Rolling

Principles
Created by :
Eng. Adel Ezz
 Contents
1 Introduction ............................................................................... 4
1.1 Bulk Deformation Processes .................................................................................................. 6

1.2 Sheet Metal Forming Processes ............................................................................................. 6

2 Rolling Process .......................................................................... 7

2.1 Recrystallisation ..................................................................................................................... 9

2.2 Products of Continuous Casing Process ............................................................................... 11

2.3 Classification of Rolling Processes ...................................................................................... 11

2.3.1 Shape Rolling ........................................................................................ 11

2.3.2 Ring Rolling .......................................................................................... 12

2.3.3 Flat Rolling ............................................................................................ 12

3 Heating of Cold Stock ................................................................15

3.1 Reheating Furnace ................................................................................................................ 16

3.1.1 Air Fuel Ratio ........................................................................................ 18

3.1.2 Reheating Furnace Zones ...................................................................... 20

3.2 Types of Reheating Furnaces ............................................................................................... 22

3.2.1 Pusher Type Reheating Furnace............................................................ 23

3.2.2 Walking Hearth Furnaces ...................................................................... 25

3.2.3 Walking Beam Furnace ........................................................................ 26

3.3 Recuperator .......................................................................................................................... 28

3.4 Scale Formation.................................................................................................................... 31

3.4.1 Types of Descaling ................................................................................ 33

3.5 Metal Burning ...................................................................................................................... 36

4 Rolling Parameters ....................................................................37

4.1 Coefficient of Expansion ...................................................................................................... 39

4.2 Draft/Draught ....................................................................................................................... 40

4.2.1 Absolute Draught .................................................................................. 40

4.2.2 Relative Draught ................................................................................... 41

 4.2.3 Actual Draught ...................................................................................... 41

4.2.4 Maximum Draught ................................................................................ 41

4.2.5 Maximum Draft (Bakhtinov’s Formula) ............................................... 41

4.3 Elongation ............................................................................................................................ 42

4.3.1 Elongation Factor .................................................................................. 42

4.3.2 Elongation Percentage ........................................................................... 42

4.4 Spread ................................................................................................................................... 43

4.4.1 Absolute Spread .................................................................................... 43

4.4.2 Percentage Spread ................................................................................. 43

4.4.3 Actual Spread (Bakhtinov Formula) ..................................................... 43

4.4.4 Actual Spread (Grishkov Formula) ....................................................... 43

4.4.5 Actual Spread (SIMAC Formula) ......................................................... 44

4.4.6 Maximum Spread .................................................................................. 44

4.4.7 Factors Effecting Spread ....................................................................... 48

4.5 Contact Area ......................................................................................................................... 49

4.6 Bite Angle or Contact Angle ................................................................................................ 50

4.7 Friction ................................................................................................................................. 51

4.7.1 Neutral Point ......................................................................................... 52

4.7.2 Forward Slip .......................................................................................... 54

4.7.3 Coff of Friction...................................................................................... 54

4.7.4 Coff of Friction...................................................................................... 55

4.8 Working Diameter ................................................................................................................ 56

4.9 Rolling Load......................................................................................................................... 57

4.9.1 ECISP Rolling Load Calculation Model ............................................... 60

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 4.9.2 Factors Effecting Rolling Load ............................................................. 61
4.10 Rolling Toque ..................................................................................................................... 64

4.11 Rolling Power ..................................................................................................................... 65

4.12 Productivity ........................................................................................................................ 65

5 Apparent Problems....................................................................67
References ............................................................................84

3
1 Introduction

Metal Fabrication Techniques

Forming Casting Joining

Rolling Forging Extrusion Drawing

Figure 1 Metal Fabrication Classification.

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 Rolling
Processes

Forging
Processes
Bulk
Deformation
Extrusion
Processes

Wire and Bar

Drawing
Metal Forming
Bending
Operation

Deep Drawing
Sheet Metal
Working
Shearing
Processes

Miscellaneous
Processes
Figure 2 Metal Forming Classification.

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1.1 Bulk Deformation Processes
• Bulk deformation processed such as: rolling, forging, wire drawing and
extrusion.
• These processes involve large amount of plastic deformation.
• "Bulk" refers to work-parts with relatively low surface area-to volume
ratios.
• The starting material may be ingots, slabs or billet which produced by
casting processes.
• The ability of metal to bulk deformation is expressed by workability.
• Most bulk deformation processes are hot working processes in which
dynamic recovery and recrystallization reduce the flow stress of material
and increase the workability. One of the goals of bulk deformation
processes is to change the cast structure to more uniform sound structure.
• The product of bulk deformation processes may be final products or may
be the starting material for sheet metal processes.

1.2 Sheet Metal Forming Processes

• Sheet metal forming processes such as: shearing, bending, deep
drawing or stretch forming.
• In these processes, the volume of material in the deformation zone at
any time is small.
• High surface area-to-volume ratio of starting metal, which
distinguishes these from bulk deformation.
• The starting material is a flat rolled products.
• The ability of the sheet to deform is expressed by formability.
• The product of sheet metal forming processes are thin products
produced by cold working.
• These processes usually used to produce final products.

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2 Rolling Process
Rolling is a bulk deformation process in which the
thickness of the metal is reduced by compressive forces
exerted by set of rolls rotate in opposite directions.

Rotating rolls perform two main functions:

1. Pull the work into the gap between them by friction

between work-part and rolls.
2. Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce its cross Figure 3 Rolling Process

section.

Rolling is classified according to the temperature of work piece rolled as in the

following comparison:

Hot Rolling Cold Rolling

Hot rolled steel (also known as HR Cold rolled steel (also known as CR
Steel) is a steel which is heated above steel) is a steel which is roll-pressed at
its recrystallization temperature (or near) the room temperature to
(above 780°C) and then it is roll- get the desired shape.
pressed to a desired shape.
Amount of mechanical force required Amount of force required for cold
for hot rolling is less (because the rolling is more (because the metal is
metal is soft and ductile). hard and brittle).
Hot rolling operation is comparatively
Cold rolling operation is slower than
faster than cold rolling. hot rolling.
Surface finish obtained by hot rolling
Surface finish obtained by cold rolling
is not good. is better than that obtained with hot
rolling.
Hot rolled steels show less Cold rolled steels show higher
dimensional accuracy. dimensional accuracy.
Large sized steels can be hot rolled Cold rolling is suitable for small sized
steels.

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• Hot rolls are generally rough so that they can bite the workpiece while cold
rolls are ground and polished, to produce good finish products.
• Hot working is an effective way to reduce grain size of cast structure to a
wrought structure to improve strength and ductility for subsequent rolling.

Figure 4 Hot Rolling Grains

• Roll materials are usually ductile cast iron, cast steel and forged steel because
of high strength and wear resistance requirements.
• The ingots are heated initially at 1100 °C -1300 °C. In hot-rolling of steel, the
temperature in the ultimate finishing stand varies from 850 °C – 900 °C and is
always above the upper critical temperature of steel.
• Hot rolling permits large deformations of the metal to be achieved with a small
number of rolling cycles.

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2.1 Recrystallisation
The unidirectional austenite grains dissolve as soon as the temperature
drops below the upper critical temperature. These are entirely replaced by a new
set of grains, to nucleate / recrystallize and grow into ferrite-perlite structure.
The recrystallized ferrite-perlite grains maintain equiaxed microstructure and
prevent the metal property from becoming unidirectional and work hardened.

Figure 5 Hot Rolling & Recrystallisation

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• It is usually accompanied by a reduction in the strength and hardness of a
material and a simultaneous increase in the ductility.
• Recrystallization may occur during or after deformation (during cooling or
subsequent heat treatment).
• The rate of recrystallization is heavily influenced by the amount of
deformation applied. Heavily deformed materials recrystallize more rapidly
than those deformed to a lesser extent. Indeed, below a certain percentage
deformation recrystallization may never occur.
• Deformation at higher temperatures allows concurrent recovery. Materials
recrystallize more slowly than those deformed at room temperature e.g.
contrast hot and cold rolling.
• The volume fraction of recrystallized grains increases with temperature for a
given time.
• The most important industrial uses are the softening of metals previously
hardened by cold work, which have lost their ductility, and the control of the
grain structure in the final product.

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2.2 Products of Continuous Casing Process

Figure 6 Products of Continuous Casing Process

Bloom: Square cross section (>150 x 150 mm2).

Billets: Square cross-sectional area (> 40 x 40 mm2) smaller than blooms.

Slab: Rectangular cross section (width ≥ 2 x thickness).

2.3 Classification of Rolling Processes

Rolling processes can be classified based on the required workpiece
geometry. The geometry of the product depends on the contour of the roll gap.

2.3.1 Shape Rolling

The workpiece is deformed by a gradual reduction
into a contoured cross section (I-beams, L-beams, U-
channels, rails, round, square bars, and rods, etc.).

Figure 7 Shape Rolling

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2.3.2 Ring Rolling
Ring rolling used to reduce the wall thickness and increase the diameter of
a ring.

Figure 8 Ring Rolling

2.3.3 Flat Rolling

In flat rolling, the gap between the rotating rolls is less than the thickness
of the entering bar therefore a friction force is necessary to bite the bar and to pull
it through the rolls.

A metal bar passing through the rotating rolls is squeezed, and it elongates while
its cross-section area decreases.

Figure 9 Flat Roll Arrangements.

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Two-High Mill, Pullover: A stand (set of rolls) having two horizontal rolls one
above the other is called a two-high stand. The stock is returned to the entrance
for further reduction. This consists of two rolls, which may rotate only in one
direction (non-reversing) or in two directions (reversing).

Two-High Mill, reversing: The work is passed back and forth through the rolls
by reversing their direction of rotation. Two high stands are either reversing mills
in which the steel passes back and forth between the same rolls or continuous
mills in which the steel passes through several stands in tandem.

Three High Mill: In three - high mills, three rolls are arranged vertically. Steel
passes forward between the middle roll and bottom roll and backward between
the middle and top rolls. This consist of upper, middle, and lower rolls driven by
electric motors and allows a series of reductions without the need to change the
rotational direction of the rolls. Directions of rotation of the rolls in three-high
mills are not reversed.

Four-High Mill: Small-diameter rolls (less strength & rigidity) are supported by
larger-diameter backup rolls. Using small rolls reduces power consumption but
increases the roll deflection. In this configuration, two small rolls, called working
rolls, are used to reduce the power and another two, called backing rolls, are used
to provide support to the working rolls. Two backup rolls, generally much larger
than the operating rolls, is placed against the two operating rolls to prevent their
distortion. These are called four-high stands. Four-high stands is either reversing
mills in which the steel passes back and forth between the same rolls or
continuous mills in which the steel passes through several stands in tandem.

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Some finished flat rolled products:

• Plate is the product with a thickness > 6 mm.

• Sheet is the product with a thickness < 6 mm and width > 600 mm.
• Strip is the product with a thickness < 6 mm and width < 600 mm.

Figure 10 Flat and Shape Rolling Processes

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3 Heating of Cold Stock
One of the perquisites of the hot rolling practice is heating the input
bloom/billet/slab from the room temperature to the rollable temperature. At that
higher temperature the steel is transformed into a single Austenite phase from
the dual phases of Perlite and Cementite at room temperature. Such phase
change temperature for 0.68 % carbon steel is 738oC. At lower or higher carbon
percentage, this phase change temperature increases and therefore, the
temperature to which the steel is heated for hot rolling is increased accordingly.
However, in practice steel is heated to a temperature of about 50 oC to 100oC
above the phase change temperature. This increase in temperature is because steel
besides having varying percentage of carbon and iron also contain other alloying
elements which affect the phase changing temperature.

Figure 11 FeC Curve

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Hot rolling takes place in several steps and drafting / reduction is given in every
stage. The ultimate draft is at a temperature above the recrystallization or phase
change temperature. Accordingly, the cold stock is heated to a much higher
temperature than the recrystallization temperature. Therefore, the ultimate
temperature to which the work piece depends on the amount of total draft, the
number of steps where the drafting is provided and the composition of the steel
stock. Blooms are heated to the rollable temperature in a reheating furnace. This
is the starting point of the hot rolling mill practice.

3.1 Reheating Furnace

Reheating is a continuous process where the cold stock is charged at the
cold rear end of the furnace and heated. The hot blooms (in the rollable
temperature) come out from the discharged end of the reheating furnace and then
proceed in the direction of rolling. Heat energy from the hot burner flames and
flue gases is transferred to the cold input steel during their travel from the rear to
the discharge end of the furnace. This
exchange of heat energy takes place by
means of conduction, convection and
radiation from the hot flames, hot flue
gases and the hot furnace walls. The
rollable temperature of the hot bloom /
billet / slab ranges between 1150oC -
1200°C. Thus, the temperature inside
the furnace is still higher.
Figure 12 Heat Transfer Mechanism in Reheating
Furnace

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Furnace has three parts: walls, roof, and hearth. Furnace is lined with several
layers of refractory bricks. It is insulated by glass wool. The initial heating zone
of the furnace has temperature of about 1000oC. This zone is lined with low
alumina refractory bricks. Soaking zone has temperature more than 1200oC.
High Alumina refractory bricks are suitable for this zone.

Figure 13 Reheating Furnace Diagram

• The hot flames emerging out of the fuel burners glide smoothly over the
charged stock and transfer their heat energy by conduction and convection of
heat from the roof and the walls. The flue gas is drawn towards the rear
(charging) end of the reheating furnace and finally escapes to the atmosphere
through flue passage and chimney via the recuperator.
• The efficiency of this heat transfer depends on the lengths of the hot flames
and the time duration the hot flue gas interacts with the cold stock.
• The lengths of the hot flames are controlled by (Air to Fuel Ratio) the amount
of fuel input and the corresponding combustion air (oxygen) blown in.
• The conductivity of heat takes time and is strongly related to the composition
of the material.
• The coefficient of heat conductivity is similar for many steel grades but is
much lower in stainless steels.

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 Figure 14 Sankey diagram of a reheating furnace.

3.1.1 Air Fuel Ratio

The air-to-fuel ratio is a critical parameter in optimizing the performance
of reheating furnaces.

Figure 15 Combustion.

Optimum Ratio:

• The goal is to achieve the ideal balance between air and fuel for efficient
combustion.

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• The optimum ratio typically involves maintaining 10% excess air (equivalent
to approximately 2.1% oxygen in flue gases). However, practical tests often
reveal an actual ratio of around 25% excess air (approximately 4.5% oxygen
in flue gases).
• This balance ensures complete combustion while minimizing energy losses.

Importance:

• Insufficient Air: If there’s too little air, combustion becomes incomplete,

leading to wasted fuel and elevated carbon monoxide (CO) emissions. This is
easily detected from the black smoke (unburnt fuel) emerging from the
chimney top.
• Excess Air: Conversely, excessive air results in a large volume of hot air
leaving the furnace, reducing the available energy for heating the steel stock.
besides being adequate for complete combustion of the input fuel, some
balance amount is readily on hand for oxidation of the hot steel input to form
scales on the surface. Oxidation reduces the metal output and consequently
the yield percentage. The cost of production is thus adversely affected.
Then the excess cold air blowing across the furnace carries away a lot of
sensible heat energy from inside the furnace, resulting in the furnace running
cold and thus lowering the heating efficiency.
• Efficiency: Properly adjusting the air-fuel ratio can cost-effectively reduce
energy use by 5 - 25%.

Monitoring and Control:

• Continuous monitoring of the oxygen concentration in the furnace exhaust is

crucial.
• However, oxygen concentration alone doesn’t provide the full picture.

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• Carbon monoxide (CO) measurements allow precise regulation of
combustion conditions, ensuring efficient operation without risking high CO
emissions or flameout.

3.1.2 Reheating Furnace Zones

Preheating Zone:
• The preheating zone is the initial section of the furnace.
• Its purpose is to warm up the cold steel stock as it enters the furnace.
• During this phase, the stock absorbs heat from the furnace atmosphere and
the walls.
• The temperature in the preheating zone is typically lower than the desired
rolling temperature.
• Efficient preheating minimizes thermal shock and ensures uniform
heating throughout the stock.

Heating Zone:

• The heating zone follows the preheating section.

• In this zone, the main heating of the steel stock occurs.
• Burners or other heat sources provide intense heat to raise the stock
temperature significantly.
• The goal is to reach the rolling temperature (around 1200°C) suitable for
plastic deformation during rolling.
• Heat transfer mechanisms include convection and radiation from the
burner gases and furnace walls.
• As the steel travels towards the discharging end, it comes in contact with
flue having highest temperature. While the temperature of the outside
surface of the stock increases progressively, the temperature difference
between the outside surface and the inner core also builds up considerably.

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Soaking Zone:

• The soaking zone allows the heat to homogenize throughout the steel
stock.
• After leaving the heating zone, the stock enters the soaking section.
• Here, the stock remains at a constant temperature for a specific duration.
• Uniform temperature distribution across the stock’s thickness, length, and
width is essential.
• Soaking ensures that the entire stock reaches the desired rolling
temperature consistently and the temperature difference between the
outside surface and the inner core is gradually brought to a minimum.
However, the temperature difference between the core and the surface is
never made zero. The minimum temperature difference, as observed in
practice remains roughly 50oC.

Figure 16 Stock Heating Process

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3.2 Types of Reheating Furnaces
There are many types of reheating furnaces with various designs. The
workings of these furnaces are also unique in nature. Heating takes place by
burning of fuel oil or gas inside the furnace with the help of combustion air
supplied through an air blower. The air is the sole supplier of oxygen for the
exothermic heat of reaction resulting from the oxidation of the fuel. This heat of
reaction is the source of heat input in the furnace.

The quality of reheating depends on the criteria mentioned below:

• The furnace throughput the capacity of the furnace.

• The asking / required rate depends on the current prevailing condition of
rolling the expected present rolling rate.
• The dimension of the input stock being heated and the steel composition.
• The time duration of travel of the cold stock from charging end to the
discharging end.

𝐵𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑒 (𝑇) (ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠) = 𝛼 𝑥 𝐾 𝑥 𝐷 𝑥 √𝐷

Where:

− T: Time Duration.
− 𝑫: Billet Dimensions.
− 𝑲: Constant depends on carbon percentage in billet. K = 12.5 for low and
intermediate carbon steel and K = 20:25 for high carbon steel.
− 𝜶: Constant depends on the shape of billets in the reheating furnace.

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 Figure 17 Calculation of 𝜶

3.2.1 Pusher Type Reheating Furnace

• In a pusher type furnace, the steel stock is pushed through the furnace using
mechanical pushers.
• The stock moves along a fixed path, passing through multiple heating zones
(Preheating, Heating, Soaking).
• Fuel (solid, liquid, or gaseous) is burned to generate heat, which is transferred
to the steel stock mainly through convection and radiation.
• Pusher furnaces are efficient and widely used due to their flexibility and
uniform heating capabilities.
• Disadvantages of Pusher Type Furnace:
1. Cross-Sectional Limitations:
− Pusher type furnaces limit the cross section of the steel stock that can
be efficiently heated.
− The contacting surface must be square to prevent piling of steel stock
in the furnace.
2. Inflexibility for Small Quantities:
− Pusher furnaces lack flexibility when it comes to heating small
quantities or thin steel stock.
− Their design is optimized for larger batches, making them less efficient
for smaller loads.

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3. Water-Cooled Skid Maintenance Challenges:
− Pusher furnaces use water-cooled skids to support and move the steel
stock.
− Maintenance of these skids can be difficult due to wear and tear.
− Water-cooled skids can also result in colder stripes on the heated steel
stock.
4. Scale Build-Up on Hearth:
− Over time, a build-up of scale on the hearth can cause operational
problems.
− Emptying the furnace at the end of the schedule becomes expensive due
to scale accumulation.
5. Mixed Sizes of Steel Stock:
− Pusher furnaces are not desirable for pushing mixed sizes of steel stock
through the furnace.
− Uniform heating becomes challenging when handling different stock
dimensions.

Figure 18 Pusher Type Reheating Furnaces

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3.2.2 Walking Hearth Furnaces
• In a walking hearth furnace, the steel stock rests on a moving hearth that
advances step by step.
• The hearth moves in a continuous loop, allowing the stock to traverse through
different heating zones.
• Walking hearth furnaces are suitable for longer stock lengths and provide good
temperature uniformity.
• Disadvantages of Pusher Type Furnace:
1. Limited Stock Sizes and Weights:
− Walking hearth furnaces have limitations on the size and weight of the
steel stock they can efficiently handle.
− Friction and the possibility of stockpile-ups restrict the maximum stock
dimensions.
− Achieving uniform heating of the entire stock is challenging due to
this limitation.
2. Narrow and Long Design:
− Walking hearth furnaces tend to be narrow and elongated compared
to pusher type or walking beam furnaces of the same capacity.
− This design can impact the overall layout and space utilization within
the rolling mill.
3. Maintenance Challenges:
− The moving hearth mechanism requires regular maintenance.
− Ensuring smooth movement and proper insulation of the hearth
components is essential.
− Water-cooled components (if used) need careful attention to prevent
heat loss.

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 Figure 19 Walking Hearth Reheating Furnaces

3.2.3 Walking Beam Furnace

• Walking beam furnaces use a series of reciprocating beams to transport the
steel stock.
• The stock moves horizontally on the beams, stopping at each heating zone.
• Walking beam furnaces are versatile and can handle various stock sizes and
shapes.
• Disadvantages of Walking Bean Furnace:
1. System Complexity:
− Walking beam furnaces have a relatively complex design compared to
some other types.
− The moving beams, transfer mechanisms, and control systems require
careful engineering and maintenance.
− Complexity can lead to higher operational costs and potential
downtime.

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2. Maintenance Challenges:
− Walking beam furnaces involve moving parts (the beams) that require
regular maintenance.
− Ensuring smooth movement, proper alignment, and wear-resistant
components is essential.
− Maintenance of hearth seals and refractory materials can also be
demanding.
3. Scale Accumulation Issues:
− During the heating process, scale (oxide layers) can form on the steel
surface.
− In walking beam furnaces, scale can drop off and accumulate on the
hearth.
− Scale buildup affects heat transfer efficiency and can lead to uneven
heating.

Figure 20 Walking Beam Reheating Furnace

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3.3 Recuperator
A recuperator is a type of heat exchanger
used in industrial furnaces and other high-
temperature processes. Its primary function is to
extract heat from the waste gases (exhaust
gases) leaving the furnace. The recovered heat is
then used to preheat the incoming combustion
air before it enters the burner. Figure 21 Recuperator

How Does a Recuperator Work?

• The basic operation of a recuperator involves transferring heat from the hot
flue gases to the cooler combustion air.
• The recuperator typically consists of a metallic structure (often made of
stainless steel or other heat-resistant materials) that separates the hot gas flow
from the incoming air.
• As the hot gases pass over the recuperator’s surface, they transfer their heat
energy to the metal.
• Simultaneously, the incoming combustion air flows on the other side of the
metal surface, absorbing the heat.
• The preheated air is then directed to the furnace burner, resulting in energy
conservation and improved combustion performance.

Advantages of Recuperators:

• Energy Savings: By preheating the combustion air, recuperators can achieve

significant energy savings (typically around 30% compared to cold air
combustion systems).
• Reduced Fuel Consumption: The recovered heat allows for better fuel
utilization, leading to lower fuel consumption.

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• Improved Efficiency: Furnaces equipped with recuperators operate more
efficiently due to the preheated air.

Limitations:

• Recuperators have a maximum preheat temperature limit (usually around 550-

600°C).
• Beyond this temperature, other types of heat recovery systems (such as
regenerative burners) may be more suitable.

Figure 22 Recuperator System

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Cold air from the air blower, required for combustion of the fuel is passed
through a pipe work placed inside the recuperator box, at right angles to the
passage of the hot flue gas. The air pipe passing through the recuperator box is
not a straight one. It is smoothly bent at 180 0 (with small radius curve) many folds
inside the recuperator box. This increases the surface area and thereby the
duration of contact between the hot flue and the cold air for efficient heat
transfers. The pipe end having cold air enters the recuperator box from the rear
end of the box and the pipe end with hot air emerges out from the front end of the
box in the flue passage.

By opening and closing the valves (dampers), the temperature inside the
recuperator is controlled to cool down or increase the temperature. If the
temperature within the recuperator comes down then by closing the valve
provided after the recuperator, the suction action in the flue passage is reduced.
This increases the duration of stay of the hot flue inside the box. The temperature
inside the recuperator is thus increased.

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3.4 Scale Formation
Scale is a layer of iron oxides (primarily
hematite, magnetite, and wustite) that forms on
the surface of hot steel during reheating.

• Hematite (Fe2O3): Reddish-brown scale.

• Magnetite (Fe3O4): Black scale.
• Wustite (FeO): Dark gray scale.

The thickness formation of scale is influenced

by the temperature of stock being heated, the
composition of the steel input, the furnace
Figure 23 Scale Composition
atmosphere (whether excess air or not) whether
excess oxygen is available or not and the time of residence of the stock in the
furnace. More time spent inside the furnace at a high temperature and oxidizing
atmosphere leads to thicker scales and thus more metal loss. It is observed in
practice that maximum scale formation in steel take place at about 800o C.

Figure 24 Scale Formation

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Formation of scale means loss of valuable steel metal. Generally, it is around
1% of the input weight. To produce this amount of steel metal, energy has been
used in several steps: ore excavation and refinement, reduction, conversion,
casting, and reheating. Reduction of scale losses is equivalent to a reduction of
the total energy used to produce a certain quantity of steel.

Improved control of the furnace atmosphere enables a lower and more stable
oxygen content inside the furnace and hence reduction of metal loss through scale
formation. However, most metal experience some surface oxidation resulting in
material loss and poor final surface finish. A quality improvement of the reheating
process due to automatic furnace control indirectly contributes to the energy
efficiency and therefore, is accounted for in the same manner as direct fuel
savings.

However, a very thin scale is purposely formed on the outer surface of the stock
to prevent dissipation heat from the hot steel.

• Scale forms an insulating material cover resulting in very low heat

conductivity.
• After preheating steel slabs, blooms, or billets the rough material is descaled,
but growth of secondary scale, a function of time starts immediately.
• High temperature scale is very hard and the main cause of wear in work
rolls. Low temperature scale is much softer. Rolled-in scale devalues the
rolled products.
• Descaling of secondary iron oxides is always highly recommended.

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3.4.1 Types of Descaling
Descaling is a critical process in hot rolling mills to remove the oxide scale
from the surface of hot-rolled steel. Various descaling methods are employed,
each with its advantages and limitations.

1. Mechanical Descaling Processes:

Mechanical descaling involves physically removing the scale from the steel
surface. Mechanical descaling is effective but can cause surface scratches or
indentations.

Common mechanical methods include:

• Shot Blasting: High-speed steel shots or pellets impact the surface, dislodging
the scale.
• Brushing or Abrasive Rollers: Rotating brushes or abrasive rollers scrub the
scale off.
• Scalping: Heavy-duty rollers press against the steel, scraping off the scale.

Figure 25 Shot Blasting Process

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2. Hydraulic Descaling Process:
• Hydraulic descaling uses high-pressure water jets to remove scale.
• Water is sprayed onto the steel surface through specially designed nozzles.
• The impact of water breaks down the scale, which is then washed away.
• Hydraulic descaling is efficient and widely used in modern rolling mills.

Figure 26 Hydraulic Descaling

3. Chemical Descaling Processes:

• Chemical descaling involves using acidic solutions to dissolve the scale.
• Acidic descalers are typically made from a mixture of phosphoric acid
and EDTA (ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid).
• These solutions react with the oxide layer, facilitating its removal.
• Chemical descaling is effective but requires proper handling and waste
treatment.

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4. Flame Cleaning Process:
• Flame cleaning uses a high-temperature flame (usually oxyfuel) to burn off
the scale.
• The intense heat oxidizes the scale, turning it into a powdery residue.
• Flame cleaning is less common due to safety concerns and energy
consumption.
5. Electronic Descalers:
• Electronic descalers use electromagnetic fields to alter the scale’s
properties.
• These devices prevent scale adherence and facilitate its removal during
subsequent processes.
• Electronic descalers are gaining popularity for their eco-friendly approach.

The choice of descaling method depends on factors such as efficiency, surface

quality, environmental impact, and safety considerations. Rolling mills often
combine multiple descaling techniques to achieve optimal results.

35
3.5 Metal Burning
Metal burning refers to the formation
of a film of sulfur-rich liquid at the austenite
grain boundaries in steel. This defect is
particularly detrimental because it leads to
permanent damage, causing the steel to lose
ductility and disintegrate during deformation.

This is caused by excessive heating resulting Figure 27 Metal Burning

in burning / melting of the input stock, which
leads to metal loss.

This happens largely when the output is low, or the rolling is not stable and
steady, but the corresponding fuel and air input remains unaltered and not
changed duly. Loss of metal due to metal burning causes lower yield.

The input steel on occasions is degraded because of excessive oxidation of carbon

and other alloying elements in steel. This happens when the normal residence of
the stock at an elevated temperature inside the reheating furnace is extended
because of some reason or other.

36
4 Rolling Parameters
When a piece of metal is rolled between two rolls, the metal piece experiences
both vertical and horizontal stresses caused by the compressive load from the
rolls and the restrains by the portions of the metal piece before and after the
material in contact with the roll respectively.

As the rolls exert a vertical stress on the metal piece, the latter exerts the same
amount of stress back onto the rolls itself. As such the rolls are subjected to elastic
deformation due to this stress induced by the work piece.

The thickness is reduced because of the compressive stresses exerted by the

rolls, and it is treated as a two-dimensional deformation in the thickness in length
directions or changes its cross-sectional area.

In the deformation zone the thickness of the input metal gets reduced and it
elongates. This increases the linear speed of the work piece at the exit so in
continuous bar rolling, the volume flow rate remains constant.

Figure 28 Relationship between rolls.

37
 𝑸 = 𝑨𝟏 × 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑨𝟐 × 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑨𝒏 × 𝑽𝒏 = 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕

Where:

𝑸: Volume flow rate (m3/s).

𝑽𝒏 : Linear velocity of the metal after passing in each stand (m/s).

𝑨𝒏 : Cross-sectional area of the metal after each stand (m2).

Example:

Assume that the exit bar from stand 1 has cross sectional area = 3467 mm2
and the finished round has cross-sectional area = 113 mm2 (hot bar
dimensions**). If the finished stand delivers at a speed of 12 m/s, so what is the
linear speed of the stand 1?

Given:

A1 = 3467 mm2, Af = 113 mm2, Vf = 12 m/s

Solution:

𝑄 = 𝐴1 × 𝑉1 = 𝐴𝑓 × 𝑉𝑓 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝐴𝑓 × 𝑉𝑓 = 113 × 12 = 1356

1356
𝑉1 = = 0.391 𝑚/𝑠
3467

Then stand 1 peripheral speed is 0.391 m/s.

** Hot size of the bar is normally taken as 1.013 times the cold size.

38
4.1 Coefficient of Expansion
The coefficient of thermal expansion
(often denoted as α) characterizes how a
material expands or contracts with changes in
temperature. Specifically, it represents the
rate at which the length of a material changes
per degree of temperature variation.

The dimensions of a finishing pass are

determined by the dimensions of the finished Figure 29 Area Thermal Expansion

shape. The temperature of the metal being

rolled in the finishing pass is from 800° up to 1000° C. Therefore, to find the hot
size of a section, we multiply the cold size by the expansion constant. The latter
is determined from the following formula:

𝑲 = 𝟏 + 𝜶𝒕

Where:

𝜶 is the linear coefficient of expansion for steel = 0.000012.

t is the temperature of the stock after being rolled in the finishing pass.

This constant K varies in a range from 1.010 to 1.015 for steel at various rolling
temperatures.

Thus, to obtain a section of the required size at shop temperature, it is necessary

to increase the size of the finishing pass by the amount. of metal shrinkage in
cooling from the finishing temperature to normal shop temperature.

Keep in mind that this coefficient varies slightly depending on the specific type
of steel and its alloy composition. If you need more precise values for a particular
steel grade, refer to material specifications or consult engineering references.

39
 Figure 30 Coefficient of thermal expansion at different temperature.

4.2 Draft/Draught
4.2.1 Absolute Draught
Draught is expressed in linear unit and is the difference between the entry
stock height/thickness to exit height/thickness.

∆𝐻 = 𝐻1 − 𝐻2

Figure 31 Computation of Draught

40
4.2.2 Relative Draught
Relative draught is expressed as a percentage.

𝐻1 − 𝐻2
∆𝐻% =
𝐻1

4.2.3 Actual Draught

∆𝐻 = 0.85𝐻1 − 0.79𝐻2

4.2.4 Maximum Draught

∆𝐻𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇2 𝑅

𝝁: Coefficient of Friction 𝑹: Roll Radius

4.2.5 Maximum Draft (Bakhtinov’s Formula)

1
∆𝐻𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 𝐷 (1 − )
√1 + 𝜇2

𝝁: Coefficient of Friction 𝑫: Roll Diameter

Draught can be either direct or indirect. Direct draught is a reduction in vertical

direction, whereas the indirect draft exerts pressure in non-vertical direction. It
is applicable mostly in flange profile.

Figure 32 Direct and indirect draft.

41
4.3 Elongation
It is expressed either as a ratio of final length to initial length or as
percentage of initial length.

Figure 33 Computation of elongation.

4.3.1 Elongation Factor

𝐿2
𝐸= (𝐸 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 1)
𝐿1

4.3.2 Elongation Percentage

𝐿2 − 𝐿1
%𝐸 =
𝐿2

42
4.4 Spread
Spread in rolling is the most important and complex deformation factor,
which must be considered, while designing a pass. It is the fundamental principle
that metal flows in the direction of least resistance, hence metal flows not only in
the longitudinal direction, but also it flows in lateral direction also.

4.4.1 Absolute Spread

∆𝐵 = 𝐵2 − 𝐵1

4.4.2 Percentage Spread

𝐵2 − 𝐵1
∆𝐵% = × 100%
𝐵2

4.4.3 Actual Spread (Bakhtinov Formula)

∆𝐻 ∆𝐻
∆𝐵 = 1.15 (𝐿 − )
2𝐻1 2𝜇

𝜟𝑩: Total Spread 𝑯𝟏 : Initial height of metal stock

𝜟𝑯: Draft 𝑳: Length of Contact Area

𝑹: Radius of Roll 𝝁: Coefficient of Friction

4.4.4 Actual Spread (Grishkov Formula)

It gives very accurate results, especially when Oval-square system is
used.

∆𝐻 𝐻1
𝛥 𝐵 = Қ × 𝐴 × 𝐶 (𝐿 − ) × 2.3 log
2𝜇 𝐻2

𝝁: Coefficient of Friction

𝜟𝑯: Absolute Draft

𝑳: Length of Contact Area

43
 8√3.5
Қ=
0.5 + 𝑉

𝑽: 𝑅𝑜𝑙𝑙 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐.

∆𝐻
𝐴= + 0.5
3𝐻1

4(1 − ∆𝐻) 𝐵 𝐵 ∆𝐻
𝐶=( × − 0.15) × 𝑒 1.5 (0.15 − ) +
𝐻 𝐿 𝐿 𝐻1

4.4.5 Actual Spread (SIMAC Formula)

∆𝐻
∆𝐵 = 0.4 × × √𝑅∆𝐻
𝐻1

4.4.6 Maximum Spread

The maximum spread (Wmax) of the workpiece can be calculated from the
following formula.

Figure 34 Spread from round to oval. Figure 35 Spread from oval to round.

44
 ̅𝑖 − 𝐻
√𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 (𝐻 ̅𝑜 )
𝐴ℎ
𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑊𝑖 1 + 𝛾 ×
𝑊𝑖 + 0.5𝐻𝑖 𝐴𝑜
[ ]
𝐴𝑜 − 𝐴𝑠 − 𝐴ℎ 𝐴𝑜 − 𝐴𝑠
̅𝑜 =
𝐻 ̅𝑖 =
𝐻
𝐵𝑐 𝐵𝑐
Where:

𝑾𝒎𝒂𝒙 : Maximum spread.

̅ 𝒐 : Effective height of outgoing work piece.

𝑯

̅ 𝒊 : Effective height of incoming work piece.

𝑯

𝑯𝒊 : Effective height of incoming work piece.

𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒇 : Effective roll radius.

𝑾𝒊 : Width of incoming work piece.

𝑩𝒄 : Effective Width of work piece.

𝑨𝒐 : Area of Incoming workpiece.

𝑨𝒉 : is the part of the cross-section area of the metal before rolling that is outside
the groove.

𝑨𝒔 : Area extra from mean width.

𝜸: Constant depends on the shape of the pass.

45
 Pass 𝜸
Square - Oval 0.92
Round - Oval 0.97
Square - Diamond 0.83
Oval - Square 1.06
Oval - Round 0.83
Diamond - Square 0.83
Diamond - Diamond 0.95
Oval - Oval 0.95
Table 1 The value of 𝜸 for different passes

Calculation of Arc Area (As):

To calculate the radius Given an arc or segment with known width and height:

Figure 36 Arc Area Calculation

𝐻 𝑊2
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 = +
2 8𝐻

Where:

W: is the length of the chord defining the base of the arc.

H: is the height measured at the midpoint of the arc's base.

46
 Figure 37 Circle Equations

𝑅2 𝜋 𝑜
𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴𝑠 ) = ( 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 𝑜 )
2 180

Example:

3.52 𝜋
𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴𝑠 ) = ( 77𝑜 − sin 77𝑜 )
2 180

= 2.3 cm2

Figure 38 Arc Area Example

47
4.4.7 Factors Effecting Spread
Spread in rolling depends upon several simultaneous acting factors. The
effect of each factor is considered separately below, assuming that all other
factors remain constant.

1. Reduction (Draft): Spread has got a linear relationship with reduction.

Spread increases with increase in reduction.
2. Width of workpiece: The maximum spread occurs with width of work piece
between 20 to 40 mm for a particular reduction. Spread starts reduce with
width up to 200 mm and beyond 200 mm, it become negligible.
3. Rolling speed: Maximum spread occurs at rolling speed up to 2 m/sec. it
gradually reduces and become negligible beyond 10 m/sec.
4. Rolling temperature: With the increase in rolling temperature, spread
decreases, as co-efficient of friction reduces with increase in temperature. It is
seen that the maximum spread occurs at temperature of rolling between
1050°C – 1100°C.
5. Friction: Increases of co-efficient of friction gives greater spread. The uneven
surface of roll prevents flow of metal in longitudinal direction at elongation,
it moves towards sides, causing increase in the spread.
6. Roll Diameter: “Large roll squeezes, but small roll one pulls” is an old saying.
With the increase in length of contact area (√𝑅 × ∆ℎ where R is roll radius),
the sum of frictional forces acting in the longitudinal direction get increases
and elongation decreases. This is to give rise increase in lateral deformation
spread.
7. Composition of metal being rolled: Spread increases with increase in Carbon
and Manganese and other alloying elements in the metal being rolled.

48
4.5 Contact Area
It refers to the region where the rolls and the material being rolled come
into contact and is where the actual deformation of the material takes place. This
area is defined by the width of the material in the transverse plane and the
circumferential arc of contact between the roll and the material.

Figure 39 Computation of Contact Area

∆𝐻2
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐿)(𝑚) = √𝑅∆𝐻 − ≈ √𝑅∆𝐻
4

𝐵1 + 𝐵2
𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑍𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐹𝑑 ) (𝑚2 ) = 𝐿 ×
2

49
4.6 Bite Angle or Contact Angle
It is the basic principle of mechanism, when two bodies having relative
motion are placed in contact, one force acts along the common tangent in the
direction of relative motion of other body. If bar moves slowly than the peripheral
speed of the roll, then frictional force will tend to pull it into the roll gap. If bar
moves quickly than the peripheral speed of roll, frictional force will oppose the
entry of work piece into the rolls.

Figure 40 Roll Bite Condition

In figure 40 the radial force Pr tends to compress the stock, while tangential force
µPr (where µ is the friction between rolls and metal), acting towards the roll gap.

For biting the work piece:

𝜇𝑃𝑟 cos 𝛼 > 𝑃𝑟 sin 𝛼

𝜇 > tan 𝛼

50
Calculation of Bite Angle:

∆𝐻
𝐵𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 (𝛼)(𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒) = cos −1 (1 − ) (1)
𝐷

∆𝐻
𝐵𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 (𝛼)(𝑅𝑎𝑑) = √ (2)
𝑅

180
𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 𝑅𝑎𝑑 ×
𝜋

4.7 Friction
• When a stock undergoes drafting, it moves further into the roll gap and its
cross-sectional area is reduced.
• The roll surface speed exceeds the stock speed at the plane of entry.
• The roll pressure varies along the arc of the contact angle. The peak pressure
is located at the neutral point. The area beneath the curve represents roll
force.

1
2

Figure 41 Fraction Hill in Rolling

51
• At the neutral point there is neither forward nor backward frictional forces
acting on the bar surface. At this point the direction of the frictional force
reverses.
• Beyond this point the stock speed exceeds the roll surface speed. It is seen that
the stock comes out of the rolls at a speed greater than the peripheral speed of
the rolls. This is known as "forward slip", "speed gain" or "extrusion effect".

4.7.1 Neutral Point

A vertical plane within the zone of deformation, where in the speed of
workpiece is equal to peripheral speed of roll, is called “Neutral plane” and the
angle corresponding to this plane is known as “Neutral angle”. The position of
neutral point is determined by the amount of forward slip. It is dependent upon
the co-efficient of friction and given reduction.

Figure 42 Neutral Point Position

52
“Ekelund” formula, calculated the position of neutral point:

√∆𝐻 1 ∆𝐻
𝛿= − ×
2𝐷 𝜇 2𝐷

𝜹: no slip angle in radian.

∆𝑯: Draft.

𝝁: co-efficient of friction.

ℎ𝑛 = 𝐷𝑤 (1 − cos 𝛿) + ℎ1

𝑉𝑛 = 𝑉𝑟 cos 𝛿

𝒉𝒏 : The height of stock at the neutral point.

𝑫𝒘 : Working Diameter.

𝒉𝟏 : The height of stock at the outlet of stand.

𝑽𝒏 : Peripheral Roll Speed.

𝜋𝐷𝑤 𝑛
𝑽𝒓 : Linear speed of the roll = 𝑉𝑟 = .
60

n: Rolling Speed (RPM) = 𝑁/𝑖

𝒊: Gear Box Ratio.

Then from the last formula the position of a neutral point is dependent on:

− Coefficient of friction along the arc of contact.

− The diameter of the working roll.

53
4.7.2 Forward Slip
Bar issuing from the rolls are at higher speed than the peripheral speed of
the rolls.

𝑉1 > 𝑉𝑛 > 𝑉0

𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑟 ℎ𝑛 cos 𝛿
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑆𝑙𝑖𝑝 (𝑠𝑓 ) = = −1
𝑉𝑟 ℎ1

4.7.3 Coff of Friction

• The material to be rolled is drawn by means of friction into the two oppositely
rotating roll gaps.
• Frictional force is needed to pull the metal into the rolls and responsible for a
large portion of the rolling load.
• High friction results in high rolling load.
• However, it is very difficult to measure this variation in µ, all theories of
rolling are forced to assume a constant coefficient of friction.
• The peripheral velocity of rolls at entry exceeds that of the work piece, which
is dragged in if the interface friction is high enough.
• Decreasing the coefficient of friction and reducing the work roll diameter
move the neutral point towards the exit plane and thereby decrease the
forward slip.
• When the angle of contact (Bite Angle (𝛼)) exceeds the friction, the rolls
cannot grip and draw work piece.
• When the stock's approach is slower than the peripheral speed of the rolls then
the frictional force pulls the stock into the roll gap. But if the stock moves at
higher speed than the peripheral speed, then the frictional force opposes the
entry of the stock into the roll gap. Such an opposing action reduces the
approach speed of the stock and thus the frictional force pulls the stock into
the roll gap.

54
4.7.4 Coff of Friction
𝜇 = 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3 (1.05 − 0.0005 × 𝑡) (1)

𝒕: Workpiece Temperature.

𝑲𝟏 : Co-efficient for condition of surface of rolls.

= 1.0 for steel rolls.

= 0.8 for cast iron rolls.

𝑲𝟐 : Dynamic Friction.

Figure 43 Computation of Value of K2

𝑲𝟑 : Co-efficient depending upon the composition of rolled metal.

= 1.0 for carbon steel.

= 1.24 – 1.63 for alloy steel.

Another equation:

For steel rolls:

𝜇 = 1.05 − 0.0005𝑡 − 0.056𝑣 (2)

For cast iron rolls:

𝜇 = 0.92 − 0.0005𝑡 − 0.0056𝑣 (3)

𝒗: Roll Peripheral Speed in m/sec.

𝒕: Workpiece Temperature.

55
4.8 Working Diameter
The roll rotates at constant speed, therefore the rotational speed RPM at
any given point in the roll remains constant. However, in grooved rolls the surface
speed m/s at the bottom of the groove is less than the surface speed at the top of
the groove where the diameter of the roll is larger. Since all points on the surface
of the stock leave the rolls at the same speed the speed of the stock will be faster
than the roll speed at the bottom of the groove, but slower than the speed of the
roll at the top of the pass. At some point in between the speed of the roll and the
speed of the stock at the exit plane will be equal. The roll radius at this point is
known as the effective radius. The corresponding diameter is known as the
effective diameter or working diameter.

Figure 44 Pass in Grooved Rolls

Working diameter can be calculated from the following formula:

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝐷𝑤) = 𝑅𝑜𝑙𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝐷𝑒) − 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = − 𝐺𝑎𝑝
𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ

56
4.9 Rolling Load
𝑃 = 𝐹𝑑 × 𝑃𝑚

𝑷: Total rolling load (Kg.f).

𝑭𝒅 : Projected contact area (mm2).

𝑷𝒎 : Mean unit pressure of metal on rolls (Kg/mm2).

There are a lot of formulae to determine Pm in some of these all the effects (strain
– strain rate – temperature – friction) are considered separately in others the things
are more confused. Only one thing is certain: none of them is true and none of
them gives good results in all the situations. It’s important then to choose one
calculation model and apply to it some tuning coefficients or better a process
function, using the measurements coming from the plant.
R
m P
𝝀
𝛋

Figure 45 Calculation of rolling load.

57
 𝑃𝑚 = (κ + 𝜂𝜆)(1 + 𝑚)

𝛋: Unit resistance to static compression (yield point in static compression at

rolling temperature) in kg/mm².

𝜼: Viscosity of metal being rolled kg.s/mm².

𝝀: Mean rate of deformation 1/sec.

𝒎: Co-efficient accounting for increase in resistance to deformation of metal

due to friction between stock and the rolls.

κ = (14 − 0.01 × t)(1.4 + %C + %Mn + 0.3 %Cr)

𝐭: Rolling Temperature

𝜂 = 0.01(14 − 0.01 × 𝑡) × 𝐶𝑣

𝑪𝒗 is a co-efficient, whose value depends upon peripheral speed of rolls.

Figure 46 Cv and peripheral velocity of the roll.

2 × 𝑉 × √∆𝐻⁄𝑅
𝜆=
ℎ0 + ℎ1

∆𝑯: Draft.

𝒉𝟎 : The height of inlet stock.

𝒉𝟏 : The height of the outlet stock.

𝜋𝐷𝑤 𝑛
V: Peripheral Roll Speed. = 𝑉 = .
60

n: Rolling Speed (RPM) = 𝑁/𝑖

𝒊: Gear Box Ratio.

58
 1.6 × 𝜇 × 𝐿 − 1.2 × ∆𝐻
𝑚=
ℎ0 + ℎ1

𝝁: Coefficient of friction.

𝑳: Length of Contact Area.

Figure 47 Equivalent Rectangles

𝐴0
Equivalent entry height (ℎ0𝑒𝑞 ) =
𝑊0𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝐴1
Equivalent exit height (ℎ1𝑒𝑞 ) =
𝑊1𝑚𝑎𝑥

Equivalent draught (∆𝐻𝑒𝑞 ) = ℎ0𝑒𝑞 − ℎ1𝑒𝑞

Equivalent spread (∆𝑊𝑒𝑞 ) = 𝑤1𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑤0𝑚𝑎𝑥

59
4.9.1 ECISP Rolling Load Calculation Model
h₀ − h₁
1.6μ L − 1.2(h₀ − h₁) 2ηV√
R
P = b𝑚 𝐿 × (1 + )×(T+ )
h₀ + h₁ h₀ + h₁

2
𝑏𝑚 = b₀ + ( b₁ − b₀)
3

η = 0.01 ( 14 − 0.01 𝑡 )

T = 100 × η ( 1.4 + %𝐶 + %𝑀𝑛 + 0.3 %𝐶𝑟 )

Where:

P: Rolling load. (kg.f)

𝐡₀: Entry height of rolled section. (mm)

𝐡₁: Exit height of rolled section. (mm)

𝐛₀: Entry width of rolled section. (mm)

𝐛₁: Exit width of rolled section. (mm)

𝒃𝒎 : Mean width of contact area between rolls and rolled section. (mm)

R: Roll radius at the groove bottom. (mm)

V: Linear speed at the bottom of the groove. (mm/s)

T: Compressive strength of iron. (kg/mm²)

𝛈: Tenacity. (kg.s/mm²) (resistance of deformation).

𝑳: Length of contact area. (mm)

60
4.9.2 Factors Effecting Rolling Load
1. Width of bar: Rolling load is directly proportional to the width of bar being
rolled. Load requirement for rolling flat products is much more than rolling of
long products.
2. Roll size: Rolling load increases with the
increase of the roll diameter. At 50%
reduction, the rolling load, corresponds the
largest roll will be 1.5 times than the small
roll. As with larger roll the arc of contact
for the given reduction will be more and
consequently more work has to be done to Figure 48 Effect of Roll Size

overcome the surface friction. Fig. 48 shows the effect of roll size on the
friction hill.
3. Work hardening: The effect of work hardening is to increase the value of
yield stress of metal, as bar processes through rolls, as shown in Fig. 49.

Figure 49 Effect of Work-Hardening

61
4. Chemical composition of metal being rolled: The magnitude of metal stress
depends upon the chemical composition of metal being rolled. The power
requirement and rolling load will be related to the tensile strength of rolling
material and thus increases with tensile strength. In other words, load increases
with the increase of carbon and alloying elements in steel.
5. Temperature of bar being rolled: With increasing temperature, the yield
stress decreases. In other word, the rolling load increases with drop in rolling
temperature.
6. Roll speed: Speed has a very little effect on either rolling load or mean
specific roll pressure. Actually, at higher speed, slightly less power per ton is
required than at lower speed.
7. The co-efficient of friction: The horizontal stress increases with increase in
frictional stresses, as shown in Fig. 50. Rolling load varies substantially with
increase in co-efficient of friction.

Figure 50 Effect of co-efficient of Friction.

62
8. Reduction in pass: For a given roll size and initial bar thickness, the length
of the arc of contact varies with the percentage of reduction. The effect will
be similar to the change in roll size. Roll load increases with reduction in pass.

Figure 51 Effect of Reduction.

9. Bar thickness: The horizontal stress increases as bar become thinner. In case
of thin strip, the horizontal stress will become several times, therefore rolling
load increases, as the initial thickness of bar decreases for a given draft and
roll size.
10.Tension: The effect of front and back tension on the friction hill curve is
shown in Fig. 51 (a & b). In each case, it is seen that rolling load is reduced
and the line of resultant is moved either forward or backward, depending upon
whether back or forward is applied.

Figure 52 Effect of Front (a) and Back Tension (b).

63
4.10 Rolling Toque
Very often in engineering calculations, the
roll torque is calculated with the assumption that the
roll force resultant acts at a distance X from the exit
plane.

𝜏 =2×𝑃×𝑥

P: Rolling load.

x: Lever arm of the resultant total load applied to Figure 53 Rolling Torque Calculation

the arc of contact.

𝑥 = 𝑙𝑑 × 𝑎

𝒍𝒅 : Length of contact area. (mm)

𝒂: Lever arm coefficient that is not a physically determined quantity, but a

coefficient used for a simplified calculation procedure. 𝒂 is usually set ≅ 0.5
or can be expressed as a function of R/h ratio or as a function of draught.

𝑎 =𝛼×𝑅×𝜓

𝜶: Angle of bite (Radian).

𝑹: Roll radius.

𝝍: Torque arm co-efficient. which is equal to the ratio between the length of the
torque arm and that of contact area. On the basis of the experience based on
the experimental data, the value of ψ is taken as: For hot rolling, ψ = (0.45 to
0.50) × L

64
4.11 Rolling Power
𝑅𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝜏 × 𝜔

𝝉: Rolling Torque.

𝝎: Angular Rolling Speed (Rad/s).

𝑉
𝜔=
𝑅

𝑽: Roll Peripheral Speed.

𝑹: Roll radius.

4.12 Productivity
Example on determination of tonnage rolled per hour:

Given:

Billet Size = 130 × 130 × 4000 mm3 , Billet Weight = 520 Kg

Finished Product Size = 16 mm2, Speed at the last stand = 12 m/s

Inter Billet Time (Time between charging out billets from furnace) = 5 second

Solution:

𝑚 520 𝑘𝑔
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝜌) = = = 7692.3 𝐾𝑔/𝑚3
𝑉 0.13 × 0.13 × 4 𝑚3

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝑚̇) = 𝜌 × 𝐴 × 𝑉

𝐾𝑔 𝜋
= 7692.3 × ( (0.0162 )𝑚2 ) × 12 𝑚/𝑠 = 18.56 𝐾𝑔/𝑠
𝑚3 4
= 66.816 𝑡𝑜𝑛/ℎ

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑅𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑟 (𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒)

66.816 𝑡𝑜𝑛⁄ℎ
= = 128.5 𝐵𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑡/ℎ
0.52 𝑡𝑜𝑛

65
 3600
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑂𝑛𝑒 𝐵𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑡 = = 28.02 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
128.5

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑂𝑛𝑒 𝐵𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 5 sec + 28.02 sec = 33.02 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠

3600
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝐵𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑅𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑟 = = 109 𝐵𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑠/ℎ
33.02

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 109 × 0.52 = 𝟓𝟔. 𝟕 𝒕𝒐𝒏/𝒉

66
5 Apparent Problems
Problem:

Black smoke emerging from the chimney of the

reheating furnace.

Reasons:

• Fuel gas input to the furnace is in excess of the

combustion air. Figure 54 Black Smoke

• Lesser amount of combustion air (oxygen) input to the furnace.

𝐶𝑥 𝐻𝑦 + 𝑎(𝑂2 + 3.76𝑁2 ) → 𝑏𝐶𝑂2 + 𝑐𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑑𝐻2 + 𝒆𝑪𝑶 + 3.76𝑎𝑁2

Rectification:

• Ensure Proper Air-Fuel Ratio: Adjust the air-to-fuel ratio to ensure that
there is enough air for complete combustion of the fuel.

Figure 55 Air-Fuel Ratio

• Clean Furnace Components: Accumulation of dust and dirt on furnace

components can lead to inefficient burning. Regular cleaning of these
components, including the register grill, supply ducts, and blower fan
compartments, is essential.

67
Problem:

Thick scales covering the heated billets coming

out of the reheating furnace.

Reasons:

• Disproportionate combustion air input to the

furnace.
• Extended period of stay inside the furnace at a
Figure 56 Scales covering billets.
high temperature.

Rectification:

• Controlled Atmosphere: Maintaining a controlled atmosphere with reduced

oxygen levels in the furnace can minimize oxidation and scale formation.
• Optimized Heating Cycles: Adjusting the heating cycles to reduce the time
billets are exposed to high temperatures can help control scale thickness.

Problem:

Hot billets stick together in the hearth area of the reheating furnace, preventing
one by one smooth delivery from the furnace.

Reasons:

• Sticking Mechanism: The sticking of billets typically occurs when they are
heated to high temperatures, causing their surfaces to become tacky or
partially melt, leading to adhesion.
• Material Quality: Variations in the material composition of the billets can
contribute to differential heating and sticking.
• Furnace Conditions: Uneven temperature distribution and improper
placement of billets within the furnace can exacerbate the issue.

68
Rectification:

• Temperature Management: Ensuring a uniform temperature distribution

within the furnace can prevent hot spots that lead to sticking.
• Billet Spacing: Adequate spacing between billets allows for proper heat
circulation and reduces the chances of billets sticking together.
• Surface Coatings: Applying anti-sticking coatings to billets can create a
barrier that prevents adhesion.
• Material Handling: Using mechanical devices like pushers or extractors that
can gently separate and guide billets can help in preventing them from
sticking.
• Process Optimization: Employing advanced control systems to optimize the
heating cycle and reduce the time billets spend at critical temperatures can
minimize sticking.
• Furnace Design: Considering modifications to the furnace design, such as the
hearth layout, to facilitate better billet movement and prevent congestion.

Problem:

Billets either not entering or there is difficulty in entering in the roll grooves.

Reasons:

• Improper Heating: Billets that are not heated to the proper temperature may
not have the required plasticity to deform and enter the roll grooves smoothly.
• Misalignment: If the billets or the rolling mill components are not properly
aligned, it can prevent the billets from entering the grooves.
• Roll Pass Design: Incorrect design of the roll grooves can hinder the entry of
billets, as the shape and size must be precise to accommodate the billet.

69
Rectification:

• Temperature Control: Ensure that the billets are heated to the correct
temperature and have sufficient soaking time to achieve uniform plasticity.
• Alignment Checks: Regularly inspect and adjust the alignment of the rolling
mill components, including the rolls and guides, to ensure smooth entry of
billets into the grooves.
• Roll Pass Optimization: Review and optimize the roll pass design to ensure
that the grooves are appropriately contoured for the billets being processed.
• Mechanical Assistance: Use mechanical aids such as pushers or manipulators
to help guide the billets into the grooves if they encounter resistance.
• Roughening of Rolls by Ragging or Knurling: Help in increasing friction
and momentary reduce angle of bite.

Figure 57 Knurling of Rolls

70
Problem:

Billets getting stuck at the forming pass.

Reasons:

• Overheating of the billets inside the furnace.

• Absence of proper ragging mark to increase friction.

Rectification:

• Optimal Heating: Ensure billets are heated uniformly to the appropriate

temperature for forming, which improves their ductility and reduces sticking.
• Surface Treatment: Apply surface treatments to billets to reduce friction and
prevent sticking during the forming process.
• Lubrication: Use suitable lubricants to facilitate the movement of billets
through the forming pass.

Problem:

Stocks failing to enter the rolling pass of the subsequent stands.

Reasons:

• Stock delivering from the previous pass is either over size or under or over
twisted.

Figure 58 Angle Adjustment for Twister Guide

71
• Rolls in previous stand have become askew.
• Entry guides of the subsequent stands have shifted and become out of
alignment.
• Rolls loose, out of square or not leveled. Rolling stock at lower temperature
causing biting problem.
• The front end of the work piece is split.
• Entering rolling stock is oversized (due to higher mill spring* of earlier
groove - trying to roll bar at lower temperature - insufficient soaking).

*Mill Spring:

During the process of rolling, the deformation creates high pressure on rolls
by metal. As a resultant of these pressures, a gap between rolls gets formed during
the working of metal between rolls.

Rectification:

• Under or over twisted delivery from the previous pass to be corrected by

appropriate adjustment of the twist guides. Delivery size of stock form the
previous pass must be checked / adjusted.
• Rolls in the previous stand to be aligned.
• Entry guides to be correctly aligned.
• Rolls to be tightened / squared / leveled.
• Both proper temperature and soaking of billets to be ensured.

72
Problem:

Roll neck bearings running hot.

Figure 59 An infrared image of a bearing housing.

Reasons:

• Heat Generation: Bearings generate heat during operation due to friction, but
excessive heat indicates a problem.
• Lubrication Issues: Insufficient or degraded lubricant can increase friction
and heat.
• Alignment and Installation: Improper alignment or installation can cause
uneven load distribution and excessive heat.
• Bearing Wear: Normal wear and tear or contamination can degrade bearing
performance and lead to overheating.

Rectification:

• Lubrication Management: Ensure proper lubrication practices, including the

use of appropriate lubricants and regular replenishment.
• Bearing Inspection: Regularly inspect bearings for signs of wear or damage
and replace them if necessary.

73
• Alignment Checks: Verify the alignment of the roll neck bearings and adjust
as needed to ensure even load distribution.
• Cooling Systems: Implement cooling systems, such as fans or water cooling,
to help dissipate heat from the bearings.
• Load Management: Monitor and manage the load applied to the rolls to
prevent overloading the bearings.
• Bearing Selection: Choose bearings designed to withstand the specific
conditions of the rolling mill, such as high temperatures and heavy loads.

Problem:

Quick wearing out of the roll passes – less pass life in terms of lower
tonnage rolled.

Reasons:

• Insufficient cooling of the rolling grooves.

• Insufficient heat of the materials being rolled – lower temperature and lower
soaking.
• Higher drafting in the pass in question resulting from the wear out of the
previous pass.

Rectification:

• Proper cooling of the roll passes to be immediately ensured.

• Proper temperature of materials being rolled to be ensured.
• The dimension of the material entering and coming out of the pass to be
checked from time to time.
• Tension of the stripper guides should not very high.
• Proper material of the stripper guides to be ensured.

74
Problem:

Roll breakage from the journal.

Figure 60 Bending stress on the journal of the roll.

Reasons:

• Journal Stress: The journal experiences high stress concentrations during

rolling, which can lead to fatigue and eventual breakage.
• Material Defects: Inclusions or defects in the material of the roll can weaken
the journal area.
• Overloading: Excessive loads beyond the design capacity can cause the
journal to fail.
• Improper Maintenance: Lack of regular inspection and maintenance can
lead to undetected wear and damage.

Rectification:

• Material Quality: Ensure high-quality materials are used for roll

manufacturing, with minimal defects and inclusions.
• Design Optimization: Optimize the journal design to distribute stress more
evenly and reduce the risk of fatigue failure.
• Regular Inspections: Implement a rigorous inspection regime to detect early
signs of wear or damage.

75
• Load Management: Monitor rolling loads and ensure they do not exceed the
design limits of the rolls.
• Lubrication: Maintain proper lubrication to reduce friction and wear on the
journal.
• Bearing Selection: Choose bearings that are appropriate for the load and
operating conditions to minimize stress on the journal.

Problem:

Roll breakage from the barrel.

Figure 61 schematic of failed roll.

Reasons:

• Over drafting.
• Insufficient heat of the materials being rolled – lower temperature and lower
soaking.
• Insufficient cooling of the rolling groove.

Rectification:

• Drafting to be as per norm.

• Proper temperature soaking of rolled materials to be ensured.
• Proper cooling both from the top and bottom of the roll barrel particularly the
rolling grooves to be immediately ensured.

76
Problem:

Ovality in the finished TMT product.

Figure 62 Ovality in round finished product.

Reasons:

The sides of pass are not completely filled up. This is due to less metal
from previous stand when height of metal is correct. If the height is more than the
top roll of finishing stand should be pressed.

Rectification:

Metal from previous stand should be increased if metal height is connected.

If, there is one side fin and at other side oval, then entry box of finishing stand
should be shifted towards the oval side.

Problem:

Diagonal Difference in the finished product.

Figure 63 Diagonal Difference

77
Reasons:

Right or left diagonal may be more than the allowable tolerance. Reasons
for this cause are the improper setting of the entry guide or rolls.

Rectification:

The guide is to be shifted against the opposite direction of the higher

shoulder, if it is not adjusted by the shifting of guide, then rolls may be adjusted.

Problem:

Fins on any one side and on the other side.

Figure 64 Fin shape on round.

Rectification:

• One sided fin indicates the defective fixing of entry box of the finishing stand,
which should be shifted opposite to the defect.
• Both side fins may be due to excess metal from the pre-finishing oval pass.
The thickness of oval pass is to be reduced and if the oval pass is worn out,
then, it should be changed immediately.
• If fins are only at the end of bar, then tension should be removed in continuous
group of stands, especially finishing group of the mill.
• If false fins are noticed at the top and bottom of round, then this may be result
of oval with fin which wears out the finishing stand pass at top and bottom.

78
Problem:

Under-Filled in the finished product.

Figure 65 Under-Filled in the finished product.

Rectification:

• Insufficient stock in the oval pass.

• Check the tension and if any, then remove it.
• Top/bottom dimension too large, which can be rectified by checking the top
and bottom dimensions of finished round and if it is too large then change of
pass is recommended.

Problem:

Fish-tail defect typically occurs at the end of a rolled bar.

Figure 66 Fish-tail defect.

79
Reasons:

• Improper Entry Roller Box Setting: If the entry roller box of the finishing
stand is not correctly adjusted, it can lead to uneven deformation and
contribute to the fish-tail defect.
• Jamming of Rollers in the Entry Box: If the rollers in the entry box become
jammed or misaligned, it affects the material flow and can result in irregular
shapes at the bar’s end.

Rectification:

• Check and Adjust Entry Roller Box:

− Regularly inspect and adjust the entry roller box to ensure proper alignment
and smooth material entry.
− Ensure that the entry guides are correctly positioned to guide the bar
effectively.
• Monitor Rollers and Guides:
− Keep the rollers in good condition and free from any obstructions.
− Lubricate and maintain the guides to prevent jamming.
• Optimize Cooling Process:
− Proper cooling is essential to prevent defects. Ensure uniform cooling
across the bar’s cross-section.
− Address any cooling-related issues that may contribute to irregular shapes.

80
Problem:

Worn out Mark on the finale product.

Figure 67 Worn out marks.

Reasons:

Worn out marks indicate that the diagonals of the bar are more than the
height and width of the pass.

Rectification:

The recommended action is to immediately change the pass to address this

issue.

81
Problem:

Dimensions of the finished product is less than desired.

Figure 68 Dimensions of the finishing pass.

Reasons:

Minor axis oval entering the round finishing pass is less in dimension.

Rectification:

• Increase the dimension of the minor axis of the oval from the leading groove.
• If this action fails, increase dimension of square groove preceding the oval
groove.

Problem:

Rolled weight in Kg/meter is either more or less than the standard.

Reasons:

Cross sectional area of round rolled is either more or less.

Rectification:

In case the round rolled is on lighter side, reduce the drafting (close the
gap) in the finishing pass. If on the heavier side, increase the draft (open the gap)
in the finishing groove.

82
The following formula used to calculate the nominal weight of the bar:

𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 2
𝑁𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 =
162.163
𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑐𝑘 (𝑛) =
𝐵𝑎𝑟 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

Example:

162
𝑁𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 16 𝑚𝑚 = = 1.579 𝐾𝑔/𝑚
162.163

2 × 103
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑐𝑘 (𝑛) = = 106 𝑏𝑎𝑟
1.579 × 12

83
 References
Dutta, S. (n.d.). HOT ROLLING PRACTICE – An Attempted Recollection.

Gupta. (2021). Steel Rolling Principle, Process & Application. Abingdon: CRC
Press.

Gupta, N. (2021). Steel Rolling Principle, Process & Application. Bhilai: CRC.

Reda, D. R. (2022). Theory and Technology of Metal Forming. Suez: Suez

University.

SERVICE, D. (n.d.). ROLL PASS DESIGN Mechanical concepts. DANIELI.

84