Chapter 9

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Chapter Summary
 Relations and Their Properties
 n-ary Relations and Their Applications (not currently
included in overheads)
 Representing Relations
 Closures of Relations (not currently included in
overheads)
 Equivalence Relations
 Partial Orderings
Section 9.1
Section Summary
 Relations and Functions
 Properties of Relations
 Reflexive Relations
 Symmetric and Antisymmetric Relations
 Transitive Relations
 Combining Relations
Binary Relations
Definition: A binary relation R from a set A to a set B
is a subset R ⊆ A × B.
Example:
 Let A = {0,1,2} and B = {a,b}
 {(0, a), (0, b), (1,a) , (2, b)} is a relation from A to B.
 We can represent relations from a set A to a set B
graphically or using a table:
Relations are more general than
functions. A function is a relation
where exactly one element of B is
related to each element of A.
Binary Relation on a Set
Definition: A binary relation R on a set A is a subset
of A × A or a relation from A to A.
Example:
 Suppose that A = {a,b,c}. Then R = {(a,a),(a,b), (a,c)} is
a relation on A.
 Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}. The ordered pairs in the relation
R = {(a,b) | a divides b} are
(1,1), (1, 2), (1,3), (1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 4), (3, 3), and (4, 4).
Binary Relation on a Set (cont.)
Question: How many relations are there on a set A?

Solution: Because a relation on A is the same thing as a

subset of A ⨉ A, we count the subsets of A × A. Since
A × A has n2 elements when A has n elements, and a set
m | A|2
with m elements has 2 subsets, there are 2 subsets of
| A|2
A × A. Therefore, there are 2 relations on a set A.
Binary Relations on a Set (cont.)
Example: Consider these relations on the set of integers:
R1 = {(a,b) | a ≤ b}, R4 = {(a,b) | a = b},
R2 = {(a,b) | a > b}, R5 = {(a,b) | a = b + 1},
R3 = {(a,b) | a = b or a = −b}, R6 = {(a,b) | a + b ≤ 3}.
Note that these relations are on an infinite set and each of these relations is an
infinite set.

Which of these relations contain each of the pairs

(1,1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (1, −1), and (2, 2)?

Solution: Checking the conditions that define each relation, we see

that the pair (1,1) is in R1, R3, R4 , and R6: (1,2) is in R1 and R6: (2,1) is in
R2, R5, and R6: (1, −1) is in R2, R3, and R6 : (2,2) is in R1, R3, and R4.
Reflexive Relations
Definition: R is reflexive iff (a,a) ∊ R for every element
a ∊ A. Written symbolically, R is reflexive if and only if
∀x[x∊U ⟶ (x,x) ∊ R]
Example: The following relations on the integers are
reflexive: If A = ∅ then the empty relation is
R1 = {(a,b) | a ≤ b}, reflexive vacuously. That is the empty
relation on an empty set is reflexive!
R3 = {(a,b) | a = b or a = −b},
R4 = {(a,b) | a = b}.
The following relations are not reflexive:
R2 = {(a,b) | a > b} (note that 3 ≯ 3),
R5 = {(a,b) | a = b + 1} (note that 3 ≠3 + 1),
R6 = {(a,b) | a + b ≤ 3} (note that 4 + 4 ≰ 3).
Symmetric Relations
Definition: R is symmetric iff (b,a) ∊ R whenever (a,b) ∊ R
for all a,b ∊ A. Written symbolically, R is symmetric if and
only if
∀x∀y [(x,y) ∊R ⟶ (y,x) ∊ R]
Example: The following relations on the integers are
symmetric:
R3 = {(a,b) | a = b or a = −b},
R4 = {(a,b) | a = b},
R6 = {(a,b) | a + b ≤ 3}.
The following are not symmetric:
R1 = {(a,b) | a ≤ b} (note that 3 ≤ 4, but 4 ≰ 3),
R2 = {(a,b) | a > b} (note that 4 > 3, but 3 ≯ 4),
R5 = {(a,b) | a = b + 1} (note that 4 = 3 + 1, but 3 ≠4 + 1).
Antisymmetric Relations
Definition:A relation R on a set A such that for all a,b ∊ A if
(a,b) ∊ R and (b,a) ∊ R, then a = b is called antisymmetric.
Written symbolically, R is antisymmetric if and only if
∀x∀y [(x,y) ∊R ∧ (y,x) ∊ R ⟶ x = y]
 Example: The following relations on the integers are
antisymmetric:
R1 = {(a,b) | a ≤ b}, For any integer, if a a ≤ b and
R2 = {(a,b) | a > b}, a ≤ b , then a = b.
R4 = {(a,b) | a = b},
R5 = {(a,b) | a = b + 1}.
The following relations are not antisymmetric:
R3 = {(a,b) | a = b or a = −b}
(note that both (1,−1) and (−1,1) belong to R3),
R6 = {(a,b) | a + b ≤ 3} (note that both (1,2) and (2,1) belong to R6).
Transitive Relations
Definition: A relation R on a set A is called transitive if
whenever (a,b) ∊ R and (b,c) ∊ R, then (a,c) ∊ R, for all a,b,c ∊ A.
Written symbolically, R is transitive if and only if
∀x∀y ∀z[(x,y) ∊R ∧ (y,z) ∊ R ⟶ (x,z) ∊ R ]
 Example: The following relations on the integers are transitive:
R1 = {(a,b) | a ≤ b}, For every integer, a ≤ b
R2 = {(a,b) | a > b}, and b ≤ c, then b ≤ c.
R3 = {(a,b) | a = b or a = −b},
R4 = {(a,b) | a = b}.
The following are not transitive:
R5 = {(a,b) | a = b + 1} (note that both (3,2) and (4,3) belong to R5,
but not (3,3)),
R6 = {(a,b) | a + b ≤ 3} (note that both (2,1) and (1,2) belong to R6, but
not (2,2)).
Combining Relations
 Given two relations R1 and R2, we can combine them
using basic set operations to form new relations such
as R1 ∪ R2, R1 ∩ R2, R1 − R2, and R2 − R1.
 Example: Let A = {1,2,3} and B = {1,2,3,4}. The
relations R1 = {(1,1),(2,2),(3,3)} and
R2 = {(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4)} can be combined using
basic set operations to form new relations:
R1 ∪ R2 ={(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(2,2),(3,3)}
R1 ∩ R2 ={(1,1)} R1 − R2 ={(2,2),(3,3)}
R2 − R1 ={(1,2),(1,3),(1,4)}
Composition
Definition: Suppose
 R1 is a relation from a set A to a set B.
 R2 is a relation from B to a set C.
Then the composition (or composite) of R2 with R1, is a
relation from A to C where
 if (x,y) is a member of R1 and (y,z) is a member of R2,
then (x,z) is a member of R2∘ R1.
Representing the Composition of a
Relation
R1 m R2 w
a
x
n
b
y
o
c
p z

R1∘ R2 = {(b,D),(b,B)}
Powers of a Relation
Definition: Let R be a binary relation on A. Then the
powers Rn of the relation R can be defined inductively by:
 Basis Step: R1 = R
 Inductive Step: Rn+1 = Rn ∘ R
(see the slides for Section 9.3 for further insights)
The powers of a transitive relation are subsets of the
relation. This is established by the following theorem:
Theorem 1: The relation R on a set A is transitive iff
Rn ⊆ R for n = 1,2,3 ….
(see the text for a proof via mathematical induction)
Section 9.3
Section Summary
 Representing Relations using Matrices
 Representing Relations using Digraphs
Representing Relations Using
Matrices
 A relation between finite sets can be represented using a
zero-one matrix.
 Suppose R is a relation from A = {a1, a2, …, am} to
B = {b1, b2, …, bn}.
 The elements of the two sets can be listed in any particular
arbitrary order. When A = B, we use the same ordering.
 The relation R is represented by the matrix
MR = [mij], where

 The matrix representing R has a 1 as its (i,j) entry when ai

is related to bj and a 0 if ai is not related to bj.
Examples of Representing
Relations Using Matrices
Example 1: Suppose that A = {1,2,3} and B = {1,2}. Let
R be the relation from A to B containing (a,b) if a ∈ A,
b ∈ B, and a > b. What is the matrix representing R
(assuming the ordering of elements is the same as the
increasing numerical order)?
Solution: Because R = {(2,1), (3,1),(3,2)}, the matrix is
Examples of Representing
Relations Using Matrices (cont.)
Example 2: Let A = {a1,a2, a3} and B = {b1,b2, b3,b4, b5}.
Which ordered pairs are in the relation R represented
by the matrix

Solution: Because R consists of those ordered pairs

(ai,bj) with mij = 1, it follows that:

R = {(a1, b2), (a2, b1),(a2, b3), (a2, b4),(a3, b1), {(a3, b3), (a3, b5)}.
Matrices of Relations on Sets
 If R is a reflexive relation, all the elements on the main
diagonal of MR are equal to 1.

 R is a symmetric relation, if and only if mij = 1

whenever mji = 1. R is an antisymmetric relation, if
and only if mij = 0 or mji = 0 when i≠ j.
Example of a Relation on a Set
Example 3: Suppose that the relation R on a set is
represented by the matrix

Is R reflexive, symmetric, and/or antisymmetric?

Solution: Because all the diagonal elements are equal
to 1, R is reflexive. Because MR is symmetric, R is
symmetric and not antisymmetric because both m1,2
and m2,1 are 1.
Representing Relations Using
Digraphs
Definition: A directed graph, or digraph, consists of a set V of vertices
(or nodes) together with a set E of ordered pairs of elements of V called
edges (or arcs). The vertex a is called the initial vertex of the edge (a,b),
and the vertex b is called the terminal vertex of this edge.
 An edge of the form (a,a) is called a loop.

Example 7: A drawing of the directed graph with vertices a, b, c, and d,

and edges (a, b), (a, d), (b, b), (b, d), (c, a), (c, b), and (d, b) is shown
here.
Examples of Digraphs Representing
Relations
Example 8: What are the ordered pairs in the relation
represented by this directed graph?

Solution: The ordered pairs in the relation are

(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 3),
(4, 1), and (4, 3)
Determining which Properties a
Relation has from its Digraph

 Reflexivity: A loop must be present at all vertices in the

graph.
 Symmetry: If (x,y) is an edge, then so is (y,x).
 Antisymmetry: If (x,y) with x ≠ y is an edge, then (y,x)
is not an edge.
 Transitivity: If (x,y) and (y,z) are edges, then so is (x,z).
Determining which Properties a Relation
has from its Digraph – Example 1

a b

c d

• Reflexive? No, not every vertex has a loop

• Symmetric? Yes (trivially), there is no edge from one vertex to another
• Antisymmetric? Yes (trivially), there is no edge from one vertex
to another
• Transitive? Yes, (trivially) since there is no edge from one vertex to another
Determining which Properties a Relation
has from its Digraph – Example 2

a
b

c d
• Reflexive? No, there are no loops
• Symmetric? No, there is an edge from a to b, but not from b to a
• Antisymmetric? No, there is an edge from d to b and b to d
• Transitive? No, there are edges from a to c and from c to b,
but there is no edge from a to d
Determining which Properties a Relation
has from its Digraph – Example 3

a
b

c d
Reflexive? No, there are no loops
Symmetric? No, for example, there is no edge from c to a
Antisymmetric? Yes, whenever there is an edge from one
vertex to another, there is not one going back
Transitive? No, there is no edge from a to b
Determining which Properties a Relation
has from its Digraph – Example 4

b
a

c d
• Reflexive? No, there are no loops
• Symmetric? No, for example, there is no edge from d to a
• Antisymmetric? Yes, whenever there is an edge from one vertex
to another, there is not one going back
• Transitive? Yes (trivially), there are no two edges where the first
edge ends at the vertex where the second edge begins
Example of the Powers of a Relation
a b a b

d c d c
R R2

a b b
a

d c d c
R4 R3
The pair (x,y) is in Rn if there is a path of length n from x to y in R
(following the direction of the arrows).