauclusiam spring but better
referred to as resurgence.
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Wells:
● Manmade use of stored water below ground by sinking wells. A hole bored through earth
until water table reached – sunk to depth of permanent water table for constant supply of
water.

● Types of wells
○ Artesian Well: Rock layer down folded into strata basin shaped – permeable
strata sandwich between impermeable layers – permeable rock – only comes to
surface at edge – due to gravity water reaches lowest part of basin.

CHAPTER 5. LANDFORMS MADE BY RUNNING WATER

Landforms Made by Running Water

● Catchment Area: upland area from where run-off starts.
● Divide/Watershed: a raised land/hill which divide two water bodies.
● Consequent Stream: a stream which follow the slope.
● When rock composed of homogeneous beds of uniform resistance to erosion –
tributaries join main valley obliquely as In-sequent streams – like dendritic drainage.
● Alternate layers of hard & soft rocks, tributaries tend to follow the pattern of rock – join at
right angle as subsequent streams – trellised drainage.

Processes of River Action

● Materials in solution: dissolved in water.
● Materials in suspension:suspended in water.
● Traction load: rolled along the river bed.

River Actions depend upon

○ Volume of water,
○ Velocity of flow,
○ Size, shape & weight of load.

River Erosion & Transportation

● Corrasion/Abrasion:mechanical grinding of traction load against bed/bank or river.
○ Lateral Corrasion: sideways erosion – vshaped valley.
○ Vertical Corrasion: downward action – deepens river channel
● Corrosion/Solution: Chemical solvent actions of water on soluble rocks.
● Hydraulic action: loosening & sweeping away of materials by river water.
● Attrition: wear and tear of transported materials themselves.

Upper/Mountain Course: Vertical erosion.

● River Capture: also known as river piracy/river beheading – developed due to
headward/back-cutting erosion into divide.
● Elbow of Capture: bend at which piracy occurred.
● Misfit: Beheaded stream
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● Wind gap: valley below the elbow.

Upper/Mountain Course
● Rapids: formed due to change of gradient cause by unequal resistance of rock.
● Cataracts: rapid greater dimensions
● Waterfalls: when river fall down in a sudden fall of some height

Middle/Valley Course
● lateral corrosion.
● Meanders: formed due to irregularities of ground Forces River to swing in loops.
● River cliffs: side of river bank where erosion is potent.
● Slip-off slopes: side of river bank where deposition is potent.

The Course of river

● Interlocking Spurs: a no. of projecting ridges that extends alternately from opposite
sides of wall of young V-shaped valley.

Lower/Plain Course: Depositional work.

● Flood Plains: formed by layer of sediment deposit during each flood. Levees: natural
embankment.
● Ox-bow lakes: When river cuts through narrow loop ofmeander, abandoning an ox-bow
lake/ mortlake. They also known as cut-offs/bayous
● Delta: deposition of fine materials in a fan shaped alluvial area – resemble triangle –
reason behind distributaries – various form of delta – like bird’s food delta, estuarine.

● Delta Formation
○ Active vertical & lateral erosion in upper course of river – provide extensive
sediments – deposited as deltas.
○ Coast should be sheltered – preferably tide-less.
○ Sea adjoining delta should be shallow – else load disappears.
○ No large lakes in river course – filter off sediments.
○ No strong current running at right angle to river mouth.
● Knick Point/Rejuvenated head: point where the old & rejuvenated profile meet. •
● Negative Movement: active down-cutting – renewed.
○ Uplift of land
○ Fall in sea level
● Positive Movement: deposition shifted upward to middle course.
● Depression of land.
● Rise in sea level.

Human Aspects of Rivers

● Hydro-electric power.
● Irrigation.
● Transportation.
● Agriculture – flood plains.
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● Fishing
● Supply water.
● Political boundaries

CHAPTER 6. LANDFORMS OF GLACIATION

Landforms of Glaciation
● Glaciers: Movement of ice creeps out in all direction from central dome.
● Nunataks: Peaks of loftier mountains project above the surface.
● Ice Shelves: Ice sheets which extending towards sea
● Icebergs: Breaking of ice sheets into individual blocks – floating in sea – only 1/9th part
is visible.
● Snowline: Line above which ground is covered with ice.

Landforms of Glaciated Upland

● Neve/Firn: Hardening of ice due to repeat refreezing.
● Piedmont Glacier: convergence of several glaciers at foot of mountain ranges.
● Glacier erosion in valley - depends on Velocity, gradient of slope, weight of glacier,
temperature of ice & geological structure of valley.
a. Plucking: due to glacier freezing tearing and dragging of rocks.
b. Abrasion: Scratching (big pieces) and polishing (small pieces).

● Corrie/Cirque/Cwm – Horse shoe shaped depression from due to erosional action of

plunking & abrasion of back-wall – often corrie lake/tarn are formed here.
● Aretes – 2 cirques cut back on opposite side ofmountains.
● Angular horn/Pyramidal Peak: 3 or more cirques cut back together.
● Bergschrund/Rimaye: A deep vertical crack open at head of glacier – where glacier
begins to leave.
● Crevasses: cracks formed due to bend in slope.
● Truncated spurs: interlocking spurs blunted by several corries.
● U-shaped: a valley – wide, flat floor & steep sides – caused due to glaciation – forms
Ribbon Lake after glacier melts.
● Hanging valleys: erosion in main valley ↑ as compare to tributary valleys – when ice
melts, tributary valley forms Hanging Valley.
● Moraines: formed by pieces of rock shattered –imbedded in glaciers & brought down the
valley.
○ Lateral Moraines: fall on sides of glacier.
○ Medial Moraine: Inside lateral moraines formed due to convergence of two
glaciers.
○ Ground Moraine: spread of rocks dragged along glacier – across floor of valley
rock – when it melts
● Snout/End moraine/Terminal moraine: these are pile of transported materials left
behind due glacier melting on reaching foot of valley.
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● Recessional Moraines: formed by several succeeding waves of end moraines – as ice

melt in stages.
● Fiord: Iceberg’s lower end of trough is drowned by sea forms a deep, steep-sided inlet

Landforms of Glaciated Lowlands

● Deposition mainly – Few erosion features:

● Roche Moutonnee (resembles to sheepskin): residual of resistant hummock/hump of
rock – surface striated by ice movement – upstream side smoothed by abrasion –
downstream side roughened by plucking.
● Crag & Tail: mass of hard rock with steep slope (Crag) on upstream side which protects
softer leeward slope (Tail) from being completely worn down by oncoming ice.
● Boulder Clay: plain formed by glacial deposit
● Till/Drift till: spread out in sheets of glacial deposit.
● Erratics: boulders of varying sizes transported by ice – entirely different from region they
found – source to trace direction of ice movement.
● Drumlins: swarms of oval, elongated whale-back hummocks/humps –composed of
boulder clay – also called basket ofeggs.
● Eskers: Long, narrow, sinuous ridges composed of sand and gravel which mark former
sites of sub-glacial melt-water streams.
● Terminal moraines: made up of coarse debris deposited at the edge of icesheet – to
form hummocky & hilly place.
● Outwash Plains: Fluvio-glacial deposits washed out from terminal moraines by streams
of stagnant ice mass.
● Kames: small rounded hill of sand & gravel may cover part of plains.
● Kettle lakes: found in area where deposition takes form of alternate ridges and
depression – known as knob & kettle topography.

Human Aspects of Glaciated Landform

1. Used in construction & highways. b.
2. Natural reservoirs.
3. Hydro-electric power.
4. Magnificent scenery.
5. Waterways.
6. Transhumance – animal-migration type farming.

CHAPTER 7. ARID OR DESERT LANDFORMS

● Confined to 15-30 degree parallels of latitude north & south of equator.

● Lies in trade wind belt on western part.
● Coastal area near cold current.

5 distinct kinds of desert landscape

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1) Hamada/Rocky desert:stretches of bare large rocks –thoroughly smoothed by

wind – bare & sterile.
2) Reg/Stony desert: extensive sheets of angular pebbles & gravels which winds
are not able to blow off – more accessible than sandy deserts.
3) Erg/Sandy deserts: sea of sand – winds deposit sand-dunes in heart of deserts
– known as Koum (Turkestan).
4) Badlands: term 1st used fro South Dakota (US) – hills were badly eroded by
occasional rain-storms into gullies & ravines.
5) Mountain deserts: found on highlands like plateau &mountains.

Causes of Arid Landforms:

● Insufficient rainfall
● Very high temperatures
● Rapid rate of evaporation
● Weathering – most potent

Action of winds in deserts

1. Deflation: lifting & blowing away of loose material.
2. Abrasion: Sand-blasting if rock surface by wind – scratches, polish & worn away rock.
3. Attrition: particles roll against one another in collision they wear each other away – due
to wind.

Landforms of Wind Erosion in Deserts

1. Rock Pedestals/Mushroom rocks: formed due to under cutting of rock due to sand
blasting by wind – also known as Gour (Sahara).
2. Zeugen: ridge & furrow(wrinkle like) landscape caused due to wind abrasion wear – of
soft rocks lying beneath hard rock.
3. Yardangs: similar to ridge & furrow landscape of zeugen – but steep sided – instead of
horizontal strata (one upon other) – vertical bands of hard and soft rock.
4. Mesa: (Spanish word means table) – Flat, table like land mass with very resistant
horizontal top layer, & very steep sides.
5. Buttes: isolated flat-topped hills – formed due to continued denudation through ages –
separated by deep gorge or canyons.
6. Inselberg: (Island-mountain –German) – isolated residual hills rising abruptly from
ground level – steep slope & round tops.
7. Ventifacts/Drekanter: pebbles faceted by sand-blasting– thoroughly polished by wind
abrasion. Those with three windfaceted surfaces Drekanter
8. Deflation hollows: small depression formed due to unconsolidated materials blown
away by wind – when water seeps out forms oases/swamps.

Landforms of Wind deposition in Deserts

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● Dunes: hill of sand formed due to accumulation of sand and shaped by movement
ofwinds.
● Live dunes: constantly moving.
● Fixed dunes:rooted with vegetation.
● Types of Dunes
a. Barchan: crescentic/moon-shaped dunes – occur individually/in groups –
live dunes – formed due to obstacle. Windward – convex while leeward
side – concave.
Note: Migration of barchans – threat to desert life – encroaches on oasis,
tress or houses.
b. Seifs/Longitudinal dunes: (Sword –Arabic) – long, narrow ridges of
sand lying parallel to direction of prevailing winds – crest-line rises and
falls in alternate.

● Loess: fine dust blown beyond the desert limits is deposited on neighboring land – very
fertile as rich in lime, very coherent and extremely porous.

○ Landforms due to water

● Gullies/Badland topography: Deep cut gullies & ravines due to
flashflood as little vegetation.
● Alluvial cone/Fan/Dry delta:Depositions of debris at foot of hill/ mouth of
valley by flash-flood – water evaporate/percolates leave behind mounds
of debris.
● Wadis: Gullies deepened by vertical corrosion by raging torrents during
the occasional cloudburst – dry most of the time.
● Exotic Streams: Those desert streams which are fed by melting snow of
distant mountains outside deserts and river flow.
● Gorge: water carves out steep walls, which rise abruptly from the stream
bed.
● Temporary Lake: When collected in depression/desert basin – not
completely disappear by evaporation/seepage – salty in nature.
● Playas/Salinas/Salars: These are lakes and alluvial plains.
● Bajada: Depositional feature of alluvial material laid discontinued stream.
● Pediments – erosional plain formed at base ofmountains scarps.

CHAPTER 8. LIMESTONE AND CHALK LANDFORMS

Limestone and Chalk landforms

● Limestone – sedimentary rocks – made up of corals and shell (Calcium
carbonate & dolomite – if contains magnesium).
● Karst Region: region with a large stretch of limestone.

Characteristics features of a Karst Region

○ Lack of vegetation – Absence of surface drainage – Steep slope
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● Spring/Resurgence: When water penetrates through limestone region and

meets non-porous rocks - reemerge surface.
● Limestone Pavement: developed due to widening of cracks into trenches by
solution.
● Grikes: enlarged joints.
● Clints: isolated rectangular blocks.
● Sink Hole: Small depression carved out by solution where rain-water sinks into
limestone at a point of weakness.
● Limestone Gorge: formed due to collapse of roof of underground caves.
● Doline: number of swallow holes joins to form a large hollow.
● Uvala: Merger of dolina, due to sinking of land to form a larger depression.
● Polje: very large depressions – partly due to faulting.
● Stalactites:Sharp, slender,downward growing high point – hang from cave.
● Stalagmites: moisture drips from roof it trickles down stalactite & drop to floor
where calcium is deposited.
● Pillar: Stalactite joins stalagmites

Human Activities
● Often barren.
● Source of lead.
● Used in cement industry.
Chalk:
● Coombes: little or no surface drainage and valleys which once contained rivers.

CHAPTER 9. LAKES

Lakes
● Lakes occupy hollow of land surface in which water accumulates.
● Types of Lakes:
○ Permanent lake (Evaporation < Precipitation) & Temporary lake (Evaporation
>Precipitation).
○ Fresh Water Lake & Salty water lake.

● Formed by Earth Movement

○ Tectonic lakes: due to warping, staffing, bending & fracturing of earth’s crust,
tectonic depressions occur.
○ Rift valley lake: due to faulting a rift valley is formed – water collects in these
troughs – floor often below sea leve.

● Formed by Glaciation
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○ Cirque lake/Tarns: formed by hollow left by glacier during downward movement

toward valley is called Cirque – when filled with water is known as Cirque
lake/Tarns/Ribbon Lake (deep and long troughs).
○ Kettle lakes: formed by depression in the outwash plains left by melting of ice –
irregular because of uneven morainic surface - never have great size/depth.
○ Rock-hollow lakes: formed when valley glaciers scoop out hollows on surface.
○ Lake due to morainic damming of valleys: glaciers often deposit morainic
debris across valley – lakes are formed when water accumulates behind barrier –
lateral & terminal moraines capable of damming valleys.
○ Lakes due to deposition of glacial drifts: water-logged in glaciated lowland
with drumlin landscape – with poor drainage.

● Formed by Volcanic Activity

○ Crater and Caldera lakes: during volcanic explosion – top of cone blown off
leaving natural hollow – crater – further enlarge to form caldera – dormant/extinct
volcanoes – water-logged to form lake.
○ Lava-blocked Lakes: stream of lava flow across valley – become solidified –
dam river forming lake.
○ Lake due to subsidence of volcanic land surface: Crust of hollow lava flow
collapse – leave behind wide & shallow depression – to form lake.

● Lake formed by Erosion:

○ Karst lakes: When depression caused by solvent action blocked with debris –
form lakes – Large depressions (Poljes) – don’t have surface outlets 0 contain
lakes.
○ Wind-deflated lakes: deflating action of winds in deserts creates hollows –
ground water seeps out forming small, shallow salt lakes & playas – due to
excessive evaporation.

● Lake formed by Deposition

○ Lake due to river deposits: Rivers shorten its course during a flood by cutting
across its meandering loops,leaving behind a horseshoe-shaped channel –
known as ox-bow Lake.
○ Lake due to Marine deposits: action of c– isolate lagoons along coasts by
building narrow spits/bars – drain away during lagoon – aka Haff – onshore winds
capable of pushing coastal sand dunes landwards – enclose marshy lagoons.
○ Lake due to landslides, screes & avalanches: aka barrier lakes – as landslides
or screes may block valleys – river are dammed – short lived because fragments.

● Lakes formed by Human & Biological Activities:

○ Man-made lakes: artificial lakes by erecting a concrete dam across a river – to
form reservoirs.
○ Lake made by animals: animals like beavers live in communities and construct
dams across river with timber – aka beaver dams – permanent.
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○ Other types of lakes: Ornamental lakes (Tourist attraction), Lake formed by

man’s mining activities, fishing lakes etc.

● Lakes and Man:

○ Means of communication.
○ Economic & industrial development.
○ Water storage.
○ Hydro-electric generation.
○ Agricultural purpose.
○ Regulating river flows.
○ Moderation of climate.
○ Source of food.
○ Source ofminerals.
○ Tourist attraction and health resorts

CHAPTER 10. COASTAL LANDFORMS

Coastal Landforms

● Tides affect marine erosion mainly by extending line of erosion into zone of erosion (area
between low water level & high water level).
● Currents help to move eroded debris and deposit it as silt, sand and gravel along the
coast.
● Backwash: water is sucked back & retreats
● Breakers: Shallow water, when it is less than height of waves checks their forward
movement crests curl over & break into shores in mass of foam.

● Ways to transform coastal landscape

○ Corrasion: waves along with rock debris charge against base of cliffs & wear
them back by corrasion – current & tide complete work by sweeping eroded
material.
○ Attrition: constantly moving wave transport beach materials – also hurl these
materials against one another, until they broken down by attrition, into very small
pieces.
○ Hydraulic Action: waves splashing against coast may enter joints of rocks – air
imprisoned inside immediately compressed – air expands with explosive violence
– such repeated action – breaks large stone into pieces.
○ Solvent Action: Potent in limestone coast.

● Coastal Features of Erosion

○ Capes: hard rock extending into sea – aka headlands/promontories.
○ Bay: Soft rock worn inward – form inlets/Coves/bay.
○ Cliff: any very steep rock face adjoining coast forms a cliff.
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○ Wave-cut Platform: cliff recedes landward – under repeated action of waves –

wave eroded base is left behind – called wave-cut platform.
○ Cave: Prolonged wave attacks on base of cliff excavate holes in regions of local
weakness – called caves.
○ Arch: formed when two caves approach one another from either side of
headland and unite.
○ Stack: formed when seaward portion of headland will remain as pillar of rock.
○ Stump: eroded stack – leave behind only stump – visible above sea level.
○ Gloup: waves breaking into cave may force water/air out of hole – named gloup
as noise made by water gurgling inside – aka blowhole.
○ Geos: When roof of gloup collapses – long, narrow inlet or creek develop –
known as Geos.
○ Beaches: Sands & gravels loosened from land are moved by waves to be
deposited along shore as beaches – ways of transportation.
○ Long-shore drift: which comes at an angle to coast carries the material along
the shore in direction of dominant wind.
○ Backwash:removes part of material seas wards along the bed of sea and
deposit it on off-shore terrace.
○ Split: deposition carried across inlet – by long-shore drift and dent in coast like
mouth of river or bay – pile up into a ridge/embankment of shingle forming
tongue/spit.
○ Re-curved spilt: formed by oblique waves into a hook/recurved spilt.
○ Bar: when ridge formed across the of mouth river/entrance to bay.
○ Tombolo: Connecting bar that joins two land masses.
○ Marine Dunes: force of on-shore winds, large amount of coastal sand is driven
landwards forming extensive marine dunes that stretch into dune belts.

● Type of Coasts
○ Coastlines of Submergence: due to the sinking of land or rise of sea level. Like
Ria Coasts, Fiord Coasts, Dalmatian Coasts, Estuarine Coasts.
○ Coastline of emergence: due to the upliftment of land or fall in sea level. Like
Uplifted lowland coast & Emergent upland coast.

CHAPTER 11. ISLANDS & CORAL REEFS

Islands & Coral Reefs

● Continental Island: formerly part of mainland & now detached from continent.
○ Separated by shallow lagoon or deep channel.
○ Separation due to subsidence of some part of land/rise in seas level.
○ Individual Islands: lie just outside continent – similar feature as mainland.
○ Archipelagoes/Island Groups: comprise group of islands of varying sizes &
shapes.
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○ Festoons/Island arcs: island form an archipelagoes – shape of a loop around

the edge or mainland,marking continuation of mountain ranges which can be
traced on continent.

● Oceanic Island: islands are normally small – located midst of oceans – no connection
with mainland – flora and fauna unrelated to those of continents – very sparsely
populated.
○ Volcanic Islands: Topmost part of cones of volcanoes that rise from the ocean
bed – most are extinct.
○ Coral Islands: coral islands are very much lower and emerge just above water
surface – built up by coral animals of various species are found both near the
shores of mainland and in midst of oceans.

● Coral Reefs: found in tropical seas – built by coral animals and marine organisms such
as coral polyps, calcareous algae, shell-forming creatures and lime –secreting plants line
in large colonies.

● Conditions for survival

○ Water temperature must not fall below 20ᵒC – tropical and sub tropical zones.
○ Depth ofwater – 180 feet/55m – beyond that sunlight is too faint for
photosynthesis.
○ Water – saltish & free from sediments.

● Types of Coral Reefs

○ Fringing Reefs: lie close to shore extending outward from the mainland –
sometime separated from shore by shallow lagoon – outer edge grows rapidly
because of splashing waves that continuously renew supply of fresh food.
○ Barrier Reefs: separated from coast by much wider and deeper channel/lagoon
– partially submerged but in few cases above water level & sand accumulate on it
– a little vegetation is possible. The barrier reefs have narrow gaps at several
places to allow water from enclosed lagoon to return to open ocean.
○ Atolls: similar to barrier reefs expect that they are circular in shape, enclosing
shallow lagoon without any land in centre – encircling ring usually broken in few
places to allow free flow of water – inside of reefs, sand and limestone debris
collect and palm trees like coconuts may grow.

● Theory of Origin
○ Subsidence Theory: by Charles Darwin (1842). All coral reefs began as fringing
reefs around island – due to down-warping of earth’s crust islands gradually
subsided – coral continued to grow upwards to keep pace with subsidence –
growth more outward.
○ due to favorable conditions for coral – encircling reefwidened – formed barrier
reef with a lagoon between the island & reef– eventually land completely
submerged formed atoll – submerged island covered by layer of sediment.
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○ Glacial control Theory: R.A. Daly’s (1910). During height of Ice age water too
cold for any coral growth – absence of coral barrier marine erosion able to attack
& lower islands – return of warmer climate – ice melted – rise in sea level –
submerged lower islands – coral began to grow upward at rate of foot in a
decade to keep pace with rising water level.

CHAPTER 12. THE OCEAN

The Ocean

The Relief ofOcean:

● Continental Shelf:seaward extension of continent from shoreline to continental edge –
shallow platform whose width varies greatly.
● Reasons:
○ Part of continent submerged due to rise in sea level.
○ Smaller continental shelves caused due to wave erosion.
○ Formed by deposition of land derived/river borne materials.
● Significance:
○ Shallowness enables sunlight – encourage growth of planktons.
○ Limited dept & gentle slope keep out cold under currents & height of tides.

● Continental Slope: edge of continental shelf – change in gradient.

● Deep-sea Plain/Abyssal Plain: lies 23 mile below sea level – cover 2/3rd ocean floor –
have submarine plateau, ridges, trenches, basin & oceanic islands.
● Ocean Deeps: long, narrow trenches that dive as great as ocean deeps – often found
close to continents particularly Pacific Ocean.
● Oceanic deposits of Ocean: sedimentation
○ Muds: terrigenous deposits – derived from land & mainly deposit on continental
shelves
○ Oozes: pelagic deposits – derived from oceans – made up of shell & skeletal
remains of marine microorganism with calcareous/siliceous part.
○ Clays: occur mainly as red clays – deeper parts of ocean basins – particularly
Pacific Ocean – accumulation of volcanic dust.

Salinity of ocean:
○ Sodium chloride (77%), magnesium, Calcium, Potassium.
● Factor Affecting:
○ Rate of evaporation.
○ Amount of fresh water added by precipitation, streams & iceberg.
○ Degree ofwater mixing by currents.
● Temperature of Ocean Water
○ Low range of temperature – as water cool & warm slowly.
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○ Vary from Pole to Equator – not constant due to interference of warm & cold
currents.
○ Highest temperature enclosed seas in tropics like Red sea.
○ Temperature varies vertically with increase in depth decrease in temperature.
● Motion of Ocean water
○ Two type ofmotion:
1. Horizontal Motion: further of 2 types: Waves & Current.
2. Vertical Motion: further of 2 types tide & Up-welling.
● Waves: caused by wind & gravity as both pushes water down which pushes former
trough upward – actual motion circular.
● Cause of Wave Break: when depth of water less than half of wave length.
● Currents: narrow & shallow, stream of water circulating along ocean margin. Cause of
Current.
● Movements: Planetary winds, Temperature, Salinity, Earth’s rotation, & Land. Factor
modifying direction of Current: sea coast & ocean bottom topography.

Type of Currents:
● Warm Currents:flow from equatorial regions polewards – higher surface temperature.