N5E30 Lesson 2

N5E30 Advanced Structural Design
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Discuss methods to resist/manage wind load
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VARIOUS TYPES OF LOADS
Tall buildings are subjected to various types of loads during its service life time.
It must be so designed to resist the gravitational and lateral forces, both
permanent and transitory, that will be called on to sustain during its
construction and subsequent service life. Major loads of which a tall building
structures are subjected to are given below :  Gravity loads – Dead loads –
Live loads  Lateral loads – Wind loads – Seismic loads  Special loads –
Impact loads – Blasts loads
HEIGHT OF BUILDING
As the height of the building increases, lateral forces plays a

dominant role.
Lateral Resisting Form is required.

While all structures in the wind must be designed to resist both lateral
forces and uplift forces, which of these requirements is more
important for a particular building is generally a function of the
structure’s aspect ratio, or relative height to width, as well as its
shape.
In contrast, a tall structure on a relatively narrow base must be
designed with primary concern for lateral force resistance and
overturning.
The design of a broad, low building with a relatively large roof area in
proportion to its height, must give attention to resisting the uplift
forces on the roof surface, with careful detailing of the connections
to create a continuous load path to anchor the structure to the
foundation.
SHEAR WALL
The use of shear walls is a time-honored, traditional way of resisting lateral wind loads on
buildings. Solid masonry bearing walls provided resistance to lateral shear forces in times
predating the development of the modern building materials steel and concrete. Shear walls in
today’s multi-story office and apartment buildings are typically created by forming one or more
tall, rigid structural “boxes” wrapped around centrally-located elevators, stairs and/or lobbies.
Such a structure is called a central core, and its action is to resist the tendency under the lateral
force of the wind for a floor to shear or slide relative to the one below. For shear walls to be
most effective they should be continuous throughout the height of the building and have as few
openings as possible. A minimum of two shear walls orthogonal to one another is necessary to
provide resistance to lateral wind forces, since the wind may come from any direction. Shear
walls may be staggered within a vertical plane when required for interior spatial arrangements,
but this is not ideal.
REINFORCED CONCRETE OR BRACED OR RIGID STEEL FRAMING
Reinforced concrete or braced or rigid steel framing may be used to form shear walls in
multi-story buildings.
Braced steel frames have diagonal members in the vertical shear walls which act in tension
or compression to resist the tendency for side-to-side lateral movement of one floor
relative to another.
Rigid steel frames use moment resistant connections instead of diagonals to withstand
lateral forces. Moment connections are generally less efficient than diagonal members in
resisting shear, but they create less difficulty when it comes to placing doors, windows or
other openings in shear walls. Buildings may be designed with a combination system, using
braced frames in one direction and moment frames in the perpendicular direction.
TUBE STRUCTURE
As tall buildings reach greater heights, they require structural systems with greater stiffness to increase
their resistance to wind-induced lateral motion.
In “tube” structures, the major wind-resisting structural system is located in or near the perimeter walls of
a tall building, rather than around an internal core. As such, the wind-resisting structure becomes a factor
in the architectural expression of the building. Tube structures, while inherently very efficient in use of
material, must accommodate the competing demands of rigidity and continuity of structure on the one
hand, and the occupants’ need for multiple entrances at ground level and desire for large windows, on the
other.
Among the best-known expressions of tube structures in tall buildings are the closely-spaced columns of
the former New York World Trade Center towers, the diagonally-braced façade of Chicago’s John Hancock
Building and the nine bundled tubes of Chicago’s Sears Tower. The appeal of a tube structure’s inherent
stiffness and structural efficiency has led to many variations on this theme, among them the tubewithin-a-
tube, tube of stacked multi-floor modules, internal tube with extensions to exterior columns and
buttressed tube or tubes.
DAMPER
Tall building structures must satisfy criteria for both strength (safety) and serviceability (human comfort).
Wind-induced motion can cause discomfort to building occupants and, thus, in today’s very tall buildings it
is usually the serviceability criteria that control the design. If it is determined during the design process
that top-floor accelerations could exceed acceptable limits (or it is found to be the case in a post-
occupancy assessment), either the stiffness or the damping of the structure must be increased.
It has become common practice in very tall buildings to reduce top-floor accelerations by providing the
structure with energy-dissipating damping devices, of which there are three basic types: (1) viscoelastic
dampers, (2) tuned mass dampers and (3) tuned liquid dampers.
Viscoelastic dampers were first used in the former World Trade Center towers, 10,000 dampers installed in
each tower at the joist-column joints. The dampers were attached in a diagonal configuration somewhat like
small shock-absorber knee braces, each damper connecting the bottom flange of a long-span floor joist to
the inner surface of an exterior column. Inside the damper casing, neoprene pads layered between sliding
metal plates served to absorb, or damp, the relative movement between the joist and column as the building
swayed, reducing its motion in the wind.
Tuned mass dampers are large, multi-ton blocks of lead, steel or concrete placed on a near-frictionless
surface on an upper floor of a tall building. Figure 4.9 shows an alternative, which is a 700-t (620-ton) steel-
sphere, pendulum design. The activation in a strong wind allows the mass to move in a motion that
counteracts the wind induced motion of the swaying building. A pair of tuned mass dampers was
retroactively added to Boston’s Hancock Tower to control the building’s excessive wind-induced lateral and
torsional movement. The tuned mass damper installed in the Citicorp Tower in New York was designed as an
original part of the building’s wind resisting structural solution.
The tuned liquid sloshing damper is the most recently developed of the three types of supplemental
damping devices. It consists of a large tank or tube containing a liquid (often water) of a specific viscosity.
Paddles or fins in the tank impede the movement of the liquid as the wind-induced motion of the building
causes the liquid to slosh back and forth, which in turn damps the building motion. Some of the most
recently constructed very tall buildings and suspension bridge piers contain liquid sloshing dampers designed
to reduce wind-induced accelerations to acceptable levels.
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SHEARWALL
In the preliminary design stage, the sheanvalls should be

symmetrically located in the plan (if possible) so that torsional
effects on the structure due to wind loads are minimized.
LATERAL (WIND) LOAD ANALYSIS
For frames without shear walls, the lateral load effects of wind must be resisted by
the“unbraced” frame, For low to moderate height buildings, wind analysis of an unbraced
frame can be performed by either of two simplified methods: the Portal Method or the Joint
Coefficient Method. Both methods can be considered to satisfy the elastic frame
Arralysis requirements of the code .
• In structural engineering, a shear wall is a vertical element of a seismic force resisting system that is
designed to resist in-plane lateral forces, typically wind and seismic loads.
• A shear wall resists loads parallel to the plane of the wall. Collectors, also known as drag members,
transfer the diaphragm shear to shear walls and other vertical elements of the seismic force resisting
system. Shear walls are typically light-framed or braced wooden walls with shear panels, reinforced
concrete walls, reinforced masonry walls, or steel plates.
REINFORCED CONCRETE SHEAR WALL WITH BOTH
HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT

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N5E30 Advanced Structural Design

As the height of the building increases, lateral forces plays a

Lateral Resisting Form is required.

In the preliminary design stage, the sheanvalls should be

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