PHYS 1121, 1131, 1141.

Lecture notes from Joe Wolfe, UNSW

Particle dynamics: Newton’s laws, friction, Hooke’s laws, applications.
About these notes:
These notes are what I show in class. They are a summary of the course. They
include neat versions of the work that you and I will do in class (on paper and
blackboard respectively).
If you missed a class, or if you want more material, please see
• web stream lessons chapters 4&5 on Moodle. They have
- subtitles
- controls to slow down (or to speed up)
- short sections, which can be repeated
- regular quiz questions
• our multimedia resources in Physclips
• the text book (available online)
• powerpoint lecture slides from the text book (these have more extensive text)
Particle dynamics
Newton's laws:
force, mass, acceleration (don’t confuse mass with weight)
Friction – coefficients of static and kinetic friction
Hooke's Law – restoring force proportional to deformation & opposite direction
Dynamical problems (including the dynamics of circular motion)
_________________________________________
Question. Top view of ball. What is its trajectory after it leaves the spiral race?

e d c b a

?
Title page of the ‘Principia’ Newton calls them “Axioms or laws of motion”
Aristotle and many others: 𝑣⃗ = 0 is "natural" state not in syllabus
Galileo & then Newton: 𝑎⃗ = 0 is "natural" state

Galileo: ball (almost) regains its original height. But what if we remove one side of the bowl?
Newton's Laws
First law: "Every body persists in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight
line unless it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed on it."
"zero (total) force  zero acceleration"
If ∑ 𝐹⃗ = 0, then 𝑎⃗ = 0  means ‘sum of’

Applies only in inertial frames of reference

More formally:
If ∑ 𝐹⃗ = 0, there exist reference frames in which 𝑎⃗ = 0 These are called inertial frames
Observation: with respect to these frames, distant stars don't accelerate)
Is the earth an inertial frame? try the experiment in the foyer of this building.

Foucault pendulum.
Using the cable under the railing and the reference mark on the wall, you can set the
pendulum swinging exactly North-South. The Earth precesses clockwise underneath
the pendulum (at ~ 1° every 7 minutes) so if you wait several minutes, you can
observe the rotation of the Earth — and therefore the (tiny) acceleration of your
reference frame.
In inertial frames of reference:
Second law ∑ 𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗  is important: Total force

It is a vector equation, so
 Fx = max  Fy = may  Fz = maz
One vector equation in 3D−  scalar equations

1st law is just a special case of 2nd:

∑ 𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗ so, if ∑ 𝐹⃗ = 0, 𝑎⃗ = 0
What does the 2nd law mean?

∑ 𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗ where 𝑎⃗ is already defined.

i) Does this equation define m?

ii) Does this law define 𝐹⃗ ?
iii) Is it a physical law?
iv) All of the above?
v) How?

Explanation shouldn’t involve weight:

∑ 𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎⃗ and 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑔
minertial and mgravitational are conceptually different
∑ 𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗ where 𝑎⃗ is already defined.

i) Does this equation define m?

ii) Does this law define 𝐹⃗ ?
iii) Is it a physical law?
iv) All of the above?
v) How?

a) For one mass m, we can calibrate many forces by measuring a.

b) For any one force F, we can calibrate many masses by measuring a.
c) 2nd Law is the observation that all the m's and F's thus defined are consistent.
e.g. double m using two similar objects. Does F accelerate 2m at a?

Philosophically very important

But yes, most students will forget it.
Units: The second is defined by the frequency of an atomic transition, the metre by
the speed of light. We used to use a standard object for the kilogram (it looks like

), but since 2019, we define the kg in terms of Planck’s constant.

We then choose the unit of force (newtons) such that

∑ 𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗

So 1 newton = 1 kg. m. s −2 .
But how big is a newton?
Questions

What is the weight of

A litre of milk?
A car?
The water in a swimming pool (50m * 10m * 2m at 𝜌 = 1000 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚−3 )?

What is the maximum force you can exert with your feet?

What is the smallest force you can feel?

Newton’s 3rd law: "To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction*; or
the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal and directed to
contrary parts"

Or Forces always occur in symmetric pairs, 𝐹⃗ and −𝐹⃗ , one acting on each
of a pair of interacting bodies. 𝐹⃗𝑎𝑏 = – 𝐹⃗𝑏𝑎

Or Forces come in symmetric pairs that add to zero.

𝐹⃗𝑎𝑏 +𝐹⃗𝑏𝑎 = 0

* I don't like 'reaction' because it might suggest that 'reaction' comes after 'action'

Forces in the 3rd law are completely symmetrical. If ⃗F⃗ab is electric, then
⃗F⃗ba is electric, etc. For instance, you can’t apply the 3rd law to weight and normal
force. More on this later.
Third law 𝐹⃗𝑎𝑏 = –𝐹⃗𝑏𝑎 𝐹⃗𝑎𝑏 +𝐹⃗𝑏𝑎 = 0

What if it were not true?

combine ma and mb as single object

object would accelerate spontaneously!

3rd law implies: internal forces in a system add to zero.

2nd law ∑ 𝐹⃗ = 𝐹⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 + 𝐹⃗𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝑚𝑎⃗
So rewrite 2nd law as ∑ 𝐹⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝑚𝑎⃗
First and second laws (and also the definitions of inertial mass and force):
∑ 𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗
Third law: 𝐹⃗𝑎𝑏 = –𝐹⃗𝑏𝑎

Combine the two gives ∑ 𝐹⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝑚𝑎⃗

Question. An insect (mass 2 g) flying South at 3 m. s −1 collides with a truck (mass
30 tonnes) travelling North at 20 m. s −1 .
a) During the collision, what is the ratio of the force that the truck exerts on the
insect (Ftl) to the force the locust exerts on the truck (Flt)? Choose:
force on truck
= >>1 1 <<1
force on insect

b) During the collision, what is the ratio of the acceleration of the truck (at) to
the acceleration of the insect (al)?
acceleration of truck
| acceleration of insect | = >>1 1 <<1
Example Where is centre of earth-moon orbit?

each makes a circle about common centre, so

Using Newton's 2nd and 3rd laws, derive an equation relating 𝜔, 𝑚𝑚 , 𝑟𝑚 , 𝑚𝑒 & 𝑟𝑒
Do it without using the law of gravity and G (Newton’s constant).
Hint: what are their accelerations?
Example Where is centre of earth-moon orbit?

each makes a circle about common centre, so third law gives

|Fe| = |Fm| = |Fgrav| equal & opposite Then the second law gives
Fgrav = 𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑚𝑚 2𝑟𝑚 , (centripetal acceleration)
Fgrav = 𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑒 = 𝑚𝑒 2𝑟𝑒 , Period and therefore  is the same for
both
𝑟𝑚 𝑚𝑒 5.98∗1024kg
 = 𝑚 = 7.36∗1022kg = 81.3 (i)
𝑟𝑒 𝑚
earth-moon distance re + rm = 3.85 108 m (ii) (two equations, two unknowns)
𝑟𝑚 𝑚𝑒 5.98∗1024kg
 = 𝑚 = 7.36∗1022kg = 81.3 (i)
𝑟𝑒 𝑚

earth-moon distance re + rm = 3.85 108 m (ii) (two equations, two unknowns)

solve − rm = 3.80 108 m, re = 4.7 106 m = 4700 km

 centre of both orbits is inside earth (later, we'll show this point is the centre of mass)
Using Newton's laws to solve problems
Newton's 1st & 2nd ∑ 𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗ the  is important

Newton's 3rd. Forces come in symmetric pairs, 𝐹⃗𝑎𝑏 = –𝐹⃗𝑏𝑎 or 𝐹⃗𝑎𝑏 +𝐹⃗𝑏𝑎 = 0, so:
• internal forces add to zero. They don't affect overall motion
• Be careful identifying internal and external forces
Therefore, applying Newton's 2nd, we use ∑ 𝐹⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝑚𝑎⃗

• draw diagrams (free body diagrams) to show only the

external forces on body of interest
Newton's second law is a vector equation, so

• write components of N2 in 1, 2 or 3 directions

• Then see what else you have/ need and put it in equation form
• Do you have as many equations as variables to solve?
Example. As the bus takes a steady turn with radius 8 m at constant speed, you
notice that a mass on a string hangs at 30° to the vertical. How fast is the bus going?
i) Draw a diagram with the essential physics.
ii) Draw a free body diagram.
iii) What do we know?
Example. As the bus takes a steady turn with radius 8 m at constant speed, you
notice that a mass on a string hangs at 30° to the vertical. How fast is the bus going?
Diagram with physics Free body diagram

Apply Newton’s 2nd in the horizontal:

Is it accelerating horizontally? write an equation!

Apply Newton’s 2nd in the vertical:

Is it accelerating vertically? write an equation!

Hereafter, I’ll use ‘N2’ as a shorthand for ‘Newton’s second law’.

Example. As the bus takes a steady turn with radius 8 m at constant speed, you
notice that a mass on a string hangs at 30° to the vertical. How fast is the bus going?

𝑚𝑣 2
N2 horizontal: mass in circular motion with bus, so force on m: Fhoriz = ma =
𝑟
𝑚𝑣 2
Only the tension has a horizontal component, so Fhoriz = T sin 30° = (i)
𝑟
Need one more equation: mass is not falling down, ie
N2 vertical: vertical acceleration = 0, so T cos 30° – mg = 0 (ii)
𝑣2 1
Eliminate T by dividing (i) by (ii): tan 30° = 𝑚 𝑟 𝑚𝑔

rearrange v = √𝑔𝑟 tan 30°= 6.7 m/s − 20 kph.

Don't stop yet! Check dimensions. Check limits. Is the answer reasonable?
Example. A toy truck, mass m, has wheels that roll
freely. With my finger, I apply a force F at angle 𝜃 = 30°
to the vertical to hold it stationary against a vertical wall.
i) Draw a free body diagram
ii) Write two equations for Newton’s 1st or 2nd law
Example. A toy truck, mass m, has wheels that roll
freely. With my finger, I apply a force F at angle 𝜃 = 30°
to the vertical to hold it stationary against a vertical wall.
i) Draw a free body diagram
ii) Write two equations for Newton’s 1st or 2nd law

a) We’re told that F acts at 𝜃 = 30° to the vertical.

b) Wheels turn freely, the force exerted by the wall is
at right angles to the wall – a normal force N.
c) The remaining force is weight mg downwards.
‘Stationary’ means that acceleration 𝑎𝑥 = 0 and 𝑎𝑦 = 0.

remember:
Newton’s 2nd law in x: N – F sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0 (i)
Newton’s 2nd law in y: F cos 𝜃 – mg = 𝑚𝑎𝑦 = 0 (ii)
For F, we only need (ii): 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔/ cos 𝜃
We can substitute in (i) to get 𝑁 = 𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃
Note that we could also get both from the triangle of 𝛴 force.
Question. Horse and cart. Wheels roll freely.

What would you tell the horse? What diagram(s) would you show her?
Write c for cart, g for ground. Horizontal forces on cart (mass mc):
Fc

For the system horse+cart, Fc and –Fc ∑ 𝐹⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 = Fc = mcac = mca

are both internal forces. The only
Horizontal forces on horse (mass mh):
external horizontal force acting on this
system is 𝐹𝑔 , the force the ground exerts Fc
on the horse.
∑ 𝐹⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝑚𝑎⃗ Fg
Fg = mbothaboth = mbotha ∑ 𝐹⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 = Fg − Fc = mha
Horizontal forces on Earth (mass mearth):
Only use external forces in
applying Newton’s 2nd. Fg

We could, however, define different mearth >> mh + mc

systems”
so Earth’s acceleration is negligible.
A note about "light" strings, ropes etc. Here, light means m << other masses
A rope (mass <1 kg) only needs a force of several newtons to produce substantial
accelerations, but can resist forces of thousands of newtons. Forces at opposite ends
of light ropes etc are equal and opposite. We call this the tension.

Truck (mt) pulls wagon (mw) with rope (mr). All have same acceleration a.

i) wagon: − F2 = mwa.
ii) rope: F1 – F2 = mra
iii) truck: − F1 + Fext = mta
𝐹1 −𝐹2 𝑚 𝑎
(ii)/(i) − = 𝑚𝑟 𝑎 light rope, i.e. mr << mw
−𝐹2 𝑤
 if mr << mw F1 = F2 = T (tension) A very common approximation
Question. In (a), the scale reads mg. What does it read in (b) and (c)?
Question. Train. Wheels roll freely. Loco exerts horizontal force F on the track.
What are the tensions T1 and T2 in the two (light) couplings?
car 2 T car 1 T loco
2 1
m m m

F F not to scale
Draw diagrams of different parts of the train to show F, T1 and T2 as external forces
so that we can calculate them.
(No need to show vertical forces, as these add to zero.)
Example. Train. Wheels roll freely. Loco exerts horizontal force F on the track.
What are the tensions T1 and T2 in the two couplings?
car 2 T car 1 T loco Note: the vertical displacement of F arrows is for
2 1 illustration only: to show that one acts on wheel and
m m m
the other on the track. In reality they are collinear
F F
Whole train accelerates together with a.
Look at the external forces acting on the train (horiz. only).

m m m

F F = (m+m+m)a − a = F/3m
Look at horizontal forces on car 2:
T2
m
T2 = ma = F/3
and on cars 2 and 1 together
T1
m m
T1 = 2ma
 Example
Light* pulley, Newton 2 for m1:
inextensible, light
string. What is
acceleration of the Newton 2 for m2:
masses?

“inextensible” so let a be the downwards

acceleration of m1 and also the upwards
acceleration of m2.
(If we’ve guessed the directions wrongly,
we’ll get a negative answer for a.)
* “light” means that for now, it takes no torque
to spin the pulley. We’ll treat rotation later
 Classic example Newton 2 for m1: T − 𝑚1 g = − 𝑚1a
Light pulley,
inextensible, light Newton 2 for m2: T − 𝑚2 g = + 𝑚2 a
string. What is Eliminate T to solve for a.
acceleration of the Subtract: − 𝑚1g + 𝑚2 g = − 𝑚1a − 𝑚2 a
masses? 𝑚 −𝑚
𝑎 = 𝑚1 +𝑚2 𝑔
1 2

(Check limits: if 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 , a = 0.
“inextensible” so let a be the downwards
If 𝑚2 = 0, a = g.)
acceleration of m1 and also the upwards
acceleration of m2.
(If we’ve guessed wrongly, we’ll get a
negative answer.)
Question. Joe is standing on the floor.

How does floor "know" to exert N = mg = 700 N?

How smart is a floor?
In general, 𝑁 ≠ 𝑚𝑔 . E.g. N can be zero (when I’m in the air).
And 𝑁 > 𝑚𝑔 when I’m about to take off, and on landing.

Do not write N = mg without thinking carefully.

Yes, sometimes it is (approximately) true. But in interesting problems, it often isn’t, as we’ll see.
Forces associated with deformation. Simple case: Hooke's law
For our syllabus, we only need apply it to springs, and usually only in the linear range.

Fspring is in the opposite direction to x.

Experimentally, F is proportional to x over a small range of x. So we write

F = − kx Hooke's Law.

Not needed now, but more generally:

strain ∝ stress
force
i.e. fractional deformation ∝ area

This explains the ‘smart floor’ puzzle: the floor deforms until the deformation force is 700 N.
Contact forces

Contact forces
The normal component of a contact force is called the
normal force N. The component in the plane of contact
is (by definition) the friction force Ff.
This division is arbitrary, but useful. Definitions:

Normal force: at right angles to surface.

Friction force: in the plane of the surface.
• If there is relative motion, we call it kinetic friction, whose direction opposes the
relative motion)
• If there is no relative motion, it is static friction, whose direction opposes the
applied force.
For experiments, see Ch 5 in web stream or Physclips Ch 6.5
The slopes define the coefficients of kinetic (k) and static (s) friction:
|Ff | = kN |Ff |  sN Note the 
Friction follows this approximate empirical law, where
s and k are approximately independent of N and of contact area (see later)
Often, k < s.
(It takes less force to keep sliding than to start sliding.)
Kinetic friction often involves irregular cycles of stick and slip
These often produce sound, as well as heat
 Newton 2 in normal direction:
N – mg cos  = 0 (i)
Never write N = mg without thinking
Newton 2 in direction down plane:
mg sin  − Ff = ma. (ii)
No sliding: a=0 Substitute in (ii)
Classic example.  is gradually  (ii)  mg sin  = Ff (ii*)
increased to critical angle c,
(i) gives  = mg cos
where sliding begins.
definition of s is Ff  s N Note 
What is c? What is a at c?
substitute both in (ii*) gives (for no sliding))
mg sin   s mg cos
tan   s, c = tan−1s
useful technique for finding s
Can check that µ is approximately independent of area
Also use to get (s − k)
N - mg cos  = 0 (i)

Sliding at  = c: a > 0

𝐹𝑓
 (ii)  a = g sin c −
𝑚
𝜇𝑘 𝑁
= g sin c −
𝑚
What is a at c? (i)  = g sin c − kg cosc
We had
mg sin  − Ff = ma. (ii) we had c = tan−1s
and so a = g cosc (s − k)
Don’t think of this as an inclined plane problem that you should learn, because
there are many problems one could set on an inclined plane.
Instead, get used to solving problems using Newton’s laws in 2 dimensions.
Question: Which cat will fall off first?
Centripetal acceleration and force (centripetal = towards the centre)
Consider circular motion with  = constant and v constant

F = ma centrip

e.g. bus going round a corner

Or consider a hammer thrower:

Resultant force produces acceleration in the horizontal direction, towards the centre of
the motion.
These are examples of centripetal force producing centripetal acceleration
About centripetal force and centrifugal force.

i) Centrifugal force is what physicists call a fictitious force. It doesn’t exist.

These people in the Rotor Ride are travelling in circles, so the centripetal
force (a real force pushing them towards the centre of the rotor) is due to the
normal force of the wall against their backs.
There is no mysterious force pushing them outwards: they are accelerating
inwards, towards the centre.
 i) Centrifugal force is what physicists call a fictitious force. It doesn’t exist.

ii) Centripetal force is not a mysterious new force.

When an object travels in a circle at uniform speed, the total force ∑ 𝐹⃗ on it
is the centripetal force (and ∑ 𝐹⃗ = −𝑚𝑟⃗𝜔2 ). e.g.:
• For the earth round the sun, gravity supplies the centripetal force.
• For the bus going round a corner, friction on the tires supplies the
centripetal force.
• For the seated passenger in the bus, friction on his bottom supplies the
centripetal force.
• For the rider in the Rotor, the normal force on his back supplies the
centripetal force.
Don’t put centripetal force on the diagram, put the force or forces that supply it, e.g.
gravity for planet, sum of forces for ball or bus or …
Don’t put centrifugal or other fictitious forces in free body diagrams.
Example Conical pendulum. (Uniform Apply Newton 2 in two directions:
circular motion.) What is the frequency? Vertical:

Horizontal:

 frequency = ?

(Here, a component of T
is the centripetal force)
Example Conical pendulum. (Uniform Apply Newton 2 in two directions:
circular motion.) What is the frequency? Vertical: ay = 0   Fy = 0
 Fvert = T cos  − mg = 0
𝑚𝑔
T =
cos 𝜃
𝑚𝑣 2
Horizontal: = mac = T sin 
𝑟
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃
Substitute for T: =
𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝑣2
 = g tan 
𝑟
 v = rg tan 
2𝜋𝑟
so 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
= √𝑟𝑔 tan 𝜃 divide by 2πr

1 1 𝑔 tan 𝜃
𝑓= = √
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 2𝜋 𝑟
]
 Example. Foolhardy lecturer swings a bucket of
bricks in a vertical circle. How fast should he
swing so that the bricks stay in contact with the
bucket at the top of the trajectory?
(For now, assume constant v)

Draw diagram & identify important variables.

Pose the question mathematically.

This is one of those interesting cases where 𝑁 ≠ 𝑚𝑔

 mg and N provide centripetal force.
(Normal forces are a Newton pair:
Bucket pushes brick down
Brick pushes bucket up)
mg + N = mac
For contact, I want
N≥0
so mac  mg
how to express ac?
𝑣2 2𝜋 2
𝑎𝑐 = = 𝑟𝜔2 = 𝑟(𝑇) T is easy to measure
𝑟
𝑟 𝑟
𝑇 = 2𝜋 √ ≤ 2𝜋 √ not uniform motion but …
𝑎𝑐 𝑔

r ~ 1m − T  2 s. please check for errors!

Question. I am standing on the floor. My weight is 700 N and the coefficients of static
and kinetic friction between my shoes and the floor are 0.9 and 0.8 respectively. What
is the frictional force between my shoes and the floor?
Example. i) Consider a flat road with a curve of radius r = 10 m. Take the coefficients
of kinetic and static friction between the tires and the road as 0.8 and 1.0 respectively.
What is the maximum, constant speed that a vehicle can take the corner?

Draw a free body diagram

Write Newton’s 2nd for vertical and horizontal.
Example. i) Consider a flat road with a curve of radius r = 10 m. Take the coefficients
of kinetic and static friction between the tires and the road as 0.8 and 1.0 respectively.
What is the maximum speed that a vehicle can take the corner?
As usual, 𝜇𝑠 > 𝜇𝑘 . So we can stop better with wheels turning (𝜇𝑠 ) not skidding (𝜇𝑘 ).
Uniform circular motion, so the total force must be centripetal

i) In the vertical direction, there is no acceleration so

N2: may = 0 = N – mg so N = mg (sometimes N=mg)
In the horizontal direction, ma = Ff
𝑚𝑣 2 /𝑟 = Ff  𝜇𝑠 N = 𝜇𝑠 mg
𝑣 2  r 𝜇𝑠 g = 100 m2 . s −2
v  10 m. s −1 = 36 kph.
Bank the curve so that vehicles can go around it with no friction at all (e.g. icy
road). What is the required angle for a given speed?
Bank the curve so that vehicles can go around it with no friction at all (e.g. icy road).
What is the required angle for a given speed?

N2 vertical: N cos  = mg Never write N = mg without thinking

𝑣2
N2 horizontal 𝑁 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚 𝑟
𝑣2
Divide gives tan 𝜃 = 𝑟𝑔
Classic example. A mass m sits on a horizontal turntable with coefficient of static
friction 𝜇𝑠 . The angular speed 𝜔 is slowly increased. What is the maximum 𝜔 before it
slides off?
We know that it isn’t accelerating
upwards, so N2 in the vertical direction
gives N – mg = 0
So this time (but not always) N = mg.
If it is not sliding, the definition of 𝜇𝑠 is
𝐹𝑓 ≤ 𝜇𝑠 𝑁 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑚𝑔
It’s in uniform circular motion, so we know the total force is centripetal. It’s a
horizontal circle, so the total force is horizontal, and the only horizontal force is
friction, so N2 in the vertical direction is
𝛴𝐹ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧 = 𝐹𝑓 = 𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝 = 𝑚𝑟𝜔2
But the definition of µ is 𝐹𝑓 ≤ 𝜇𝑠 𝑁. Substituting all the above
𝑚𝑟𝜔2 = 𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝 = 𝐹𝑓 ≤ 𝜇𝑠 𝑁 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑚𝑔. Cancel m to give
𝑟𝜔2 ≤ 𝜇𝑠 𝑔 so 𝜔 ≤ √𝜇𝑠 𝑔/𝑟
Example. Gravitational field on the moon: gm = 1.7 N.kg-1 = 1.7 ms-2. An astronaut
has a mass of 80 kg and his (Apollo) spacesuit also has a mass of 80 kg. While
jumping, his feet exert 2 kN (constant) on the ground while his body rises 0.3 m as his
knees straighten. How high does he jump on earth (without suit and with an 80 kg suit)
and on moon (with an 80 kg suit)?
What does y(t) look like?
What is the F acting on him during the leg-straightening phase of the jump on Earth?
On the moon?
Example. Gravitational field on the moon: gm = 1.7 N.kg-1 = 1.7 ms-2. An astronaut
has a mass of 80 kg and his (Apollo) spacesuit also has a mass of 80 kg. While
jumping, his feet exert 2 kN (constant) on the ground while his body rises 0.3 m as his
knees straighten. How high does he jump on earth (without suit and with an 80 kg suit)
and on moon (with an 80 kg suit)?
Earth: he weighs 0.8 kN without suit, 1.6 kN with. On moon, he weighs 0.3 kN (with)

Vertical (y) motion with constant acceleration. While feet

are on ground,
 F = 2 kN - mgE
= 1.2 kN (Earth without suit) or 0.43 kN with
Moon:
 F = 2.0 kN - mgm = 1.7 kN with suit

Greater total force on moon, therefore greater upwards

acceleration, therefore greater take-off speed.
Jump has two parts: While on ground:
Σ𝐹 Σ𝐹
feet on ground 𝑎 = vi = 0, vf = vj vj2 − vo2 = 2ajy = 2 Δ𝑦
𝑚 𝑚
feet off ground a = – g vi = vj, vf = 0 Earth: vj = 3.0 m/s without, 1.6 m/s with
Moon: vj = 2.5 m/s with suit
vy
While above ground:
vj
v2 − vj2 = − 2gh −

y 𝑣𝑗2
ℎ = 2𝑔 substitute values
h

Dy On earth: hE = 0.46 m without suit.

feet leave ground
y 0.13 with suit
measure y of centre
of mass. On moon: 1.8 m with.
Dangerous to fall on the moon (suit repair and
hospital are a long way away)
Example. A plane travels in a horizontal circle, speed v, radius r. For given v, what is
the r for which the normal force exerted by the plane on the pilot equals twice her
weight? What is the direction of this force?

Centripetal force F = m vr2 = N cos 

Vertical forces: N sin  = mg Never write N = mg without thinking

𝑣4
square and add to eliminate : 𝑁 2 = 𝑚 2 (𝑟 2 + 𝑔2 )
𝑣2 𝑁2 2 𝑣4 𝑣2
r = −𝑔 = -> r=
2 𝑚2 𝑟2 2
√ 𝑁 2 −𝑔2 √ 𝑁 2 −𝑔2
𝑚 𝑚
𝑚𝑔 1
sin 𝜃 = =2
𝑁
 direction of 𝑁
⃗⃗ is 30° above horizontal, towards axis of rotation
Appendix Why linear elasticity?
Intermolecular forces F and energies U:
Not in our syllabus, but see homework problem (set 2#10) on interatomic forces

We’ll see later that we integrate forces to get energy

The green line is the Hooke’s law approximation: linear for F, parabolic for U, valid only for small
proportional deformation. https://www.animations.physics.unsw.edu.au/jw/elasticity.htm
 Difficult example. Note the importance of (cos  − s sin )
Mass m on floor
 = crit = tan−1(1/s).
with friction
coefficients s and If  < c, then (cos  − s sin ) > 0
k. We apply force 𝑠 𝜇 𝑚𝑔
F at  to horizontal.
stationary if 𝐹 ≤ cos 𝜃−𝜇
𝑠 sin 𝜃
For any given , 𝜇𝑠 𝑚𝑔
what force F is i.e. moves when. 𝐹 > 𝐹𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 =
cos 𝜃−𝜇𝑠 sin 𝜃
required to make the
mass move?
Eliminate 2 unknowns N & Ff to get F(, s,m,g) What if (cos  − s sin ) = 0 ?

Stationary if Ff  sN (1) Fcrit goes to ∞

It moves when
Newton 2 vertical: N = mg + F sin  (2)
𝜇𝑠 𝑚𝑔
Newton 2 horizontal: F cos  = Ff (3) F  -> ∞
cos 𝜃−𝜇𝑠 sin 𝜃
(1,3) − stationary if F cos   sN i.e. stationary no matter how large F becomes.
F cos   s(mg + F sin ) (using (2)) (Good to know for e.g. ladders.)

F (cos  − s sin )  smg (*)

We had:
𝜇𝑠 𝑚𝑔
It moves when F > Fcrit =
cos 𝜃−𝜇𝑠 sin 𝜃
What if (cos  − s sin ) = 0 ?
F goes to ∞ at crit = tan−1(1/s).

Let’s plot F vs  for different values of s.

 Example. Three identical bricks with m and s. What is the
minimum force you must apply to hold them like this?

Ff
Vertical forces on middle brick add to zero:
N N 2 Ff = mg
Definition of s
Ff mg
Ff  s N
𝐹𝑓 𝑚𝑔
 𝑁≥ = 2𝜇
𝜇𝑠 𝑠
Bricks not accelerating horizontally, so normal force from hands = normal force between bricks.
𝑚𝑔
 (each) hand must provide  horizontally.
2𝜇𝑠
minimum
force from
3mg/2 hands

mg/2m s
Vertically, two hands together provide 3mg.
Mass and weight
(inertial) mass m is defined by F = ma
weight is the gravitational force on something
observation:
near earth's surface and without air, experimentally we (including Newton) find that
all* bodies fall with same a ( = g downwards)
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑚𝑔⃗ so magnitude of weight = mg
𝑊

* so far as we know
What is your weight?

Warning: do not confuse mass and weight, or their units

kilogram (kg) is the unit of mass newton (N) is the unit of force (kg.m.s-2)
* A slug is about 14.6 kg.
Warning: do not confuse mass and weight, or units
kilogram (kg) is the unit of mass newton (N) is the unit of force (kg.m.s-2).

Interesting puzzle (not in our syllabus)

Why is W proportional to m? Or,
Why is mgravitational proportional to minertial?

Why do bodies fall with the same acceleration?

minertial*a = F = W = mgravitational g
(inertial property of body)*acceleration = (gravitational property of body) *(gravitational field)

Mach's Principle
Principle of General Relativity
Interactions with vacuum field
 Be careful with force diagrams. “July 17, 1981, Kansas City: The newly opened Hyatt
Regency is packed with people listening and dancing to a band playing favorites from the
1940s. Many of the people are crowded onto the walkways that hang like bridges across
the wide atrium. Suddenly two of the walkways collapse, falling onto the merrymakers on
the main floor. The walkways were suspended one above another on vertical rods and
held in place by nuts threaded onto the rods. In the original design, only two long rods
were to be used, each extending through all three walkways (Figure (a)). Each walkway
and the merrymakers on it have a combined mass of M. Threading nuts on a rod is
impossible except at the ends, so the design was changed: Instead, six rods were used,
each connecting two walkways (Figure (b)). It was this design that failed.”
If each walkway (including people) has mass M, what is the load on the nuts
indicated in the original design (a) and the design built (b)?
If you didn’t keep up, please see
• web stream lessons on Moodle, which have
- subtitles
- can be slowed down (or sped up)
- sections can be repeated
- regular quiz questions,
or
• the multimedia resources in Physclips
https://www.animations.physics.unsw.edu.au
or
• the text book (available online)
• powerpoint slides from the text book (via moodle)
https://moodle.telt.unsw.edu.au/mod/page/view.php?id=2719630
and please put suggestions or complaints on the Discussion Forum