MODULE 4

(CE 103 – Highway and Railroad Engineering)

TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS & TRAFFIC ENGINEERING STUDIES

Engr. Leo M. Sauro, D.M.
(+63)-9451136579
[email protected]

OVERVIEW

In this module, we will discuss relevant characteristics of the main components of

highway mode and introduce the different traffic engineering studies conducted to collect
traffic data and their use in the design and operation of highway facilities

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, you should be able to define and understand the basic concepts
of traffic characteristics and traffic studies and analysis.

INTRODUCTION

The availability of highway transportation has provided several advantages that

contribute to a high standard of living. However, several problems related to the highway
mode of transportation exist. These problems include highway-related crashes, parking
difficulties, congestion, and delay. To reduce the negative impact of highways, it is
necessary to adequately collect information that describes the extent of the problems and
identifies their locations. Such information is usually collected by organizing and conducting
traffic surveys and studies.

It is important for a highway engineer to have knowledge about traffic characteristics

when developing highway and transportation plans, performing economic analyses,
establishing geometric design criteria, selecting and implementing traffic control measures,
and evaluating the performance of transportation facilities..

CHARACTRISTICS OF THE DRIVER, THE PEDESTRIAN, THE VEHICLE AND THE

ROAD

The highway or traffic engineer needs to study and understand the fundamental
elements that are important in the design of traffic control systems.

Page 1 of 14
Driver Characteristics

The most important characteristic of the driver is the driver response process, which
consists of four subprocesses: perception, identification, emotion, reaction or volition
(PIEV).
1. Perception – the driver sees a control device, warning sign, or object on the road
2. Identification – the driver identifies the object or control device and thus
understand the stimulus
3. Emotion – the driver decides what action to take in response to the stimulus; for
example, to step on the brake pedal, to pass, to swerve, or to change lanes
4. Reaction or Volition – the driver actually executes the action decided on during
the emotion subprocess

Each of these subprocesses requires time to complete, the sum of which is known as the
perception-reaction time of the driver. The actual distance a vehicle travels before coming
to rest is the sum of the distance traveled during the perception-reaction time of the driver
and the distance traveled during the actual braking maneuver. Perception-reaction times
vary from one person to another, but the recommended value for design is 2.5 sec.

Pedestrian Characteristics

Pedestrian characteristics may influence the design and location pedestrian control devices
which includes special pedestrian signals, safety zones and island at intersections,
pedestrian underpasses, elevated walkways, and crosswalks. Apart from visual and hearing
characteristics, walking characteristics play a major part in the design of some of these
controls.

Vehicle Characteristics

Criteria for the geometric design of highways are partly based on the static,
kinematic, and dynamic characteristics of vehicles. Static characteristics include the weight
and size of the vehicle, while kinematic characteristics involve the motion of the vehicle
without considering the forces that cause the motion. Dynamic characteristics involve the
forces that cause the motion of the vehicle. Designing a highway involves the selection of a
design vehicle, whose characteristics will encompass those of nearly all vehicles expected
to use the highway. The characteristics of the design vehicle are then used to determine
criteria for geometric design, intersection design, and sight-distance requirements.

Road Characteristics

The characteristic of the road that has a direct relationship to the characteristics of
the driver is the sight distance on the road. Two types of sight distances are considered to
be part od the characteristics of the road: the stopping sight distance, which is normally
taken as the minimum sight distance required for a driver to stop a vehicle after seeing an
object in the vehicle’s path without hitting that object, and the passing sight distance, which
is the minimum sight distance required on a two-lane, two-way highway, that will permit a
driver to complete a passing maneuver without colliding with an opposing vehicle and
without cutting off the passed vehicle.

Page 2 of 14
TRAFFIC STUDIES

A traffic study is a detailed examination and analysis of a transportation system

supported by data collection. It helps in geometric design and traffic control, towards a safe
and efficient traffic movement.
Transportation studies serve to quantify the extent of a transportation problem or to
provide an analysis of a proposed transportation solution.
A traffic study is usually undertaken by the jurisdiction responsible for the
transportation system. A study can be invoked by a request from a public official, local
resident, or jurisdictional staff member.
The following are some conditions that may warrant conducting a traffic study:
 When a new development is proposed and it will generate substantial new traffic;
 When financial assessments are implemented (transportation impact fees);
 When a major roadway improvement or reconstruction project is proposed;
 When existing transportation problems are evident, such as a high crash location or
at a location with complex roadway geometrics;
 When a development is proposed for a sensitive area; and
 At the judgment or discretion of jurisdiction staff based on unusual circumstances.

TYPES OF TRAFFIC STUDIES

 Speed study
 Traffic volume study
 Origin and destination study
 Traffic flow characteristics study
 Traffic capacity study
 Parking study
 Accident study

SPEED STUDIES

Speed of travel is a simple and widely used measure of the quality of traffic flow. Basically,
speed is the total distance traversed divided by the time of travel, commonly expressed in
kilometers per hour or meters per second.

Speed studies may be used for following aspects:

 Planning traffic control and regulation
 Geometric design
 Accident studies
 Traffic capacity
 Speed trends

There are three basic classes or measures of speed of travel:

1. Spot speed
2. Overall speed
3. Running or operating speed

Page 3 of 14
Spot speed is the “instantaneous” speed of a vehicle as it passes a specified point along a
street or highway. Spot speeds may be determined by manually measuring the time
required for a vehicle to traverse a relatively short specified distance. A variety of
electromechanical and electronic devices are commonly employed to measure spot
speeds. Radar and laser devices are also widely used by traffic engineers and enforcement
officers to measure spot speeds.

The average of a series of measures of spot speeds can be expressed in two ways,
as a time-mean speed and a space-mean speed. Time-mean speed, ̅ , is the arithmetic
mean of speeds of all vehicles passing a point during a specified interval of time. The time-
mean speed is:

∑
̅ =

ℎ = ℎ ℎ ℎ =
= ℎ

The space-mean speed, ̅ , is the arithmetic mean of speeds of vehicles occupying

a relatively long section of street or highway at a given instant. It is the average of vehicle
speeds weighted according to how long they remain on the section of the road. One
definition of space-mean speed is:

̅ =
∑

ℎ = ℎ
= ℎ ℎ ℎ

Overall and Running speed are speeds over a relatively long section of street or
highway between an origin and a destination. These measures are used in travel time
studies to compare the quality of service between alternative routes. Overall speed is
defined as the total distance traveled divided by the total time required, including traffic
delays. Running speed is defined as the total distance traveled divided by the running time.
The running time is the time the vehicle is in motion; time for stop-delays is excluded.
Overall and running speeds are normally measured by means of a test vehicle that is
driven over the test section of roadway. The driver attempts to travel at the average speed
of the traffic stream, or to “float” in the traffic stream, passing as many vehicles as pass the
test vehicle. A passenger uses a stopwatch or electronic distance measuring device to
record time of travel to various previously chosen points along the course. Distances can be
roughly determined by using the vehicle’s odometer. The test drive is repeated several
times and the average travel time is used to computer the overall and running speeds.

Page 4 of 14
Example: (CE Board Nov. 2004)
Two sets of students are collecting traffic data at two sections A and B of a highway
200 m. apart. Observation at A shows that 5 vehicles passes that section at intervals of
8.18 sec, 9.09 sec, 10.23 sec, 11.68, and 13.64 sec, respectively. If the speed of the
vehicles were 80, 72, 64, 56, and 48 kph respectively.
1. Compute the time mean speed in kph.
2. Compute the space mean speed in kph.

Solution:

1. Time mean speed

80 + 72 + 64 + 56 + 48
= =
5

2. Space mean speed

5(200) 3600
= = 18.93 ⁄ = .
8.18 + 9.09 + 10.23 + 11.68 + 13.64 1000

TRAFFIC VOLUME STUDIES

Traffic volume studies are conducted to collect data on the number of vehicles and/or
pedestrians that pass a point on a highway facility during a specified time. This time period
varies from as little as 15 min to as much as a year, depending on the anticipated use of
data. The data collected may also be put into subclasses which may include directional
movement, occupancy rates, vehicle classification, and pedestrian age. Traffic volume
studies are usually conducted when certain volume characteristics are needed such as:

1. Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) – is the number of vehicles that pass a
particular point on a roadway during a period of 24 consecutive hours averaged over
a period of 365 days. AADT’s are used in several traffic and transportation analysis
for:
a) Estimation of highway user revenues
b) Computation of accident rates in terms of accident per 100 million vehicle-
miles
c) Establishment of traffic volume trends
d) Evaluation of the economic feasibility of highway projects
e) Development of freeway and major arterial street system
f) Development of improvement and maintenance programs

2. Average Daily Traffic (ADT) – is the average of 24-hour counts collected over a
number of days greater than one but less than a year. ADT’s may be used for:
a) Planning of highway activities
b) Measurement of current demands
c) Evaluation of existing traffic flow

Page 5 of 14
 3. Peak Hour Volume (PHV) – is the maximum number of vehicles that pass a point
on a highway during a period of 60 consecutive minutes. PHV’s are used for:
a) Functional classification of highways
b) Design of the geometric charateristics of a highway, for example, number of
lanes, intersection signalization, or channelization
c) Capacity analysis
d) Development of programs related to traffic operations, for example, one-way
street systems or traffic routing
e) Development of parking regulations

4. Vehicle Classification (VC) – records volume with respect to the type of vehicles,
for example, passenger cars, two-axle trucks, or three-axle trucks. VC is used in:
a) Design of geometric characteristics, with particular reference to turning-radii
requirements, minimum grades, lane widths, and so forth
b) Capacity analysis, with respect to passenger-car equivalent of trucks
c) Adjustment of traffic counts obtained by machines
d) Structural design of highway pavements, bridges and so forth

The design hourly volume (DHV) is a future hourly volume that is used for design. It
is usually the 30th-highest hourly volume of the design year. Traffic volumes are much
heavier during certain hours of the day or year, and it is for these peak ours that the
highway is designed. The term design year is a future target year often assumed as 20
years beyond the road construction year.
The term rate of flow accounts for the variability or the peaking that may occur during
periods of less than 1 hour. The term is used to express an equivalent hourly rate of
vehicles passing a point along a roadway or for traffic during an interval less than 1 hour,
usually 15 min.
Suppose a traffic engineer collected the following traffic counts during a 1-hour
study:

Rate of Flow
Time Period Number of Vehicles (veh/hr)
8:00 – 8:15 A.M. 1,000 4,000
8:15 – 8:30 A.M. 1,100 4,400
8:30 – 8:45 A.M. 1,000 4,000
8:45 – 9:00 A.M. 900 3,600
TOTAL 4,000

The total volume is the sum of these counts or 4,000 veh/hr. The rate of flow varies for each
15-min period and during the peak 15-min period is 4,400 veh/hr. Note that 4,400 vehicles
did not actually pass the observation point during the study hour but they did pass at that
rate for one 15-min period. As a 1-hr time period includes four 15-min periods, the rate of
flow is estimated by multiplying each 15-min count by four and selecting the largest value (
or 1,100 x 4 = 4,400).
Consideration of peak rates of flow is of extreme importance in highway capacity
analysis. Suppose the example roadway section is capable of handling a maximum rate of
only 4,200 veh/hr. In other words, the capacity of the road is 4,200 veh/hr. Since the peak
rate of flow is 4,400 veh/hr, an extended breakdown in the flow would likely occur even
though the volume, averaged over the full hour, is less than the capacity.

Page 6 of 14
 = = ℎ/ℎ
= = ; =
=

The Highway Capacity Manual uses a peak hour factor (PHF) to relate peak rates of
flow to hourly volume. The PHF is defined as the ratio of total hourly volume to the
maximum rate of flow within the hour. If 15-min periods are used, the PHF can be
calculated as:

= ; =
4 12

ℎ =ℎ ( ℎ
ℎ )
= 15 − min ( ℎ )
15 −
= 5 − min ( ℎ )
5−

Methods of Conducting Spot Speed & Volume Studies

A. Manual
B. Automatic
1. Road Detectors
a) Pneumatic road tubes
b) Inductive loop
2. Radar-Based Traffic Sensors
3. Electronic-Principle Detectors

Manual Counters
The manually method is the method in which a group of peoples are trained to record
the total numbers of vehicles crossing a section of the road in desired period of time on
record sheets manually
 Advantage:
It gives the full detail of the traffic like various classes, stream and turning movement
of the vehicles.
 Disadvantage:
It cannot work throughout the day and night for all days of year.

Automatic counters
Automatic counters are also known as mechanical counters . They can automatically
record the total numbers of vehicles crossing a section of the road in desired period of time.
 Advantage:
It can work throughout the day and night for desired period, which is impractical in
manual.
 Disadvantage:
It does not give the detail of the traffic like various classes, stream and turning
movement

Page 7 of 14
 ORIGIN AND DESTINATION STUDIES

An origin-destination study is used to determine travel patterns of traffic on an installation

during a typical day. This is a study to determine and analyze trips. Trips are defined as
one-way movement, from where a person starts (origin) to where the person is going
(destination).

This technique is mainly observed by two methods:

 Plan the road network and other facilities for vehicular traffic
 Plan the schedule of different modes of transportation for trip demand

Methods of O and D study

 Road side interview method
 License plate method
 Return postcard method
 Tag on car method
 Home interview method
 Work spot interview method

TRAFFIC CAPACITY STUDIES

Traffic Capacity is expressed as the maximum number of vehicles in a lane or a road that
can pass a given point in unit time, usually an hour, i.e. vehicles per hour per lane or
roadway.

Similarities and Differences between the Traffic Capacity and Traffic Volume
The only similarity between the two is that traffic capacity and traffic volume, both,
have same units of ‘number of vehicles in a given unit of time’. The difference between the
two is that traffic volume represents the actual rate of flow of the traffic and responds to the
variation in the traffic demand, while capacity indicates a capability or maximum rate of flow
with a certain level of service characteristics that can be carried by the road. Traffic capacity
of a roadway depends upon a number of prevailing roadway and traffic conditions.

The study of traffic volume and traffic density is known as traffic capacity study.
There are three types of capacity study:
 Basic capacity
 Possible capacity
 Practical capacity

Basic capacity is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given point on a lane
or roadway during one hour under the most nearly ideal roadway and traffic conditions
which can possibly be attained. Two roads which have same physical features will have
same basic capacities irrespective of the traffic conditions.

Possible capacity is the maximum number of vehicles which can pass a given point on a
lane or highway during one hour under the prevailing roadway and traffic conditions. This
means that the possible capacity of a highway will always be lower than the basic capacity
unless the prevailing conditions of the traffic, approach the ideal conditions. Therefore the
possible capacity may vary from 0 to the maximum, i.e., basic capacity.

Page 8 of 14
Practical capacity is the maximum number of vehicle that can pass a given point on a lane
or roadway during one hour, without traffic density being so great as to cause unreasonable
delay, hazard, or restriction to the driver’s freedom to maneuver under the prevailing
roadway and traffic conditions. It is the practical capacity which is of primary interest to the
designers who strive to provide adequate highway facilities and hence this is called the
design capacity.

Factor affecting traffic capacity

 Speed of leading and following  Traffic volume capacity ratio
vehicle  Proportion of vehicle classes
 Type and characteristic of two vehicle  Road geometrics
 Driver characteristic of following  Environmental factors
vehicle

Capacity of a single lane in vehicles per hour

S = Vt + L S = average center to center spacing of cars in meters

V = average speed of cars in meters
t = reaction time in seconds
L = length of one car in meters

C=1000*V/S C = capacity of a single lane in vehicle per hour.

PARKING STUDIES

Parking is one of the major problems that is created by the increasing road traffic. It is an
impact of transport development. This has a great economical impact. Parking studies are
performed to determine location, use and adequacy of existing parking facilities. Information
can also be gathered for planning parking facilities. Parking is the much needed demand
and major problem in our country.

On street parking

On street parking means the vehicles are parked on the sides of the street itself. This will
be usually controlled by government agencies itself. Common types of on-street parking are
as listed below.
1. Parallel parking: The vehicles are parked along the length of the road. Here there is
no backward movement involved while parking or unparking the vehicle. Hence, it is
the most safest parking from the accident perspective. However, it consumes the
maximum curb length and therefore only a minimum number of vehicles can be
parked for a given kerb length. This method of parking produces least obstruction to
the on-going traffic on the road since least road width is used. Parallel parking of
cars is shown in figure 1.

Figure 1: Illustration of parallel parking

Source: https://www.civil.iitb.ac.in/tvm/nptel/581_Parking/web/web.html

Page 9 of 14
 2. 30∘ parking: In thirty degree parking, the vehicles are parked at 30∘ with respect to
the road alignment. In this case, more vehicles can be parked compared to parallel
parking. Also there is better maneuverability. Delay caused to the traffic is also
minimum in this type of parking.

Figure 2: Illustration of 30∘ parking

Source: https://www.civil.iitb.ac.in/tvm/nptel/581_Parking/web/web.html

3. 45∘ parking: As the angle of parking increases, more number of vehicles can be
parked. Hence compared to parallel parking and thirty degree parking, more number
of vehicles can be accommodated in this type of parking.

Figure 3: Illustration of 45∘ parking

Source: https://www.civil.iitb.ac.in/tvm/nptel/581_Parking/web/web.html

4. 60∘ parking: The vehicles are parked at 60∘ to the direction of road. More number of
vehicles can be accommodated in this parking type.

Figure 4: Illustration of 60∘ parking

Source: https://www.civil.iitb.ac.in/tvm/nptel/581_Parking/web/web.html

5. Right angle parking: In right angle parking or 90∘ parking, the vehicles are parked
perpendicular to the direction of the road. Although it consumes maximum width kerb
length required is very little. In this type of parking, the vehicles need complex
maneuvering and this may cause severe accidents. This arrangement causes
obstruction to the road traffic particularly if the road width is less.

Figure 5: Illustration of 90∘ parking

Source: https://www.civil.iitb.ac.in/tvm/nptel/581_Parking/web/web.html

Page 10 of 14
Off street parking

In many urban centers, some areas are exclusively allotted for parking which will be at
some distance away from the main stream of traffic. Such a parking is referred to as off-
street parking. They may be operated by either public agencies or private firms. A typical
layout of an off-street parking is shown in figure 6.

Figure 6: Illustration of off-street parking

Source: https://www.civil.iitb.ac.in/tvm/nptel/581_Parking/web/web.html

Parking statistics

Parking accumulation: It is defined as the number of vehicles parked at a given instant of

time.
Parking volume: Parking volume is the total number of vehicles parked at a given
duration of time. This does not account for repetition of vehicles. The actual volume of
vehicles entered in the area is recorded.
Parking load : Parking load gives the area under the accumulation curve. It can also be
obtained by simply multiplying the number of vehicles occupying the parking area at each
time interval with the time interval. It is expressed as vehicle hours.
Average parking duration: It is the ratio of total vehicle hours to the number of vehicles
parked.
(1)
Parking turnover: It is the ratio of number of vehicles parked in a duration to the number of
parking bays available. This can be expressed as number of vehicles per bay per time
duration.
(2)
Parking index: Parking index is also called occupancy or efficiency. It is defined as the
ratio of number of bays occupied in a time duration to the total space available. It gives an
aggregate measure of how effectively the parking space is utilized. Parking index can be
found out as follows
(3)

Parking surveys

The most common parking surveys conducted are in-out survey, fixed period sampling and
license plate method of survey.

Page 11 of 14
In-out survey
In this survey, the occupancy count in the selected parking lot is taken at the beginning.
Then the number of vehicles that enter the parking lot for a particular time interval is
counted. The number of vehicles that leave the parking lot is also taken. The final
occupancy in the parking lot is also taken. For quick survey purposes, a fixed period
sampling can also be done. This is almost similar to in-out survey. All vehicles are counted
at the beginning of the survey. Then after a fixed time interval that may vary between 15
minutes to i hour, the count is again taken. Here there are chances of missing the number
of vehicles that were parked for a short duration.

License plate method of survey

In this case of survey, every parking stall is monitored at a continuous interval of 15 minutes
or so and the license plate number is noted down. This will give the data regarding the
duration for which a particular vehicle was using the parking bay. This will help in
calculating the fare because fare is estimated based on the duration for which the vehicle
was parked. If the time interval is shorter, then there are less chances of missing short-term
parkers. But this method is very labor intensive.

ACCIDENT STUDIES

One undesirable reality that comes with development is the increase in traffic accidents
due to increased motorization and infrastructure. Every year worldwide, at least one million
people are killed on the road, 70% of whom are from countries classified by the World Bank
as low-or middle income. In Metro Manila alone, 10 road crashes per hour was recorded
based on DOTR data as of 2010. The Philippines defines fatality as “death at the scene”.
Serious injury and slight injury are defined based on the extent of injury sustained and the
length of time required by the injured to recover. However, there is no exact definition of the
seriousness of the injury. Property damaged-only accidents involve vehicles colliding with
publicly or privately owned structures, equipment and facilities located by the road. It also
includes collision of vehicles with other vehicles without causing physical injury to the driver,
passenger, or any pedestrian.

Accident studies may be listed as: to study the cause of accident and suggest corrective
treatment at nearest location, to evaluate existing design, to support proposed design, to
make computation of financial loss, and to carry out before and after studies.

Causes of accident include: road user, vehicle, road condition, environment factor,
driver, pedestrian, passenger, vehicle defects, weather, and animals.

Accident rates for 100 million vehicle miles of travel for a segment of highway:
( , , )
=
Where: R= the accident rate for 100 million vehicle miles
A= the number of accidents during period of analysis
ADT= average daily traffic
N= time period in years
L= length of segment in miles

Page 12 of 14
Accident rates per million entering vehicles for an intersection:
( , , )
=
Where: R= the accident rate for one million entering vehicles
A= the number of accidents during period of analysis
ADT= average daily traffic
N= time period in years

Severity ratio:
+
=
+ +
Example 1:

Data on a traffic accident recorded on a certain intersection for the past 4 years has an accident rate
of 9,200 per million entering vehicles (ARMV). If the total number of accidents is 802, find the
average daily traffic (ADT) entering the intersection during the 4 year period.
( , , ) ( , , )
Solution: = ; 9200 = ;

ADT = 59.71

Example 2:

A 20 miles road had reported accident including property damage only accident. Compute the
severity ratio and the accident rates for injury accidents for a period of 5 years.

Data:

Year Fatal accident Injury accident Property ADT

damage
2000 3 40 110 1200
2001 1 52 215 1250
2002 5 60 170 1600
2004 7 96 160 1400
2003 6 74 250 1350
∑ 24 322 905 13600

Solution:
( ) ( )
R= = ( )( )(
=69.75 accident per 100million vehicles
∗ ∗ ∗ )

= = 0.277

Page 13 of 14
STUDENT ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY: “A Look into the Parking System in Local
Communities”

There are two things the Philippines is struggling with right now – traffic congestion and
parking. Every year more and more people are purchasing automobiles and it is about time
that it affected not just our parking system in the Philippines but sometimes affect other
elements such as to mention some; speed of vehicles, road capacity, road congestion,
which sometimes render obstruction which may cause road accidents. Just being honest
discuss the existing situation and challenges in the parking system in the province of
Northern Samar (indicate the LGU and the streets you are discussing). Assuming you being
the highway/traffic engineer, what improvements/mitigations could you suggest to address
these parking problems? (include government restrictions/non-restrictions re: on-street
and/or off-street parking if any and you may use situational examples or sketches for your
discussion).

Note: (Pls indicate on your answer sheets your Name, Subject, Module #, Activity #, type of exam , etc.)

Use A4 size bond paper for your answer sheets. Submit your Student Activity/Assessment (hardcopy and
handwritten) to
* thru the UEP municipal link or university main link
* any mode that will be deemed safe for you and me, on or before October 21, 2021.

REFERENCES

Wright, Paul H., Dixon, Karen K. (2004). HIGHWAY ENGINEERING. John Wiley & Sons
(Asia) Pte. Ltd.

Garber, Nicholas J., Hoel, Lester A. (2012). TRAFFIC AND HIGHWAY ENGINEERING.
CENGAGE Learning (Asia) Pte. Ltd.

Fajardo, Max B. (2002). Elements of Roads and Highways. 5138 Merchandising

file:///E:/Module%20Devt/Transportation%20Engineering/Traffic%20Studies/WhatIsATrafficStudy.pdf

https://civilengineering-softstudies.com/2014/05/traffic-capacity-studies-highway-engineering.html

https://www.civil.iitb.ac.in/tvm/nptel/581_Parking/web/web.html

Page 14 of 14