Catanduanes Colleges

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Virac, Catandunes
1st Sem/SY2022-2023

RESEARCH PROJECT
IN
MCLINGUIS 2
(Language, Culture and
Society)

Arianne Leigh C. Subion

STUDENT
CROSS CULTURAL COMMUNICATION
Cross Cultural Communication
Cross cultural communication thus refers to the communication between
people who have differences in any one of the following: styles of
working, age, nationality, ethnicity, race, gender, sexual orientation, etc.
Cross cultural communication can also refer to the attempts that are
made to exchange, negotiate and mediate cultural differences by means
of language, gestures and body language. It is how people belonging to
different cultures communicate with each other.

Each individual can practice culture at varying levels. There is the

culture of the community he grows up in, there is work culture at his
work place and other cultures to which one becomes an active
participant or slowly withdraws from. An individual is constantly
confronted with the clash between his original culture and the majority
culture that he is exposed to daily. Cultural clashes occur as a result of
individuals believing their culture is better than others.

Cross cultural communication has been influenced by a variety of

academic disciplines. It is necessary in order to avoid misunderstandings
that can lead to conflicts between individuals or groups. Cross cultural
communication creates a feeling of trust and enables cooperation.The
focus is on providing the right response rather than providing the right
message.

When two people of different cultures encounter each other, they not
only have different cultural backgrounds but their systems of turn –
talking are also different. Cross cultural communication will be more
effective and easier if both the speakers have knowledge of the turn
taking system being used in the conversation (For example: One person
should not monopolize the conversation or only one person should talk
at a time).
COMMUNICATION
What is communication? Communication is the sending and receiving
of information and can be one-on-one or between groups of people, and
can be face-to-face or through communication devices. Communication
requires a sender, the person who initiates communication, to transfer
their thoughts or encode a message. This message is sent to
the receiver, a person who receives the message, and finally, the
receiver must decode, or interpret the message. This sounds simple
enough but is more complicated.
Language involves symbols and signs and is distinct to the culture that
speaks and writes in that language. Effective communication requires a
shared language and understanding of common concepts. It's also
important to bear in mind that a receiver may interpret what the sender
puts out differently than what the sender intended, and that this is less
likely if the two share the same culture and language.

ELEMENT OF COMMUNICATION

(1) Sender:
The person who intends to convey the message with the intention of
passing information and ideas to others is known as sender or
communicator.

(2) Ideas:
This is the subject matter of the communication. This may be an
opinion, attitude, feelings, views, orders, or suggestions.

(3) Encoding:
Since the subject matter of communication is theoretical and intangible,
its further passing requires use of certain symbols such as words, actions
or pictures etc. Conversion of subject matter into these symbols is the
process of encoding.
(4) Communication Channel:
The person who is interested in communicating has to choose the
channel for sending the required information, ideas etc. This information
is transmitted to the receiver through certain channels which may be
either formal or informal.

(5) Receiver:
Receiver is the person who receives the message or for whom the
message is meant for. It is the receiver who tries to understand the
message in the best possible manner in achieving the desired objectives.

(6) Decoding:
The person who receives the message or symbol from the communicator
tries to convert the same in such a way so that he may extract its
meaning to his complete understanding.

(7) Feedback:
Feedback is the process of ensuring that the receiver has received the
message and understood in the same sense as sender meant it.

KEY TO EFFECTIVE CROSS-CULTURAL

COMM
RESPECT
Respect is the first key to effective communication. Etiquette and good
manners should never be forgotten. Do not be selective on who you give
your regards to. This means that you should be respectful to everyone
not just to people who you perceive as having a higher status than
you. Keep in mind that we have different cultural values than others, but
basic values of respect are universal. Just put yourself in their shoes and
think how you would like to be treated in that situation and you’ll do just
fine.
AWARENESS
Each culture greatly influences the way people think, see, speak, listen
and understand. Even in the way they act, cultural values plays a big
part. It is a huge advantage for you if you know a second language
because it will be easier for you to understand that individual who
belongs to a certain cultural group. If not, at least try to make an effort to
learn their culture as much as you can. Our cultural differences plays a
big role in this part. Some expressions and gestures differs from one
cultural group to another. Some gestures we are accustomed to may be
insulting to others. For example, many nationalities view eye contact as
a sign of respect when talking to someone but for some it is not that
important. Many differences like these may cause conflict especially in
our workplace. That’s why it would be better if we understand how to
manage these differences.

LISTEN
Hearing is not listening. When you listen, you have the intention or the
conscious effort to process the meaning of the words that is being said to
you. By doing this, you give the person you are talking to, the time for
him to finish what he or she needs to say before you begin.
But it is also important to listen to him/her with an open mind. Keep
his/her cultural background in mind. Does he/she mean what he/she says
exactly or not. Most English speaking countries tend to be more specific
and direct, these are called low-context communicators, while some are
high-context communicators which tends to be more elaborate. It is
better to be mindful of the non-verbal gestures or cues from high context
communicators to effectively understand them.

ACCEPTANCE
Sometimes it is not enough to listen to someone. It is much better if you
comprehend what they really mean. And accept the fact that we have
cultural dissimilarity. If we accept these differences, the more we will
be able to communicate to them properly. Many global leaders use
interpreters when dealing with other nationalities but the potential for
misunderstanding grows. That’s why adapting to this challenge is
necessary. Cross cultural knowledge is essential to anyone’s growth
and success. Accept that cultural disparity are not barriers, just
challenges that we have to welcome and find ways to work with.
So, those are the 4 keys on effective cross-cultural communication.
Remember those tips to guide you on resolving cultural conflicts, issues
and problems. But remember, this does not stop in just learning a new
language, it is a continuous acquisition of knowledge and skills in
making good relationship to members of other cultural groups.
CULTURAL BARRIERS OF EFFECTIVE
COMMUNICATION

1- ETHNOCENTRISM
We all have a natural tendency to look at other cultures through
our own lenses. Ethnocentrism happens when we implicitly
believe our way of doing things and seeing things is the right and
only way. As a result, we negatively judge behaviours that don’t
conform to our world vision. We perceive other’s behaviours as
odd and improper. Ethnocentrism also creates an “us versus them”
mentality that can be detrimental. In a previous company I worked
for, countless times I’ve heard the French complain about the
Americans in an ethnocentric way and vice-versa.

2- STEREOTYPING
It’s also common to rely on oversimplified clichés about people from
different cultures. In fact, there are quite a few cross-cultural trainings in
the market that are focused on memorizing cultural differences and can
reinforce stereotyping. Learning about differences can be useful as a
starting point. But individuals are unique; you can never predict a
person’s behaviour based on his or her nationality. When we were
moving to the UK, French friends told us, The British never invite you
for dinner, which is a common social activity in France. We happen to
have the loveliest British neighbours who invite us for dinner often.

3- PSYCHOLOGICAL BARRIERS
To manage cross-cultural teams successfully, you need to flex your own
style. It’s not easy to go against your natural preferences. People can feel
unauthentic and incompetent. I know the case of a French manager who
went to the United States.
He found out that his typical French style of giving feedback, focused on
what was “wrong” rather than on what was working well, was
undermining his team’s confidence. He realised what the problem was,
but he felt artificial acting the “American” way. He went back to France
as soon as he could.

4- LANGUAGE BARRIERS
All teams have a common language, but when some people are more
fluent than others, it creates social distance between members. In global
teams, people who are less fluent in English tend to withdraw from
communication, which means the team may not get all the input it needs.
Understanding what’s said can be challenging if people speak too fast or
use too much slang. This also might have an influence on how people’s
competence and performance are perceived. I worked for an
organisation where non-English native speakers felt that their career
progression opportunities were not the same as for English native
speakers.

5- GEOGRAPHICAL DISTANCE
In global virtual teams, people don’t get the chance to interact and build
relationships with each other as in a traditional office environment. And
the less you know about people, the less you share information with
them. Collaboration within virtual teams is, therefore, more challenging.
Groups outside of the head office can also feel excluded. On the other
hand, head office group members might think that other colleagues are
not contributing. Differences in time zones also can be challenging.
Often if you’re not in the headquarters, you are expected to cope with
meeting timings that are less convenient. I know of a highly talented
woman who left a global senior leadership role because she got tired of
having frequent meetings in the night.
6- CONFLICTING VALUES

Culture is like an iceberg: what you see are the behaviours, and those are
influenced by the invisible values under the water line. Cultural clashes
happen when other people’s behaviour compromises our own values.
Often, when you don’t understand or don’t agree with a behaviour, it
means that there are conflicting values under the water line. There is no
right or wrong way of doing things; it’s just a matter of cultural norms.
Below, you’ll see a (non-exhaustive) list of common conflicting cultural
values:

Task oriented vs. relationship oriented

In some countries like the US, people view conversations as an

opportunity to exchange information. People get down to business
quickly. In Latin American countries, for instance, conversations are
primarily an opportunity to enhance the relationship. I once worked for
an American company where, in meetings, participants barely
introduced each other; we got down to work immediately. Being a Latin
American, it took me a while to get used to it.

Direct vs. indirect communication

In countries like Germany, it is a sign of professionalism to speak clearly

and leave no room for misinterpretation. In countries like Korea, people
prefer to communicate indirectly. People approach problems through
vague references. The danger here is that a person from a direct culture
may come across as insensitive, while the person from the indirect
culture may appear imprecise.

Open subtle disagreement

Cultures that place a high value on “face” and group harmony may be
averse to confrontation, like in China. In other cultures, having a “good
fight” is a sign of trust, like in the Netherlands. People from different
parts of the world also vary in the amount of emotion they show during
professional conversations. For example, Italians raise their voices,
while the British are more composed.
Informality vs. formality

In some countries, such as Australia, people are generally casual; in

others, like Japan, people tend to be more formal. To informal people,
formality might be interpreted as the sign of stiffness, while informality
to formal people might be perceived as a lack of professionalism.

Structured vs. flexible scheduling

All businesses follow timetables, but in some cultures, people strictly

adhere to the schedule, whereas in others, they treat it as a suggestion.
For some, “five minutes” could mean half an hour, and “tomorrow”
could mean the next few days. In Brazil, I wouldn’t start a meeting
exactly on time. It feels disrespectful not to wait a bit for the late
comers. In the UK, not starting the meeting on time might be considered
disrespectful towards those who made it to the meeting on time.

Egalitarian vs. hierarchical

Team members from more egalitarian countries, such as Sweden, may

be accustomed to voicing their unfiltered opinions and ideas, while those
from more hierarchical cultures tend to speak up only after more senior
colleagues have expressed their views. I ran quite a few audits in
Morocco, and people’s behaviours were totally different, depending on
whether their bosses were in the same room or not.

COMPONENTS OF CULTURE
Symbols

Every culture is filled with symbols, or things that stand for something
else and that often evoke various reactions and emotions. Some symbols
are actually types of nonverbal communication, while other symbols are
in fact material objects. As the symbolic interactionist perspective
discussed in emphasizes, shared symbols make social interaction
possible.
Let’s look at nonverbal symbols first. A common one is shaking hands,
which is done in some societies but not in others. It commonly conveys
friendship and is used as a sign of both greeting and departure. Probably
all societies have nonverbal symbols we call gestures, movements of the
hands, arms, or other parts of the body that are meant to convey certain
ideas or emotions. However, the same gesture can mean one thing in one
society and something quite different in another society (Axtell, 1998).
In the United States, for example, if we nod our head up and down, we
mean yes, and if we shake it back and forth, we mean no. In Bulgaria,
however, nodding means no, while shaking our head back and forth
means yes! In the United States, if we make an “O” by putting our
thumb and forefinger together, we mean “OK,” but the same gesture in
certain parts of Europe signifies an obscenity. “Thumbs up” in the
United States means “great” or “wonderful,” but in Australia it means
the same thing as extending the middle finger in the United States.
Certain parts of the Middle East and Asia would be offended if they saw
you using your left hand to eat, because they use their left hand for
bathroom hygiene.

Language

Perhaps our most important set of symbols is language. In English, the

word chair means something we sit on. In Spanish, the word silla means
the same thing. As long as we agree how to interpret these words, a
shared language and thus society are possible. By the same token,
differences in languages can make it quite difficult to communicate. For
example, imagine you are in a foreign country where you do not know
the language and the country’s citizens do not know yours. Worse yet,
you forgot to bring your dictionary that translates their language into
yours, and vice versa, and your iPhone battery has died. You become
lost. How will you get help? What will you do? Is there any way to
communicate your plight?
As this scenario suggests, language is crucial to communication and thus
to any society’s culture. Children learn language from their culture just
as they learn about shaking hands, about gestures, and about the
significance of the flag and other symbols. Humans have a capacity for
language that no other animal species possesses. Our capacity for
language in turn helps make our complex culture possible.

Norms

Cultures differ widely in their norms, or standards and expectations for

behaving. We already saw that the nature of drunken behavior depends
on society’s expectations of how people should behave when drunk.
Norms of drunken behavior influence how we behave when we drink too
much.
•Norms are the formal and informal rules regarding what kinds of
behavior are acceptable and appropriate within a culture.
•Norms are specific to a culture, time period, and situation.
Norms are often divided into two types, formal norms and informal
norms. Formal norms, also called mores (MOOR-ayz) and laws, refer to
the standards of behavior considered the most important in any society.

Rituals

Different cultures also have different rituals, or established procedures

and ceremonies that often mark transitions in the life course. As such,
rituals both reflect and transmit a culture’s norms and other elements
from one generation to the next. Graduation ceremonies in colleges and
universities are familiar examples of time-honored rituals. In many
societies, rituals help signify one’s gender identity. For example, girls
around the world undergo various types of initiation ceremonies to mark
their transition to adulthood. Among the Bemba of Zambia, girls
undergo a month-long initiation ceremony called the chisungu, in which
girls learn songs, dances, and secret terms that only women know
(Maybury-Lewis, 1998). In some cultures, special ceremonies also mark
a girl’s first menstrual period. Such ceremonies are largely absent in the
United States, where a girl’s first period is a private matter. But in other
cultures the first period is a cause for celebration invol Changing
Norms and Beliefs

Our examples show that different cultures have different norms, even if
they share other types of practices and beliefs. It is also true that norms
change over time within a given culture. Two obvious examples here are
hairstyles and clothing styles. When the Beatles first became popular in
the early 1960s, their hair barely covered their ears, but parents of
teenagers back then were aghast at how they looked. If anything,
clothing styles change even more often than hairstyles. Hemlines go up,
hemlines go down. Lapels become wider, lapels become narrower. This
color is in, that color is out. Hold on to your out-of-style clothes long
enough, and eventually they may well end up back in style.

Values

Values are another important element of culture and involve judgments

of what is good or bad and desirable or undesirable. A culture’s values
shape its norms. In Japan, for example, a central value is group
harmony. The Japanese place great emphasis on harmonious social
relationships and dislike interpersonal conflict. Individuals are fairly
unassertive by American standards, lest they be perceived as trying to
force their will on others (Schneider & Silverman, 2010). When
interpersonal disputes do arise, Japanese do their best to minimize
conflict by trying to resolve the disputes amicably. Lawsuits are thus
uncommon; in one case involving disease and death from a mercury-
polluted river, some Japanese who dared to sue the company responsible
for the mercury poisoning were considered bad citizens (Upham, 1976).

Individualism in the United States

In the United States, of course, the situation is quite different. The

American culture extols the rights of the individual and promotes
competition in the business and sports worlds and in other areas of life.
Lawsuits over the most frivolous of issues are quite common and even
expected. Phrases like “Look out for number one!” abound. If the
Japanese value harmony and group feeling, Americans value
competition and individualism. Because the Japanese value harmony,
their norms frown on self-assertion in interpersonal relationships and on
lawsuits to correct perceived wrongs. Because Americans value and
even thrive on competition, our norms promote assertion in relationships
and certainly promote the use of the law to address all kinds of
problems.

The Work Ethic

Another important value in the American culture is the work ethic. By

the 19th century, Americans had come to view hard work not just as
something that had to be done but as something that was morally good to
do (Gini, 2000). The commitment to the work ethic remains strong
today: in the 2008 General Social Survey, 72% of respondents said they
would continue to work even if they got enough money to live as
comfortably as they would like for the rest of their lives.
Artifacts
The last element of culture is the artifacts, or material objects, that
constitute a society’s material culture. In the most simple societies,
artifacts are largely limited to a few tools, the huts people live in, and the
clothing they wear. One of the most important inventions in the
evolution of society was the wheel.
Although the wheel was a great invention, artifacts are much more
numerous and complex in industrial societies. Because of technological
advances during the past two decades, many such societies today may be
said to have a wireless culture, as smartphones, netbooks and laptops,
and GPS devices now dominate so much of modern life. The artifacts
associated with this culture were unknown a generation ago.
Technological development created these artifacts and new language to
describe them and the functions they perform. Today’s wireless artifacts
in turn help reinforce our own commitment to wireless technology as a
way of life, if only because children are now growing up with them,
often

even before they can read and write.ving gifts, music, and food
(Hathaway, 1997).

OBSTACLES TO COMMUNICATION

Language Barriers
Language and linguistic ability may act as a barrier to
communication.
However, even when communicating in the same language, the
terminology used in a message may act as a barrier if it is not fully
understood by the receiver(s). For example, a message that includes a lot
of specialist jargon and abbreviations will not be understood by a
receiver who is not familiar with the terminology used.
Regional colloquialisms and expressions may be misinterpreted or even
considered offensive. See our page: Effective Speaking for more
information.

Psychological Barriers
The psychological state of the communicators will influence how the
message is sent, received and perceived.
For example:
If someone is stressed they may be preoccupied by personal concerns
and not as receptive to the message as if they were not stressed.
Stress management is an important personal skill that affects our
interpersonal relationships.
Anger is another example of a psychological barrier to communication.
When we are angry it is easy to say things that we may later regret, and
also to misinterpret what others are saying.

More generally people with low self-esteem may be less assertive and
therefore may not feel comfortable communicating - they may feel shy
or embarrassed about saying how they really feel, or read unintended
negative sub-texts in messages they hear.
.

Physiological Barriers
Physiological barriers to communication may result from the
receiver’s physical state.
For example, a receiver with reduced hearing may not fully grasp the
content of a spoken conversation especially if there is significant
background noise.

Physical Barriers
An example of a physical barrier to communication is geographic
distance between the sender and receiver(s).
Communication is generally easier over shorter distances as more
communication channels are available and less technology is required.
The ideal communication is face-to-face.
Although modern technology often helps to reduce the impact of
physical barriers, the advantages and disadvantages of each
communication channel should be understood so that an appropriate
channel can be used to overcome the physical barriers.

Systematic Barriers
Systematic barriers to communication may exist in structures and
organisations where there are inefficient or inappropriate information
systems and communication channels, or where there is a lack of
understanding of the roles and responsibilities for communication. In
such organisations, people may be unclear of their role in the
communication process and therefore not know what is expected of
them.

Attitudinal Barriers
Attitudinal barriers are behaviours or perceptions that prevent
people from communicating effectively.
Attitudinal barriers to communication may result from personality
conflicts, poor management, resistance to change or a lack of
motivation. To be an effective receiver of messages you should attempt
to overcome your own attitudinal barriers to to help ensure more
effective communication.

Perceptual Barriers

These communication barriers exist in people’s minds based on

how they perceive the world around them. They can be caused by
the many cognitive biases of the human mind that prevent us from
perceiving people and situations accurately. Individuals may also
have their own unique biases based on previous experience and the
influence of others.

Ask yourself what perceptions might be holding you or others back

from communicating effectively. To encourage others to question
their perceptions, try this short anecdote.

Emotional Barriers

Emotional communication barriers are the negative feelings we

acquire about certain people, places and situations. Whether caused
by bad experiences or the influence of others, they evoke emotions
such as fear and mistrust that prevent effective interaction.

Sometimes the barrier is simply fear of what others think about us,
which may come from being taught to “mind our Ps and Qs” or
“never speak until you are spoken to” when we were children.

Although caution is wise, excessive fear of what others think can

stunt your development and inhibit your ability to build better
relationships.

Cultural Barriers

To be accepted as a member of a group, we often need to adopt

patterns of behaviour that the group perceives as a sign of
belonging. For example, honesty, openness, diligence, banter or a
sense of humour.

Cultural communication barriers arise if you don’t understand the

group’s required behaviour patterns, which increases the risk of
doing something its members frown upon.
 Research is the best way to overcome this. With an understanding
of the group’s expectations and rituals, you can build fruitful
relationships and contribute toward shared objectives.

Gender Barriers

Did you know that there are distinct differences between the speech
patterns of men and women? The reason lies in the different ways
our brains are wired.

When a man speaks, he uses the left side of the brain, but not a
specific area of it. When a woman speaks, she uses both sides of the
brain in two specific locations. This is why men tend to speak in a
linear and compartmentalised way, whereas women speak more
freely in a way that mixes logic and emotion.

Most teams comprise men and women, so it helps to bear this in

mind to appreciate the contribution of different team members, and
minimise the risk of communication barriers.

Interpersonal Barriers

Interpersonal barriers are patterns of behaviour that prevent you

from communicating effectively, or that prevent people from
communicating with you.

These communication barriers can be tricky to identify as there may

be many drivers. For example, a person may have difficulties at
work that causes them to withdraw. They may have issues with self-
esteem or a tendency to play games. Workplace cultures,
disorganisation and greater prevalence of distance working can also
cause and exacerbate issues.

Look at the patterns of communication that tend to occur when

people are together, and try to identify what might be causing
issues.

Break Through The Barriers

 Improving the way you communicate is a broad-brush activity that
benefits from looking at many aspects of yourself, others and the
situation you are in.

As you communicate, try to change your own thoughts and feelings and
see how it improves the interaction. This is often the first step to
breaking down communication barriers and building better
relationships. Boost your everyday communication skillsctive
communication.

DISCOVERING CHARACTERISTICS OF
OTHER CULTURE
Culture is Learned
So, let’s start with the first of the characteristics of culture–culture is
learned. Culture is not genetic—we are not born with culture. A baby
can be raised in any culture, and he or she will learn that culture, that
religion, that language, and the skills that are important in that culture,
whether it’s spear-throwing or computer programming. We learn our
culture as we grow up in it, through a process called enculturation. It is
also known as socialization.

We can learn culture both formally and informally. For example, we

learn our religion formally through an institution such as a church, or
mosque, or synagogue. We learn our history and language at schools
through history lessons and English lessons. But we also learn our
culture informally and unconsciously from family, friends, and the
media. We observe and imitate others, and communicate with others,
absorbing and learning our culture in the process. For example, you
probably know how far apart you should stand from people if you are
talking to them, even though it probably wasn’t taught to you directly.
You absorbed this part of your culture unconsciously.

Culture is Shared
Let’s move on to the next of the characteristics of culture–culture is
shared. Culture is something that a group of people shares–it is shared
practices and shared understandings. If one person thinks something or
behaves a certain way, that is not culture–it is a personal habit. But if
most of the people in a society do it, then it is culture. Culture is shared
between members of a group, meaning they all think and behave the
same way because they grew up in the same culture.
People who are in the same culture are able to interact with each other
without constant misunderstandings (for the most part) because
everyone understands each other’s thoughts and actions. For example, if
you are American, you stretch out your hand when you meet someone,
and all other Americans know you are expected to reach out your own
hand and shake hands as a greeting. But if you are from another culture,
and you see an outstretched hand, you might think the person wants you
to hand them something, or maybe you’d think that they are going to hit
you. Because you are from a different culture, you don’t have the same
shared understanding of what an outstretched hand means.

Culture is Symbolic
Now let’s move on to the next of the characteristics of culture–culture is
symbolic. Culture is based on symbols, and culture is spread from
generation to generation through symbols. People learn their culture’s
beliefs and behaviors through symbols.
But what is a symbol? A symbol is something that means or stands for
something else. For example, wedding rings stand for marriage, and our
nation’s flag stands for our country. Symbols are common in religions
too, like a Christian cross or a Jewish Star of David. Another example of
a symbol is how a red light means “stop” and a green light means “go.”

Culture is Integrated
Now let’s move on to another of the characteristics of culture–culture is
integrated. Culture is a complex system, made up of many parts that are
interconnected and related to each other. Some examples of the parts of
culture are education, technology, marriage, medicine, economics,
family, beliefs and religion, government, and language.

When one part of the system changes, other parts also change, since
everything is connected. One part can influence the others. For example,
a few generations ago, American women were homemakers and
mothers. But, now, most American women are in the workforce.
Because of this change, other parts of American culture changed, such as
attitudes towards marriage and family. Now, divorce is more common,
and people may live together without being married. Also, now there are
daycare centers to care for children while the mothers go to work.
Because one part of the cultural system changed, other parts changed as
well.

Culture is Adaptive
Now let’s move on to the next of the characteristics of culture–culture is
adaptive. Adaptation is how an organism adjusts to its environment.
There is biological adaptation, which involves biological changes.
Over time, humans have biologically adapted to their environment–for
example, people who live closer to the equator tend to have darker skin
color, while those who live further from the equator tend to have lighter
skin color. The darker skin color protects people from the higher
amounts of UV radiation in areas near the equator.

But there is also cultural adaptation, where culture helps humans adapt
to their environment. For example, we weren’t born with fur coats to be
able to survive in cold climates. But culture has given us a way to make
clothing, build fires, and create shelters so that we can adapt to living in
cold climates. Because culture helps people adapt, people can live in
many different environments on Earth, and even in outer space! We
have also adapted using culture by creating things like antibiotics and
vaccines, and by creating agricultural techniques that allow us to
produce huge amounts of food.

Culture is Dynamic
And now let’s move on to the last of the characteristics of culture–
culture is dynamic. Cultures are not static–they change over time. But
why do they change? One way they change is through
diffusion. Diffusion is the spreading of an idea, thing, or behavior
between cultures. Cultures are not isolated–different cultures have been
in contact with each other throughout history.
Here’s an example of diffusion. Traditionally, many sub-Saharan
African cultures thought that larger women were beautiful, and thin
women were not attractive. But now, the Western ideas of thin women
being beautiful and larger women being unattractive are being spread to
those African cultures. In some places, women in those cultures are now
adopting these Western values and are trying to lose weight.

There are 3 types of diffusion–direct, indirect, and forced. Direct

diffusion is when two cultures interact with each other, such as through
trade or intermarriage. Indirect diffusion is when traits move from one
culture to another through a third culture. For example, culture #1 may
trade with culture #2, who trades with culture #3. So, culture #3 ends up
with cultural items from culture #1, even though they haven’t been in
direct contact. Forced diffusion is when one culture forces its way of
life on another culture. The second culture changes
through assimilation. The people are forced to take on the beliefs and
behaviors of the dominant culture, causing their own culture to become
extinct.
Another thing to note is that diffusion doesn’t just flow from complex
societies to simpler societies. Diffusion goes in both directions. For
example, when Europeans met the Native Americans, diffusion went
both ways. The Europeans received medicines, and foods like corn,
beans, squash, and yams. And, sometimes when a new cultural element
is adopted into a new culture, changes are made. For example, when
pizza came from Italy to the United States, it was modified to fit into
American culture.
Something else to realize is that when cultures come into contact with
each other, they don’t share every single aspect of their cultures. If they
did, there would only be one culture in the world, created by all the
original cultures meshing together. Only some cultural traits are
exchanged. For example, in parts of rural Africa, the older you are the
higher status you have. So, these cultures probably would not accept the
American culture’s use of hair dye to remove grey hair. That part of
American culture may not be accepted, since in that African culture,
grey hair shows that you are older, and older age means higher status.
So diffusion is one way that cultures change. But there is another way,
which is called acculturation. This is when there is continuous contact
between two cultures, and ideas are exchanged. Each culture may
change, or both may change, but they are still two distinct cultures. For
example, cultures may exchange foods, music, languages, clothing, and
technology. An example of acculturation is the creation of a pidgin
language. A pidgin is a language made up of two languages mixed
together.

Yet another way cultures can change is through independent invention.

This is when people find new ways of solving problems. However, many
times people in different cultures have come up with the same solution
to a problem, each on their own. For example, agriculture was invented
in both the Middle East and Mexico–not because the cultures were in
contact, but because both cultures came up with agriculture
independently as a way to solve the problem of providing food to people
in that society.
And another reason cultures change is due to globalization. Different
cultures around the world are now interlinked and interdependent–we
live in a global village. Globalization involves the spread of culture,
usually Western culture, around the world through forces like
international business, travel and tourism, the media and the internet,
and migration.

LIFE IN A STATIC CULTURE

CONTRAST CULTURE AND SOCIETY

Society is nothing but an organised group of people who live together

and are connected with one another. It is not exactly same as culture,
which can be understood as the way of living of people living in a
particular place or region. Every society has its culture, but they are not
the same thing. Although, they cannot exist without each other.

Culture has certain values, custom, beliefs and social behaviour,

whereas society encompasses people who share mutual beliefs, values
and way of living. This article attempts to shed light on the differences
between society and culture in a detailed manner.

Culture consists of the beliefs, behaviors, objects, and other

characteristics common to the members of a particular group or society.
Through culture, people and groups define themselves, conform to
society's shared values, and contribute to society.

Thus, culture includes many societal aspects: language, customs, values,

norms, mores, rules, tools, technologies, products, organizations, and
institutions. This latter term institution refers to clusters of rules and
cultural meanings associated with specific social activities. Common
institutions are the family, education, religion, work, and health care.

Popularly speaking, being cultured means being well‐educated,

knowledgeable of the arts, stylish, and well‐mannered. High culture—
generally pursued by the upper class—refers to classical music, theater,
fine arts, and other sophisticated pursuits. Members of the upper class
can pursue high art because they have cultural capital, which means the
professional credentials, education, knowledge, and verbal and social
skills necessary to attain the “property, power, and prestige” to “get
ahead” socially. Low culture, or popular culture—generally pursued
by the working and middle classes—refers to sports, movies, television
sitcoms and soaps, and rock music. Remember that sociologists
define culture differently than they do cultured, high culture, low
culture, and popular culture.

Sociologists define society as the people who interact in such a way as

to share a common culture. The cultural bond may be ethnic or racial,
based on gender, or due to shared beliefs, values, and activities. The
term society can also have a geographic meaning and refer to people
who share a common culture in a particular location. For example,
people living in arctic climates developed different cultures from those
living in desert cultures. In time, a large variety of human cultures arose
around the world.

Culture and society are intricately related. A culture consists of the

“objects” of a society, whereas a society consists of the people who
share a common culture. When the terms culture and society first
acquired their current meanings, most people in the world worked and
lived in small groups in the same locale. In today's world of 6 billion
people, these terms have lost some of their usefulness because increasing
numbers of people interact and share resources globally. Still, people
tend to use culture and society in a more traditional sense: for example,
being a part of a “racial culture” within the larger “U.S. society.”