CHAPTER 4

METAL FORMING AND SHEET METAL WORKING

Department of Mechatronics
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EIU - 2023
 OUTLINES

1. Fundamentals of metal forming

2. Rolling
3. Forging
4. Extrusion
5. Drawing
6. Cutting
7. Bending
8. Other sheet metal forming operation

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 OUTCOMES

At the end of this section, you should be able to Understand:

1. Metal forming processing

2. Types of metal forming
3. Forming equipment
4. Forming defects

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 1. Fundamentals

Metal forming = plastic

deformation is used to
change the shape of metal
work pieces.
Tools which used
deformation called a die in
metal forming
The geometry of the die and
the metal = same

 Classification
Fig source: [2]

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 1. Fundamentals

Bulk deformation:
• Change significant
deformations and
massive shapes
• The shapes for these
processes include
cylindrical billets and
rectangular bars
a) Rolling
b) Forging
c) Extrusion
d) Drawing
Fig source: [2]

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 1. Fundamentals

Sheet metalworking:
• Forming and cutting
operations
• Pressworking = used to
perform these
operations are presses
= cold working process
• Tools: Punch and Die

a) Bending
b) Drawing
c) Shearing
Fig source: [2]

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 1. Fundamentals

Material behavior in metal forming:

• Flow stress
𝝈 = 𝒀𝒇 = 𝑲𝝐𝒏

Yf = Flow stress (MPa)

K = The strength coefficient (MPa)
n = The strain hardening exponent
 = Strain rate

• Average flow stress

𝑲𝝐𝒏
𝒀𝒇 = (𝑴𝑷𝒂)
𝟏+𝒏

𝝐 = Maximum strain value during

Fig source: [2]

the deformation process

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 1. Fundamentals

Temperature in metal forming:

Cold working (T = Te) Hot working (T = 0,5 – 0,75 Tm)
Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages
Greater accuracy Higher forces and Shape significantly Lower dimensional
power altered accuracy
Better surface Work piece are free Lower forces and Higher total energy
finish of scale and dirt power for
deformation
Higher strength Limited: Ductility and Metals usually Work surface
and hardness strain hardening fracture (in cold) oxidation
Grain flow during Generally isotropic Poorer surface finish
deformation strength properties
No heating of the Shorter tool life
work

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 1. Fundamentals

Temperature in metal forming:

Warm working (T = 0,3 Tm)

Advantages
Lower forces and power
More intricate work geometries
possible
Need for annealing may be reduced
or eliminated
Isothermal forming
Temperature of the metals = tools or
Die
Fig source: [2]

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 1. Fundamentals
Friction and Lubrication in metal forming:
Friction:
• Causing residual stresses and defects in the product
• Increasing forces and power
• Tool wear can lead to loss of dimensional accuracy, resulting in defective parts and
requiring replacement of the tooling
Lubrication:
• Type of forming process
• Whether used in hot working or cold working
• Work material
• Chemical reactivity with the tool and work metals
• Ease of application
• Toxicity
• Flammability, Cost

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 2. Rolling

Rolling is a deformation process in which the thickness of the work is

reduced by compressive forces exerted by two opposing rolls.

• Rolling = Hot working (1200 oC for steel) = Hot rolling

• Heating operation = Soaking
Fig source: [2]

• Furnaces = Soaking Pits

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 2. Rolling

Three intermediate shapes from Hot Rolling: Blooms, Billets, Slabs

• Blooms: Square section 150 mm x 150 mm (6 in x 6 in) or larger (from
ingot)  Rolled  Structure shapes and rails for railroad tracks
• Slabs: Rectangle section ( 250 mm) x ( 40 mm) (From ingot or blooms)
 Rolled  Plates, sheets and strips  shipbuilding, bridges, weld
structures…
• Billets: Square section 40 mm or more (from blooms)  Rolled  Bars
and rods  Machining, wire drawing, forging…

Cold rolling: More accuracy and better surface finish

Using for sheets, strips, and coils ideal for stampings, exterior panels, and other
parts of products ranging from automobiles to appliances and office furniture.

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 2. Rolling

Shapes of rolling processes

Fig source: [1]

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 2. Rolling

Shapes of rolling processes

Fig source: [2]

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 2. Rolling

Flat rolling and it’s Analysis [2]

• Draft:
𝒅 = 𝒕𝒐 − 𝒕𝒇 (mm) 𝒅𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒎𝟐 𝑹 (mm)
To = Starting thickness (mm) m = coefficient of friction between
Tf = Final thickness (mm) the rolls and the work

• Reduction: R = Radius of roll (mm)

𝒅
𝒓= 𝒕𝒐

• Spreading:
𝒕𝒐 𝒘𝒐 𝑳𝒐 = 𝒕𝒇 𝒘𝒇 𝑳𝒇 ; 𝒕𝒐 𝒘𝒐 𝒗𝒐 = 𝒕𝒇 𝒘𝒇 𝒗𝒇
wo, wf = Before and after work widths (mm)
Lo, Lf = Before and after work lengths (mm)
vo, vf = Entering and Exiting velocities (mm)
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 Flat rolling and it’s Analysis

• Forward slip:
𝒗𝒇 𝒗𝒓
𝒔 = 𝒗𝒓
vf = Exiting velocity (m/s)
vr = Roll speed (m/s)

• True strain:
𝒕
∈ = 𝒍𝒏 𝒕𝒐
𝒇

• Rolling force:
𝑭 = 𝒀𝒇 𝒘𝑳 (N)
w = Width of work being rolled (mm)
L = Length of contact between rolls and work (mm)
Fig source: [2]

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 Flat rolling and it’s Analysis

• Contact length: • Example:

A 300 mm x 25 mm strip is fed through
𝑳= 𝑹 𝒕𝒐 − 𝒕𝒇 (mm) a rolling mill with two powered rolls
R = Roll radius (mm) each of radius = 250 mm. The work
thickness is to be reduced to 22 mm in
• Torque for each roll: one pass at a roll speed of 50 rev/min.
𝑻 = 𝟎, 𝟓 𝑭𝑳 The work material has a flow curve
• Power required to drive each defined by K = 275 MPa and n = 0.15,
roll: and the coefficient of friction between
the rolls and the work is assumed to be
𝑷 = 𝟐𝑵𝑭𝑳 (w)
0.12. Determine if the friction is
N = Rotational speed (rpm)
sufficient to permit the rolling
F = Rolling force (N) operation to be accomplished. If so,
L = Contact length (m) calculate the roll force, torque, and
horsepower.
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 Flat rolling and it’s Analysis

Draft: Summary:
𝒅 = 𝒕𝒐 − 𝒕𝒇 = 25 – 22 = 3 mm w = 300 mm, to = 25 mm, tf = 22 mm
𝒅𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒎𝟐 𝑹 = 0.122 x 250 = 3.6 mm R = 250 mm, N = 50 rev/min, K = 275 MPa
d < dmax  permit rolling n = 0.15, m = 0.12
d compare with dmax = ?
Rolling force:
F=? T=? P=?
𝑭 = 𝒀𝒇 𝒘𝑳 , w = 300 mm

𝑳= 𝑹 𝒕𝒐 − 𝒕𝒇 = 27.4 (mm) • Torque for each roll:

R = 250 mm, to = 25 mm, tf = 22 mm 𝑻 = 𝟎, 𝟓 𝑭𝑳 = 19 769 (Nm)
𝑲𝝐𝒏
𝒀𝒇 = 𝟏 , n = 0.15, K = 275 MPa
𝒏 • Power required to drive each roll:
𝒕
∈= 𝒍𝒏 𝒐 = 0.128 𝑷 = 𝟐𝑵𝑭𝑳 = 207 028 (w)
𝒕𝒇

𝒀𝒇 = 175.64 MPa = 207 KW

 F= 1 443 049 (N)

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 2. Rolling

Rolling mills

Reversing

Two - high Three - high Four - high

Fig source: [2]

Cluster rolling mill Tandem rolling mill

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 2. Rolling

Thread rolling
Thread bar
Thread roll

Ring rolling
Fig source: [2]

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 2. Rolling

Roll piercing
Fig source: [2]

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 3. Forging

Forging is a deformation process in which the work is compressed between

two dies, using either impact or gradual pressure to form the part
• Forging: Oldest forming
• Most forging operations are hot or warm deformation
• Cold forging is common
• Making high strength components for automotive, aerospace…
Two types of Forging machine
• Impact load = Forging hammer
• Gradual pressure = Forging press
Three types of Forging operation
• Open-die forging
• Impression-die forging
• Flashless forging
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 3. Forging

Forging operation
Fig source: [2]

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 3. Forging

Analysis open die forging [2]

Homogeneous deformation

• True strain:
𝒉𝒐
∈ = 𝒍𝒏 𝒉
ho = Starting height of the work (mm)
h = the height at some intermediate point in the process (mm)
Fig source: [2]

hf = The height at the end of stroke (mm)

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 Analysis open die forging

• Force:
𝑭 = 𝒀𝑨 (N)
A = Cross section of the work (mm2)

Actual deformation
Fig source: [2]

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 Analysis open die forging

• Force:
𝑭 = 𝑲𝒇 𝒀𝒇 𝑨 (N) 𝑲𝝐𝒏
𝒀𝒇 = (𝑴𝑷𝒂)
𝟏+𝒏
Kf = Forging shape factor
𝒉𝒐
𝟎.𝟒 𝝁 𝑫 ∈ = 𝒍𝒏
𝑲𝒇 = 𝟏 + 𝒉
𝒉
 = Coefficient of friction V =A*h = (d2/4)*h = const
D = Workpart diameter (mm) d=
h = Height of workpart (mm)
Example
A cylindrical work piece is subjected to a cold upset forging operation. The starting
piece is 75 mm in height and 50 mm in diameter. It is reduced in the operation to a
height of 36 mm. The work material has a flow curve defined by K = 350 MPa and n
= 0.17. Assume a coefficient of friction of 0.1. Determine the force as the process
begins, at intermediate heights of 62 mm, 49 mm, and at the final height of 36
mm.
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 3. Forging

Impression die forging = Closed die forging

a – Fullering
b – Edging
c - Cogging
Fig source: [2]

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 Impression die forging

Sequence in impression die forging

1 – Initial contact with raw workpiece

2 – Partial compression
Fig source: [2]

3 – Final die closure, causing flash to form in gap between two die plates

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 3. Forging

Flashless forging

Problem: Flash extensions

Fig source: [2]

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 3. Forging

Flashless forging

1 – Initial contact with raw workpiece

2 – Partial compression
Fig source: [2]

3 – Final punch and die closure

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 3. Forging

Forging hammers, presses and dies

Forging process
Die forging process (open and closed
die)
Fig source: [2]

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 3. Forging

Upsetting and heading

Fig source: [2]

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 3. Forging

Upsetting and heading

Make bolts and nuts

Fig source: [2]

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 4. Extrusion

Extrusion is a compression process in which the work metal is forced to flow

through a die opening to produce a desired cross-sectional shape

Advantages:
• Deforming variety of shapes (hot Extrusion)
• Enhancing grain structure and strength properties (cold extrusion)
• Fairly close tolerances (cold extrusion)
• No wasted material
Disadvantages: Cross section uniform throughout its length

Two types of Extrusion

• Direct extrusion
• Indirect extrusion

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 4. Extrusion

Direct extrusion
Disadvantages:
Friction between the
work surface and the
walls of the container

Extrusion Processes
Fig source: [2]

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 4. Extrusion

Indirect extrusion
Disadvantages:
• imposed by the lower rigidity of the hollow ram
• Difficulty in supporting the extruded product as it exits the die
Fig source: [2]

Aluminium Extrusion Process Animation - AMS

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 5. Drawing

Drawing is an operation in which the cross section of a bar, rod, or wire is

reduced by pulling it through a die opening
Extrusion = Pushing >< Drawing = Pulling
Classification:
• Bar drawing = Large diameter bar and rod stock
• Wire drawing = small diameter stock (0.03 mm)
Bar drawing = single draft operation, the stock pulled through one die opening.
The change in size of the work defined as:
𝑨𝒐 𝑨𝒇
𝒓= 𝑨𝒐
(%) d = D0 - Df (mm)
r = Area reduction in drawing d = Draft (mm)
A0 = Original area of work (mm2) D0 = Original diameter of work (mm)
Af = Final area (mm2) Df = Final work diameter (mm)
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 5. Drawing

Drawing machine
Hydraulically operated draw bench for drawing metal bars:
Fig source: [2]

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 5. Drawing

Continuous drawing of wire:

Fig source: [2]

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 5. Drawing

Draw dies:

• Entry: Not contact the work, its purpose is to funnel the lubrication into die
• Approach: The drawing process occurs ( = 6 – 200)
• Bearing surface (land): Determines the size of the final drawn stock
Fig source: [2]

• Back relief: The exit zone (back relief angle  300)

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 5. Drawing

Tube drawing:

With no mandrel

With mandrel
Fig source: [2]

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 6. Cutting

Cutting of sheet metal is accomplished by a shearing action between two sharp

cutting edges. The shearing action is depicted in the four stop-action
(1) The punch contacts work
(2) Punch begins to push into work, causing plastic deformation
(3) Punch compresses and penetrates into work causing a smooth cut surface
(4) Fracture is initiated at the opposing cutting edges that separate the sheet
Fig source: [2]

Hand cutting
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 6. Cutting

(2) - Rollover
(3) - Burnish
(4) – Fractured zone
Types of Cutting
Shearing: is a sheet-metal cutting operation along a straight line between two
cutting edges
Machine to shear:
Power shearing, Squaring shearing
The upper blade
of the power shears is often
inclined to reduce the
required cutting force
Fig source: [2]

Large cutting machine

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 6. Cutting

Blanking: Involves cutting of the sheet metal along a closed outline in a single
step to separate the piece from the surrounding stock. The part that is cut out is
the desired product in the operation and is called the blank.

Punching: Is similar to blanking except that it produces a hole, and the separated
piece is scrap, called the slug. The remaining stock is the desired part.

Cutting
Fig source: [2]

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 6. Cutting

Engineering analysis of sheet metal cutting [2]:

Clearance:
c = A ct (mm)
c = Clearance (mm)
AC = Clearance allowance
t = Stock thickness(mm)
Fig source: [2]

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 6. Cutting

Cutting forces:
F = StL = 0.7 (TS).t.L (N)
S = Shear strength of sheet metal (MPa)
TS = Ultimate tensile strength (MPa)
t = Stock thickness (mm)
L = Length of cutting edge (mm)
Example:
A round disk of 150-mm diameter is to be blanked from a strip of 3.2-mm, half-hard
cold rolled steel whose shear strength = 310 MPa. Determine (a) the appropriate punch
and die diameters, and (b) blanking force.
Summary: Db = 150 mm, t = 3.2 mm S = 310 MPa
Solution: C = 0.075*3.2 = 0.24 mm Dd = Db = 150 mm
C = Ac.t Dh = Dd – 2C = 149.52 mm, L = Db = 471.24 mm
Ac = 0.075 F = StL = 467 468 N
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 6. Cutting
Other sheet metal cutting operation: Cutoff: Blanks are separated from
a sheet-metal strip by cutting the
opposite sides of the part in
sequence
Parting: Cutting a sheet-metal
strip by a punch with two cutting
edges that match the opposite
b sides of the blank
a Shaving: Performed with very
small clearance to obtain
accurate dimensions and cut
edges that are smooth and
straight
Fine blanking: Used to blank
sheet-metal parts with close
Fig source: [2]

tolerances and smooth, straight

edges in one step
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 6. Cutting

Other sheet metal cutting operation:

Slotting: is the term sometimes used for a punching operation that cuts out an
elongated or rectangular hole
Perforating: involves the simultaneous punching of a pattern of holes in sheet metal
Notching: involves cutting out a portion of metal from the side of the sheet or strip
Semi-notching: removes a portion of metal from the interior of the sheet
Fig source: [2]

Cutting pipe
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 7. Bending Operation

Bending in sheet-metal work is defined as the straining of the metal around a

straight axis.
The metal on the inside of the neutral plane is compressed, while the metal on
the outside of the neutral plane is stretched
Fig source: [2]

Bending machine
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 7. Bending Operation

Method bending

V bending

Edge bending

Roll bending
Fig source: [2]

Conic bending

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 7. Bending Operation

Other bending operations

Flanging (bending 900)

(a) straight flanging
(b) stretch flanging
(c) Shrink flanging

(a) Hemming
(b) Seaming
(c) Curling
Fig source: [2]

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 7. Bending Operation

Miscellaneous bending operations:

(a) Channel bending

(b) U-bending
(c) Air bending
(d) Offset bending
(e) Corrugating
(f) Tube forming
Fig source: [2]

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 7. Bending Operation

Drawing of a cup - shaped part:

Fig source: [2]

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 7. Bending Operation

Bending tube:

(a) stretch bending

(1) Start of process
(2) During bending
Fig source: [2]

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 7. Bending Operation

Bending tube:

(b) Draw bending

(c) Compression bending
(1) Start of process
(2) During bending
Fig source: [2]

Draw bending tube

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 7. Bending Operation

Bending defects:

(a) Wrinkling can occur either in the flange or

(b) In the wall
(c) Tearing
(d) Earing
Fig source: [2]

(e) Surface scratches

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 Sheet metal working machines
Types of drives for sheet metal presses

Punching machine
Fig source: [2], Internet

Cutlery processing
1. Small
Hydraulic bending machine
2. Auto
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