MATHEMATICAL

REASONINGS
Module 9
Overview

Proofs are used to justify a claim or belief. Using correct

information, and appropriate methods, a mathematical
statement's value is then determined. In this module, you will
be introduced to several methods of proof in mathematics. Be
keen on when each method is most appropriate.
INDUCTIVE VS DEDUCTIVE
REASONING
Inductive versus Deductive Reasoning

Science is the application of inductive reasoning to build knowledge

based on observable evidence. That is why every statement in science is
considered a theory. The only way to prove it is to collect more evidence.
However, there is always the probability that future evidence could prove
the statement false.
Mathematics is deductive reasoning applied to relations among patterns,
shapes, forms, structures, and even changes. Deductive reasoning is
always valid.
INDUCTIVE REASONING

Inductive reasoning is the process of making general conclusions based

on specific examples.

EXAMPLE(S)

1. Every object that I release from my hand falls to the ground. Therefore,
the next object I release from my hand will fall to the ground.

2. Every crow I have seen is black. Therefore, all crows are black.

3. House prices are very expensive in Davao City. Gases prices are very
expensive in Davao City. Food prices are very expensive in Davao City.
Therefore, it is very expensive to live in Davao City.
DEDUCTIVE REASONING

Deductive reasoning is the process of making specific conclusions

based on general principles.

EXAMPLE(S)

1. All men are mortal. I am a man. Therefore, I am mortal.

2. If 6𝑥 = 12, then 𝑥 = 2.
3. Driving under the influence of alcohol is illegal and punishable by law.
Therefore, if a driver is found to have a blood alcohol concentration above
the legal limit during a traffic stop, they are likely to be charged with
driving under the influence.
INTERACTION:

Direction: Identify whether the statement uses either

inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning.

A dental assistant notices a patient has never been on

time for an appointment. She concludes the patient
will be late for her next appointment.
INTERACTION:

Direction: Identify whether the statement uses either

inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning.

A person must have a membership to work out at a

gym. Jesse is working out at a gym. Jesse has a
membership to the gym.
INTERACTION:

Direction: Identify whether the statement uses either

inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning.

If Eduardo decides to go to a concert tonight, he will

miss football practice. Tonight, Eduardo went to a
concert. Eduardo missed football practice.
INTERACTION:

Direction: Identify whether the statement uses either

inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning.

Every Wednesday Lucy’s mother calls. Today is

Wednesday, so Lucy concludes her mother will call.
INTERACTION:

Direction: Identify whether the statement uses either

inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning.

I know Joey is a terrible cook, because I've eaten at his house

three times and each time the food has been awful.
RULES OF INFERENCE
RULES OF INFERENCE

Arguments can be shown to be valid if they have

the same symbolic form as an argument that is known
to be valid. The rules of inference tie together the steps
of a proof.
Rule of Inference Name Rule of Inference Name
~q Modus tollens
p
___________ Addition 𝑝→𝑞 (the mode of
_________
∴𝑝∨𝑞 denying)
∴ ~𝑝
𝑝→𝑞
𝑝∧𝑞 Hypothetical
_________ Simplification q→𝑟
∴𝑝 _________ syllogism
∴𝑝→𝑟
p 𝑝∨𝑞
q ~p Disjunctive
Conjunction
_________ _________ syllogism
∴𝑝∧𝑞 ∴𝑞
p Modus ponens
𝑝→𝑞 (the mode of
_________
∴𝑞 affirming)
Examples

What rule of inference is used in each of the following

arguments?
1. Anna is a human resource management major. Therefore,
Anna is either human resource management major or a
computer application major.
2. Ben is a designer and a game developer. Therefore, Ben is
a game developer.
3. If it rains today, the college will be closed. The college is not
closed today. Therefore, it did not rain today.
Examples

What rule of inference is used in each of the

following arguments?
4. If it is rainy, then the oval will be closed. It is rainy.
Therefore, the oval is closed.
5. If I go swimming, then I will stay in the sun too long.
If I stay in the sun too long, then I will get burned.
Therefore, if I go swimming, then I will get burned.
FALLACIES

Fallacies are incorrect reasoning which appear to follow the

rule of inference but are based on contingencies rather than
tautologies. These are invalid arguments.

SOME TYPES OF FALLACIES:

1. The fallacy of affirming the conclusion is based on the
compound proposition: 𝑝 → 𝑞 ∧ 𝑞 → 𝑝.
2. The fallacy of denying the hypothesis is based on the
compound proposition: 𝑝 → 𝑞 ∧ ~𝑝 → ~𝑞.
3. Circulus in Probando or circular reasoning is an argument
that uses a premise as the conclusion.
Examples

Determine if the following arguments are valid. If

not, what fallacy was committed?
1. If I have a cold, then I find it difficult to sleep. I find it
difficult to sleep. Therefore, I have a cold.
2. Golden State Warriors is the best basketball team
therefore there is no basketball team that is better
than the Golden State Warriors.
3. If you do every problem in a math book, then you will
learn mathematics. You did not do every problem in
the book. Therefore, you did not learn mathematics.
SOME METHODS OF PROOF
 DEFINITION: EVEN NUMBER

An integer a is even if there is an integer

𝑘 such that 𝑎 = 2𝑘.

EXAMPLE
• 14 is even, because 14 = 2 ⋅ 7, and 7 is an
integer.
• −10 is even, because −10 = 2 ⋅ −5, and -5 is
an integer.
 DEFINITION: ODD NUMBER

An integer a is odd if there is an integer 𝑘

such that 𝑎 = 2𝑘 + 1.

EXAMPLE
• 13 is odd, because 13 = 2 ⋅ 6 + 1, and 6 is an
integer.
• −11 is even, because −11 = 2 ⋅ −6 + 1, and -
6 is an integer.
 Method of Proof Description

A proof that the implication 𝑝 → 𝑞 is true by showing that q must

Direct Proof
be true if p is true.
Indirect Proof
A proof that the implication 𝑝 → 𝑞 is true by showing that p must
-Contradiction
be false when q is false.
-Contrapositive

Let P(n) be a proposition for each positive integer n. If the

following two conditions are satisfied, then P(n) is true for all
Proof by
positive integers n:
Mathematical
• The proposition P(1) is true.
Induction
• The implication P(k) → P(k+1) is shown to be true for every
positive integer n.
DIRECT PROOF

When dealing the statement “If P(x) then Q(x)” over a domain
S, there is some connection between P(x) and Q(x). That is,
the truth value of Q(x) for a particular 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆 often depends on
the truth value of 𝑃(𝑥) for that same element 𝑥, or the truth
value of P(x) depends on the truth value of Q(x). These are the
kinds of implications in which we are primarily interested and it
is the proofs of these types of results
DIRECT PROOF

A direct proof starts from the hypothesis and arrives to the conclusion
using only straightforward deductions.
 Start with the Hypothesis: Begin with a statement or proposition that
you assume to be true (often called the hypothesis or premise).
 Logical Deductions: Use logical reasoning, known facts, definitions,
and previously established theorems to derive new statements or
conclusions.
 Arrive at the Conclusion: The sequence of logical deductions should
lead you directly to the statement you want to prove (the conclusion).
EXAMPLE

Prove that being human implies one is mortal.

Proof:
I am a man. Every man is mortal. Therefore, I am
mortal.
–Socrates
 EXAMPLE

Give a direct proof of the statement, “If n is odd, then 𝑛2 is odd.”

Proof:
Suppose 𝑛 is odd. Then, by definition of odd numbers, 𝑛 = 2𝑘 + 1 for some integer 𝑘.

Now, it follows that

𝑛2 = (2𝑘 + 1)2
= 4𝑘 2 + 4𝑘 + 1
= 2(2𝑘 2 + 2𝑘) + 1
Since 2𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 is an integer.
Therefore, 𝑛2 is odd.
 EXAMPLE

Give a direct proof of the statement, “If n is odd, then 3𝑛 + 7 is an even integer.”

Proof:
Suppose 𝑛 is odd. Then, by definition of odd numbers, 𝑛 = 2𝑘 + 1 for some integer 𝑘.

Now, it follows that

3𝑛 + 7 = 3(2𝑘 + 1) + 7
= 6𝑘 + 3 + 7
= 6𝑘 + 10
= 2(3𝑘 + 5)
Since 3𝑘 + 5 is an integer.
Therefore, 𝑛2 is odd.
INDIRECT PROOF

An indirect proof is a method of establishing the truth of a statement by

showing that assuming the opposite (or negation) of the statement leads
to a contradiction or an absurdity.
There are two primary forms of indirect proof:
1. Proof by contradiction
2. Proof by contrapositive
PROOF BY CONTRADICTION

A proof by contradiction is a proof where we use as part of our hypothesis the negation
of the conclusion we want to prove, and if by doing so we deduce a fact that we know to
be false, then we consider the conclusion to be proven.
 Assumption: Begin by assuming the opposite (negation) of the statement you want to
prove.
 Derivation: From this assumption, derive logical consequences.
 Contradiction: Demonstrate that these consequences lead to a contradiction or an
absurdity.
 Conclusion: Since the assumption led to a contradiction, the assumption itself must
be false. Therefore, the original statement is true.
By Truth Table
EXAMPLE

Example: In a village, there are 367 inhabitants. Prove by

contradiction that at least two of them share the same birthday.
Proof: If none of the inhabitants shared the same birthday,
then there would be at least 367 different days in a year. This is
impossible as there are only at most 366 days in a year. This
contradiction leads to the conclusion that at least two of them
share the same birthday.
EXAMPLE

If 𝑛 is an integer and 𝑛2 + 1 is odd, then 𝑛 is even.

Proof:
Let 𝑛 is an integer so that 𝑛2 + 1 is odd.
Assume that 𝑛 is odd. Then 𝑛 = 2𝑘 + 1 for some integer 𝑘.
It follows that 𝑛2 + 1 = (2𝑘 + 1)2 + 1 = 4𝑘2 + 4𝑘 + 1 + 1
= 4𝑘2 + 4𝑘 + 2
= 2(2𝑘2 + 2𝑘 + 1 )
Hence, 𝑛2 + 1 is even, which is contradictory with our hypothesis.
Therefore, 𝑛 is even.
 EXAMPLE
Give a proof by contradiction of the statement,
“No odd integer can be expressed as the sum of three even integers”
Proof:
Assume that there exists an odd integer 𝑛 that can be expressed as the sum of
three even integers 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧.
Then, 𝑥 = 2𝑎, 𝑦 = 2𝑏, 𝑧 = 2𝑐 with 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℤ
Therefore,
𝑛 =𝑥+𝑦+𝑧
= 2𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 2𝑐
= 2(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)
Since 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 is an integer, 𝑛 is even. This is a contradiction.
PROOF BY CONTRAPOSITIVE

A proof by contrapositive is a proof where we prove the

contrapositive of the statement, which is logically equivalent to
the original statement.

 Concept: If a statement "If P, then Q" is true, then its

contrapositive "If not Q, then not P" is also true.
 Method: Instead of proving the original statement directly,
you prove its contrapositive.
Truth Table of Contrapositive
EXAMPLE

Give an indirect proof of the theorem, “If 3n +2 is odd, then n is odd.”

Assume that n is even (negation of odd). Then n = 2k for some integer k.

It follows that 3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2= 6k + 2
= 2(3k + 1). Hence, 3n + 2 is even. Since the negation of the conclusion
of the implication implies that the hypothesis is false, the original
implication is true.
 EXAMPLE
Give a proof by contrapositive of the statement,
“Let 𝑥 ∈ ℤ. If 5𝑥 − 7 is even, then 𝑥 is odd.”
Proof:

Assume that 𝑥 is even. Then 𝑥 = 2𝑘 for some integer 𝑘. So

5𝑥 − 7 = 5(2𝑘) − 7
= 10𝑘 − 7
= 10𝑘 − 8 + 1
= 2(5𝑎 − 4) + 1
Since 5𝑎 − 4 ∈ ℤ, the integer 5𝑥 − 7 is odd.
 Proof by Induction

A proof by induction is a proof in which we want to

establish a property to be true for every natural number
𝑛 ≥ 1 by the following 3-step process to prove 𝑃(𝑛):
i. The initial case: prove that 𝑃(1) holds. (Verification)
ii. The induction step: prove that for every 𝑛 ≥ 1, if 𝑃(k)
holds then 𝑃(k + 1) holds. In other words, assume
that the statement holds for some arbitrary natural
number k ≥ 1 and prove that the statement holds for
k + 1. (Hypothesis of Induction)
iii. Conclude by stating that the statement holds for
every 𝑛 ≥ 1 (Conclusion)
Examples

𝑛(𝑛+1)
Prove: 1 + 2 + 3+ … + n = for every positive integer n.
2

I. Verification
If n = 1, verify if P(1) is true.
1(1+1) 1(2)
1= = =1 ∴ 𝑃 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒.
2 2

If n = 2, verify if P(2) is true.

2(2 + 1)
1+2=
2
2(3)
3=
2
3=3 ∴ 𝑃 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒.
Examples

If n = 3, verify if P(3) is true.

3(3 + 1)
1+2+3=
2
3(4)
6=
2
6=6 ∴ 𝑃 3 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒.
II. Hypothesis of Induction
Assume that the statement is true for n = k, that is, P(k) is true.
𝑘(𝑘+1)
1 + 2 + 3+ … + k = 2
(eq. 1)
Examples

Prove that the statement is true for n = k + 1, that is, P(k + 1) is true.
𝑘+1 [ 𝑘+1 +1]
1 + 2 + 3+ … + k + (k + 1) = (eq. 2)
2

Since eq. 1 is 1 term away from eq. 2

𝑘(𝑘+1)
1 + 2 + 3+ … + k + (k + 1) = + (k + 1) (eq. 3)
2

Substituting the LHS of eq. 3 with that of eq. 2

𝑘+1 [ 𝑘+1 +1] 𝑘(𝑘+1)
= + (k + 1)
2 2
Examples

𝑘+1 [ 𝑘+1 +1] 𝑘(𝑘+1)

= + (k + 1)
2 2
𝑘+1 𝑘+2 𝑘(𝑘+1) 2(𝑘+1)
2
= 2
+ 2
𝑘 2 +𝑘 2𝑘+2
= 2
+ 2
𝑘 2 +𝑘+2𝑘+2
=
2
𝑘 2 +3𝑘+2
=
2
𝑘+1 𝑘+2 𝑘+1 𝑘+2
=
2 2
∴ 𝑃 𝑘 + 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒.
Examples

III. Conclusion
Since the statement is true for n = k + 1, then it must
be true for all higher natural number.