Konstantin Metelskiy

DEMAND CONTROLLED
VENTILATION SYSTEMS
CO2 controlled ventilation systems

Bachelor’s thesis
Building Services Engineering

September 2011
December 2009
CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 1

2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ............................................................................. 2

2.1 CO2 DCV concept ................................................................................................ 2
2.2 CO2 in the exterior of the building ....................................................................... 3
2.3 Carbon dioxide in the interior of the building ...................................................... 5
2.4 CO2 differential and ventilation rates ................................................................... 8

3 BENEFITS OF CO2-BASED DCV ........................................................................... 11

4 CO2 MEASUREMENT TECHNOLOGY ................................................................. 12

4.1 Non-Dispersive Infrared (NDIR) CO2 sensor .................................................... 13
4.2 Photo-acoustic CO2 sensor ................................................................................. 14

5 APPLICATION OF DCV .......................................................................................... 15

6 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR DCV ............................................................... 16

7 ENERGY EFFICIENCY ........................................................................................... 18

7.1 Energy saving potential................................................................................... 19
7.2 Market factors ................................................................................................. 20

8 DESIGN EXAMPLE OF DCV ................................................................................. 21

8.1 Concept of architecture and ventilation system .............................................. 21
8.2 Control strategy selection ............................................................................... 23
8.3 Sensor selection .............................................................................................. 27

9 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS ..................................................................... 28

BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................. 30
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1 INTRODUCTION

Currently most of people tend to spend most of their time in the interior of the building,
e.g. at home, offices and hospitals, in schools and universities. That is why breathing
fresh indoor air is vital for our health.

Ventilation is considered to be one of the most important factors for maintaining

acceptable indoor air quality in any space. It is used to introduce outside air, control
temperature and remove excessive moisture, odors, smoke, heat, dust, airborne bacteria,
and carbon dioxide.

However, ventilation consumes energy in terms of electrical fan power as well as cooling
and heating energy. Energy production also affects negatively on our environment and
contributes to CO2-emissions to the atmosphere.

Many types of ventilation systems encounter problems to control minimum supply air and
thus to consume minimum amount of energy. But a ventilation system based on
registration of increasing CO2 concentration can facilitate in solving the given problem.
Such a technology is called CO2-based demand controlled ventilation (DCV).

The experience and field studies have shown that the level of carbon dioxide in any space
can be a reliable indicator and quite a cheap instrument of the air quality and ventilation
rate. That is why CO2 is used as an indicator of air quality in demand controlled
ventilation systems.

CO2-based demand controlled ventilation system controls the amount of supply outdoor
fresh air in a building depending on a number of people and their activity. People are the
main source of CO2 in a building. If a number of people in a room is doubled, the CO2
level will accordingly double. If one or few people leave a room, the level of CO2 will
proportionally decrease. Thus DCV saves energy solely by not heating or cooling
unnecessary amount of outdoor air. The benefits of such a ventilation system are maximal
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when a number of people continuously changes in a building, in the extreme climate

conditions or when the electricity cost is quite high.

Taking into account the above mentioned, the objectives of the given Bachelor’s Thesis
are as follows:

− to define benefits of demand controlled ventilation;

− to investigate the standards which describe the required limits of CO2 concentration;
− to compare CO2-based DCV and the conventional ventilation system;
− to explore different types of CO2 sensors;
− to consider the application of DCV in different buildings and situations.

2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

This chapter provides clear understanding of the main concept of CO2-based DCV. The
chapter may provide a necessary background to understand how CO2-based DCV
operates and how it is applied under current codes and standards. The given chapter
introduces the information about human breathing and the way it influences the air
quality in the interior of the building. The chapter also explains the required ventilation
rates and CO2 differential.

2.1 CO2 DCV concept

The concept of DCV has been known for over 20 years. The sensors of the first
generation did not provide the required reliability, and the cost of the sensors was high.

In recent years, the advances in sensor technologies have made demand controlled
ventilation both reliable and cost-effective. The ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2004 indicate
that the demand controlled ventilation is acceptable when correctly designed and installed
/1/.

CO2-based demand controlled ventilation is a combination of two technologies:

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1. CO2-sensors monitor carbon dioxide level in the air in the interior of the building.
2. An air-handling system that employs data from the sensors to regulate the amount of
supply air.

CO2 sensors continually monitor air in a conditioned space. Since people exhale carbon
dioxide, the difference between the CO2 concentration in the interior of the building and
the level in the exterior of the building indicates the occupancy and activity level in a
space and, thus, its ventilation requirements. The sensors send carbon dioxide data to the
ventilation controllers, which automatically increase ventilation when carbon dioxide
concentrations exceed a certain level in a space.

Ventilation rates can be measured and controlled based on real occupancy. This
contradicts the conventional method of ventilating at a fixed rate independent of
occupancy. This results in much larger air flow rates coming into buildings than
necessary. That quantity of air must be taken into account, because it increases energy
consumption and costs. In humid climates, the excess ventilation also can result in
uncomfortable humidity and mould growth, making the indoor air quality quite
inappropriate. Furthermore, the lack of fresh air can make building occupants drowsy. To
avoid the problems of excessive and insufficient fresh air, people can apply demand
controlled ventilation.

CO2-based DCV provides a possibility to monitor both occupancy and ventilation rates in
a building all the time. Most ventilation systems are often regulated and adjusted only at
the time they are installed. DCV provides a higher level of control when monitoring
conditions in the space and constantly adjusts the system to the respond to the change of
parameters.

2.2 CO2 in the exterior of the building

Clean atmospheric air consists of different gases in the proportions given in Figure 1.
 4

Nitrogen 78%

Oxygen 21%

Argon 0.9%

Other gases (Carbon

dioxide, Neon, Helium
etc.) 0.1%

Figure 1. Chemical composition of clean and dry atmospheric air /2, p. 116/

The given figure illustrates the content of clean atmospheric air. However, due to human
activities and natural processes, the real atmospheric air
a can contain the variable amount
of water vapor (on
on average around 1%), dust, pollen, spores, sea spray
sp and volcanic ash.
Various industrial pollutants may also be present, such as chlorine (elementary or in
compounds), fluorine compounds, elemental mercury, and sulfur compounds
co such as
sulfur dioxide (SO2). /2, p. 116/

The carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere may alter during a year due to any
combustion device or process throughout the world,, such as burning of fossil fuels.
fuels
Yearly the concentration of carbon dioxide increases more and more.
more Scientists suppose
the increase of CO2 may cause the global warming.

For example, the history of atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations,

concentrations directly measured
at Mauna Loa, Hawaii,
Hawaii is given in Figure 2. This curve shows the annual increase of CO2
in the atmospheric air. The annual fluctuations of carbon dioxide exist due to CO2
absorption of land plants in different seasons. The zigzag curve shows the average
monthly concentrations, and the full curve shows the 12-months average change. /3, p.
49/
 5

Figure 2. Change of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere observed at Mauna Loa,

Hawaii, from 1958 to 2009 /3, p. 49/

As Hawaii is located in the central Pacific Ocean, these concentrations represent the
lowest concentrations in the world. In urban areas outdoor CO2 levels typically range
from 360 to 450-500 ppm. But carbon dioxide levels can be even higher when in close
proximity to a source of CO2.

CO2 has low molecular weight. Therefore carbon dioxide easily occupies the whole open
space. It is possible to assume outside CO2 levels are constant for large geographic
regions. Consequently, CO2 is a baseline reference for outside air for the purpose of
measuring and controlling ventilation.

2.3 Carbon dioxide in the interior of the building

There are a number of sources of CO2 production in the exterior of the building, such as
burning of fossil fuels, producing cement and other products, forest combustion and so
forth. But humans and their activity is the major source of carbon dioxide in the interior
of the building. Plants contribute CO2 insignificantly in the interior if the building, due to
 6

their low level of metabolic activity. Combustion sources can accordingly contribute to
carbon dioxide in the interior of the building, but they are normally not present in
residential buildings and public places.

The main process of CO2 production by humans in the interior of the building is
respiration. For adults CO2 production varies from about 10 dm3/h per person when
sleeping to about 170 dm3/h per person at high levels of physical activity. CO2 production
is different for children and adults. For instance, in kindergartens an activity level of 157
W/m2, CO2 production is 18 dm3/h per person. In schools with children aged from 14 to
16, the CO2 production is about 19 dm3/h per person. It is equal to CO2 production of
adults during sedentary activity. /2, p. 144/ More information is provided in Table 1.

Table 1. The generation of carbon dioxide by humans at six activity levels /2, p. 144/

Carbone dioxide
Activity
(dm3/h per person)
Adults, sedentary (58-70 W/m2) 19
Adults, low level of physical exercise (174 W/m2) 50
Adults, medium level of physical exercise (348 W/m2) 100
Adults, high level of physical exercise, athletes (580 W/m2) 170
Children of kindergarten age, 3-6 years old (157 W/m2) 18
Children of school age, 14-16 years old (58-70 W/m2) 19

The rate of carbon dioxide production by human respiration is related to the metabolic
rate by Formula 1 /4, p. 36/:

G = 4·10-5 ·M·A Formula 1

where: G - CO2 production, dm3/s; M - metabolic rate, W/m2; A - body surface area, m2

For example, for an adult person occupied with sedentary activities (M = 70 W/m2 and A
= 1.8 m2), such as office work, the CO2 production by respiration is about 0.00504 dm3/s
(18.1 dm3/h) per person.
 7

As people exhale a predictable quantity of carbon dioxide depending on their physical

activity, it can be used as a good indicator of CO2 for ventilation control. It is important to
lay emphasis that CO2 concentration in the interior of the building does not provide
enough information of the actual number of people, but it can be used in combination
with CO2 concentration in the exterior of the building.

The required amount of CO2 concentration in the interior of the building according to
Finnish Classification of Indoor Climate is represented in Table 2. Indoor climate is
divided into 3 categories in that table, i.e. individual indoor climate (S1), good indoor
climate (S2) and satisfactory indoor climate (S3) /5, p. 647/.

Table 2. Target values for indoor air quality /5, p. 647/

Indoor climate category

Unit Maximum values Note
S1* S2** S3***
Carbone dioxide CO2 ppm 700 900 1200 (II)
II The concentration of carbon dioxide includes carbon dioxide from outdoor (350
ppm) and human sources. The CO2 concentration can be measured, for example, with
an infrared analyzer.

*S1: Individual Indoor Climate

The indoor air quality of the space is very good and the thermal conditions are
comfortable both in summer and winter. The user of the space may individually control
the thermal conditions and improve the indoor air quality by increasing the ventilation
when necessary. The thermal conditions and indoor air quality satisfy, as a general rule,
the special requirements of the users (e.g. elderly people, people with allergies or
respiratory illnesses, and others).
**S2: Good Indoor Climate
The indoor air quality of the space is good and no draughts occur. The temperature rises
above comfortable levels during the hottest days of the summer.
***S3: Satisfactory Indoor Climate
The indoor air quality and the thermal conditions of the space fulfill the requirements set
by the building codes. The indoor air may occasionally feel stuffy and draughts may
occur. The temperature usually exceeds comfort levels on hot summer days.
 8

2.4 CO2 differential and ventilation rates

If the ventilation rate in an occupied space decreases, the carbon dioxide concentration
will begin to increase and vice versa. Once people enter a room, CO2 concentration will
begin to increase. This level will continue to increase until the amount of CO2 produced
by the space occupants and the dilution air delivered to the space are in balance. Such a
state is called the equilibrium point.

The relation between CO2 level and outside air ventilation rates can be described using a
simple two chamber model. This is illustrated in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Two chamber model /1, p. 35/

Formula 2 /1, p. 35/ shows the mass-balance equation to predict the difference between
indoor and outdoor CO2-concentrations at steady-state conditions, given a constant
ventilation rate per person and a constant CO2-generation rate:

୒
V୭ = େ Formula 2
౩ష େ౥

where: Vo – outdoor airflow rate, dm3/s*person; N - CO2 generation rate, dm3/s*person;

Cs - indoor CO2 concentration, ppm; Co - outdoor CO2 concentration, ppm.
 9

The equation can also be restated so that the equilibrium level (Ceq) for a particular
ventilation rate can be calculated using Formula 3:

୒
Cୣ୯ = Cୱ = C୭ + ୚ Formula 3
౥

The correlation between indoor / outdoor CO2 differential and ventilation rate do not
depend on volume of a room. However, the volume of a room will affect the time it takes
for CO2 to build up to an equilibrium level. This equation can be only applied when
equilibrium conditions exist. To make an accurate determination of dm3/s*person rates
one should take CO2 measurements when the occupancy has stabilized. Measuring CO2
concentrations that are still in transition to an equilibrium level can result in
overestimation of the ventilation rate. Applied properly spot measurements can be
extremely useful in helping to qualify if a space is overventilated. /1, p. 35/

The ANSI/ASHRASE Standard 62.1-2004 states that comfort (odor) criteria with respect
to human bioeffluents are likely to be satisfied if the ventilation results in indoor CO2
concentrations are less than 700 ppm above the outdoor air concentration /1/.

Appendix D of Standard 62.1-2004 provides an example that shows how this 700 ppm
level is derived from the 7.5 dm3/s per person minimum ventilation rate established in the
standard /1/. The calculation below assumes an activity level of 70 W/m2 (which is equal
to 1.2 MET) which would be considered equivalent to the office activity type. Average
CO2 production at this activity level (as provided in Figure C.2 taken from Appendix D of
Standard 62.1-2004) is 0.00517 dm3/s. Outside CO2 concentrations are assumed to be 400
ppm. If this turns out to be the case then the CO2 level for a 700 ppm differential will be
1100 ppm. It can be calculated applying Formula 3.

0.00517
Cୣ୯ = Cୱ = 400 + = 1100 ppm
7.5

These two tables show the differences between air flow rates for office buildings in
different standards and countries (USA and Finland). They are vary significantly. For
 10

instance, in USA the minimum ventilation rate for offices is 2.5 dm3/s per person, while in
Finland is 8 dm3/s per person.

Table 3. Minimum ventilation rates in breathing zone in office buildings in Finland

/1, p. 13/

Default Values
People Outdoor Area Outdoor Combined
Occupancy Occupant Air
Air Rate Rp Air Rate Ra Outdoor Air
Category Density Class
Rate
dm3/s* person dm3/s*m2 #/100 m2 dm3/s* person
Office
2.5 0.3 5 8.5 1
space
Reception
2.5 0.3 30 3.5 1
areas
Telephone/
2.5 0.3 60 3.0 1
data entry
Main entry
2.5 0.3 10 5.5 1
lobbies
 11

Table 4. Minimum ventilation rates in office buildings in USA #1 /6, p. 33/

Outdoor Sound Air

Outdoor Extract
air flow level velocity
3
air flow air flow
Space type (dm /s) LA,eq.T/ (winter/ Note
(dm3/s)/ (dm3/s)/
per LA,max summer)
m2 m2
person dB m/s
Office and similar rooms *C1
1.5 33/38* 0.20/0.30
guidel
Conference room 8 4 33/38 0.20/0.30 #3
Customer area 2 38/43 0.30/0.40 #2
Corridor area 0.5 38/43 0.30 #2
Canteen, break area 5 38/43 0.25
Archive, storage room 0.35
Smoking room:
-during building occupancy 10 20 38/43 0.30 #4
-outside building occupancy 10 #4
Copying room 1 4
#1 For hygiene rooms’ extract air flows, see Table 11 Hygiene rooms (D2).
#2 Guideline values for air velocity at fixed work stations are the same as for offices.
#3 If a building has three or more conference rooms, it shall be possible to control their
ventilation according to the actual demand.
#4 The pressure in smoking rooms shall always be lower than in the surrounding rooms.

3 BENEFITS OF CO2-BASED DCV

Compared to conventional ventilation, DCV provides considerable advantages.

The three major benefits of demand controlled ventilation should be mentioned in
connection herewith:

First of all, demand controlled ventilation saves energy by avoiding the heating, cooling,
and dehumidification of more ventilation air than it is needed. According to the
observations, the savings range from 5 to 80 percent in contrast to the conventional
 12

ventilation system. The payback can vary from several months to two years and can often
be significant enough to facilitate to pay for other building systems. /7/

The payback from CO2-based DCV will be greatest in higher density spaces, where
occupancy constantly changes (e.g. schools, theaters, retail establishments, meeting and
conference areas). In spaces with more static occupancies (e.g. offices) DCV can provide
control and verification that adequate ventilation provided to all spaces. For example, a
building operator may arbitrarily and accidentally establish a fixed air intake damper
position that results in over- or underventilation of all or some parts of space. A CO2
control strategy can ensure the position of the intake air dampers is appropriate for the
ventilation needs and occupancy of the space at all times.

Secondly, active control of ventilation system can provide the opportunity to control
indoor air quality. Demand controlled ventilation creates improved IAQ by increasing
ventilation if CO2 level rise to an unacceptable level.

And the last advantage is simplicity and reliability of DCV.

4 CO2 MEASUREMENT TECHNOLOGY

Although relation between CO2 and controlled ventilation has been known to the general
public from 1916, CO2 as a reliable and economic method of control ventilation began to
be used not long ago. The first CO2 sensor used for controlling ventilation in HVAC
application appeared on the market only in 1990 /8, p.20/.

CO2 measurements in HVAC applications are based exclusively on the Infrared (IR)
absorption principle. This is because different gases absorb infrared energy at specific and
unique wavelengths in the infrared spectrum.

There are two types of sensors to measure CO2 concentration with help of the IR
absorption method:
 13

1. Non-Dispersive Infrared (NDIR) absorption sensor

2. Photo-acoustic sensor

These technologies can be cost-efficient, but have different operational characteristics.

4.1 Non-Dispersive Infrared (NDIR) CO2 sensor

Sensors based on non-dispersive infrared detection search the net increase or decrease of
light that occurs at the wavelength where CO2 absorption takes place. The light intensity
change depends on the concentration of carbon dioxide.

Figure 4 shows an example of a typical NDIR sensor where air is penetrating into a
sample chamber that contains a light source on the one end and a light detector on the
other.

Figure 4. Basic parts of non-dispersive infrared detection (NDIR) CO2 sensor /8,
p.19/
A selective optical filter is fixed over the light detector to allow light at the specific
wavelength where CO2 absorbs light. This figure also illustrates the second detector and
filter, although it is not always applied. The second optical filter is adjusted at the
wavelength where there is no gas absorption. This second detector and filter are used as a
reference to correct changes in the sensor optics that may be the result of sensor deviation
over a time period. One of the important parts in the design of this sensor type is to
minimize or remove sensor deviations that may occur because of accumulation of
 14

particles in the sensor and aging of a light source. One method of minimizing
accumulation of particles is to use a gas penetrable membrane that facilitates penetration
of gas molecules but locks larger particles that may change the sensor optics.

The second factor of deviation is aging of a light source. It can be minimized by selection
of sources with stable characteristics. The method based on dual beam detector
application, shown in Figure 4, is one of the methods to compensate both aging and
particle accumulation.

Compared with photo-acoustic sensors, NDIR sensors have the following advantages:

Firstly, NDIR sensors are less sensitive to pressure changes. Secondly, these sensors are
less sensitive to vibrations and acoustic interferences. And the last advantage is that such
sensors have a compact design.

But photo-acoustic sensors also have benefit, such as nonsensitivity to dirt and dust.

4.2 Photo-acoustic CO2 sensor

Another sensor type to measure CO2 using IR is called photo-acoustic sensors. This type
of sensor is designed with a chamber which is open to the atmosphere. Such a sensor
exposes air in the chamber to flashes of infrared light specific to the gas absorption
wavelength for CO2. This flashing light produces vibrations of CO2 molecules as they
absorb infrared energy. A small microphone in the chamber monitors this vibration and
then microprocessors in the sensor calculate CO2 concentration.

Figure 5 shows a schematic of a photo-acoustic sensor. This type of sensor is not so

sensitive to dirt or dust. But it can also have sensor deviations due to aging of a light
source. Photo-acoustic sensor can also be affected by vibration and atmospheric pressure
changes. More accurate sensors often use a pressure sensor to correct the range of
pressures.
 15

Figure 5. Basic parts of photo-acoustic CO2 sensor /8, p.20/

5 APPLICATION OF DCV

DCV has a number of applications in various types of buildings. Firstly, DCV is applied
in buildings where the number of people changes continuously during the whole day (24-
hour period). It is also applied in places where occupancy is unpredictable and attains a
high level. In buildings with a more stable occupancy level, DCV provides enough
amount of fresh supply air per person all the time. But this will turn out to be
uneconomical. Demand controlled ventilation reduces energy costs in the areas with a
high utility level.

Secondly, DCV is used in spaces where heating and cooling for most parts of the year are
required. Thirdly, demand controlled ventilation is utilized in the areas with high utility
rates, high energy demand and energy costs.

Thirdly, DCV is used in buildings with low average occupancy in comparison with design
occupancy. DCV is also applied in such types of buildings as office centers,
governmental facilities, banks, shops and shopping malls, cinemas, auditoriums, lecture
halls, schools, outpatient areas in hospital, hotel atriums or lobbies, restaurants, bars,
nightclubs and so forth. Demand controlled ventilation is used in the areas with warm and
humid climates or extreme climate conditions, and buildings which have equipment for
 16

automated adjusting of air supply (for example, variable speed fans or variable damper
arrangement).

DCV is applied in spaces where CO2 from human respiration and human activity is the
main source of pollution. But CO2-sensors used for DCV are not applied to monitor CO2
for medical or industrial purposes, because they demand more exact air quality control.

And the last point to consider is that DCV may be applied in buildings where there is
poor indoor air quality related with under- or over-ventilation or excessive humidity.

CO2-based DCV can operate in combination with a heat recovery or other systems that
supply outdoor air in buildings for heating or cooling. However, energy savings may be
less where heat exchangers are used depending on climate, occupancy and a building
type.

Several manufacturers produce CO2-sensors that can be used in demand controlled

ventilation. Most manufacturers of thermostats and air handling units integrate CO2-
sensors into their products. And major manufacturers of HVAC systems offer to install
CO2 sensors at the factories as an option.

6 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR DCV

CO2-sensing is a rather uncomplicated technology, and installation of CO2 sensors is a

trouble-free procedure. Sensor voltage, power and control of output requirements are
similar to those ones commonly used in thermostats.

There are two types of sensors: wired and wireless. Data from wireless sensors is
delivered with the use of signal communications. Wireless sensors have self-contained
power supply. Such sensors are used on-board power controlling to alert a building
operator when battery charge is low and needs be changed.
 17

All suppliers of HVAC systems frequently offer systems for located demand controlled
ventilation and reading data from sensors. Therefore, putting into operation of CO2-based
DCV is not a complicated process. However, upgrading previous systems with pneumatic
controls for operation with DCV may be more challenging.

Sensors are typically mounted on walls similar to thermostats. Some manufacturers offer
standard sets, which include a thermostat and sensor. The standard sets which can
monitor temperature, CO2 and humidity are also available. They are used in systems that
include a drier to control humidity in ventilation air.

Data from CO2-sensors delivered to HVAC control system in a building or to an actuator

that controls the amount of ventilation air. For reconstruction of HVAC system it may
become necessary to repair or upgrade dampers. Good operating of dampers that can be
automatically controlled is of great importance. Pneumatic controls will need to be
replaced with electronic control or Direct Digital Control (DDC). Actuators which do not
have input points for the sensors will need to include these points.

But it is not simple to upgrade and calculate HVAC systems for more complex systems,
such as variable-air-volume systems, as it may seem. One needs a more complex
algorithm.

CO2-sensors can be mounted in the interior of the building or by integration into an air-
handling system. The data from sensors to regulate the amount of supply outdoor
ventilation air are applied in them. The illustration of this is provided in Figure 6.
 18

Figure 6. Generalized DCV integration into HVAC system /9, p.118/

When CO2-sensors are installed it is imperative to pay attention to the following

technological things, such as measurement accuracy, temperature resistance, waterproof
and protection of dust, solar resistance, frequency of settings, resistance to mechanical
vibrations, resistance to electrical interferences, placement of sensors and number of
sensors.

7 ENERGY EFFICIENCY

One of the methods to save energy in a building is using CO2-based demand controlled
ventilation. Maximum saving energy with using DCV is provided in a building, where the
number of people continuously changed. But DCV can provide people with needed
amount of air, and not more. If a building is only 50% occupied, then only 50% of air for
ventilation is required. Demand controlled ventilation saves energy by avoiding heating,
cooling, and dehumidification of more ventilation air than it is needed.
 19

7.1 Energy saving potential

If demand controlled ventilation lowers excessive supply outdoor air in a building during
heating and cooling seasons, then annual energy expenses for heating and cooling the
outdoor air reduce correspondently. In addition, lower outdoor air requirements decrease
the fan energy expenses to supply or extract air from a building. Actual occupancy levels
in buildings are generally significantly lower than the design occupancy levels. The
experience indicates that actual occupancy levels may be 25-30% and 60-75% lower in
some buildings than the design levels /10, p.91/. The first and last, saving energy potential
using demand controlled ventilation may vary depending on climate, type of a building,
type of HVAC system and occupancy in the space in which DCV is implemented and
other operating conditions. The capability of authorized staff to maintain and operate
equipment properly may also positively affect savings.

Available data suggest that demand controlled ventilation reduces ventilation, heating and
cooling loads by 10% to 30% /10, p. 91/. Buildings with large fluctuation of occupancy,
such as office buildings, shopping malls, cinemas, auditoriums, schools, nightclubs etc.,
realize the largest saving energy.

Demand controlled ventilation reduces electricity requirements when actual occupancy

level is below than design occupancy level during the demand periods. Lower amount of
supply of outdoor air reduces cooling and ventilation loads and thus, air-conditioning
power reduces. Generally speaking, energy saving potential varies from building to
building. It depends on its occupancy.

Figure 7 shows an example of graphical representation of energy saving potential.

 20

Figure 7. A graphic representation of energy saving potential /11, p.1214/

The figure shows the importance of providing a base ventilation rate for non-human
contaminants. The example showed in Figure 7 assumes 20% of the design capacity
would be provided all the time.

7.2 Market factors

Costs of CO2-sensors with installation on the average vary from EUR 300 to EUR 400,
with one sensor installed per zone (185-280 m2) /10/. This also depends on a
manufacturer, quality and technical characteristics of sensors and an installation
company. Potential of saving energy with CO2-based DCV has been estimated in some
sources as from EUR 0.39 to more than EUR 7.75 per m2, depending on types of
buildings /10/.

The quick pay-off period of CO2 sensors can be expected in spaces, in which occupancy
is variable and unpredictable (auditoriums, some school buildings, shops etc.), as well as
in the areas with high heating and/or cooling demand and high utility rates. On the
average demand controlled ventilation has a payback period of two to three years that can
be cost-attractive for many customers /10/.
 21

But many buildings do not use DCV that is due to some disadvantages, namely that CO2-
sensors of DCV system do not respond to other indoor pollutants and expensiveness of
operational personnel. DCV is a new concept for standards and local building codes,
which one should not hurry to apply. Contractors and designers have questions and
doubts about liability of systems, if they can meet indoor air quality standards. Because of
that it may be due to incorrect installation of CO2-sensors and presence of large amount
of non-human pollutants exceeding the acceptable level. On the other hand, DCV requires
installation and operational personnel, which are more expensive and difficult to find. But
the energy saving can compensate these disadvantages.

8 DESIGN EXAMPLE OF DCV

This chapter considers an example of applying of CO2-based demand controlled

ventilation system in a single zone with a large open area (retail-clothing store) and
central indoor sensor location. The given chapter introduces the calculation of the
required ventilation rates in a retail-clothing store. The chapter describes determination
and selection of a suitable control strategy for the given example and considers the
selection of a sensor type and its location.

8.1 Concept of architecture and ventilation system

The described example shows the application of a large single zone space used for a
retail-clothing store. The store contains a 400 m2 retail floor, 40 m2 storage area and 12
dressing rooms covering 60 m2. Each area is separated but left open to 5 m high ceilings.
The volume of the space is 30 persons/100 m2, and the total occupancy is 160 people.

The calculations of this example can be used for other similar applications, where one or
more air handlers provide a large single zone, such as theaters, large ballrooms or
conference areas, multi-purpose gymnasiums, cafeterias or other retail applications.

The architectural drawing of the retail-clothing store is shown in Figure 8.

 22

Figure 8. Single zone retail space - retail clothing store /12, p.29/

Similar to many other retail spaces, the given store has continuously changeable
occupancy, which can change at various times during the whole day. Many types of retail
spaces have front doors open to increase customer traffic. Fresh air entering through the
front doors can be measured by a CO2 sensor and exclude a part of mechanical ventilating
that would have to be included if the doors were closed.

Retail-clothing space has a single-zone HVAC system. A ventilation system operates as

follows: outdoor air is pumped by fan 1 through heating or cooling coils. Heated or
cooled air flows into the occupation zone. Room air with some CO2 level is pumped from
occupation zone by fan 2. A part of exhaust air recirculates in a by-pass duct. There are
two regulated dampers in the system, the first one in the supply outdoor air duct and the
second one in the recirculated by-pass duct. The data from CO2 sensor are delivered to a
controller which regulates dampers.

The schematic of a ventilation system in the retail store is represented in Figure 9.

 23

Figure 9. Ventilation system of the retail clothing store schematic /13, p.2/

Because the recirculated air returns from only one zone, it may be possible to place a CO2
sensor in the return-air (RA) duct as an alternative sensor location. But if any supply air
bypassed the breathing zone, the sensor in the RA duct may register a less-than-actual
indoor CO2 concentration. In the given example a CO2 sensor is installed on the wall in
the breathing zone. For expedience the outdoor CO2 concentration is generally assumed
to be constant, so the indoor concentration (rather than the difference between the indoor
and the outdoor concentrations) is measured and used to modulate the position of the
outdoor air damper and, thereby, provide the space with the proper amount of ventilation
air on a per-person basis.

8.2 Control strategy selection

There are two possible control strategies to CO2-based DCV – the set-point control and
the proportional control, which is described in ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2004 /1/.

The set-point control strategy has limited application, since it will not increase outdoor air
intake within acceptable lag times in many cases. Spaces with higher occupant densities,
which reach full or nearly full occupancy rapidly once occupancy commences, can be
suitable candidates for this strategy. But the given example represents the clothing retail
 24

store with continuously changeable occupancy and large space volume. Accordingly, set
point control would not be a recommended approach for the described example.

The used ASHRAE Standard, a paraphrase of a proportional control method is as follows:

1. To determine the required intake flow of outdoor air for the design zone
population

The required rate is based on the number of occupants in the zone and the zone floor area.
Therefore, ventilation rates for people-related sources and building-related sources have
to be taken into account. The reason the standards and some codes state is that the
ventilation rate has to provide space with fresh air which is contaminated by both people
and materials when a fixed ventilation rate is provided. With DCV the ventilation rate
will be provided continuously for materials, and a part will be changeable for people.

The required intake flow of outdoor air is calculated applying Formula 4.

ሺୖౌ ×୔౰ ሻାሺୖ౗ ×୅౰ ሻ

V୭୲ିୢୣୱ୧୥୬ = ୉୸
Formula 4

where: Vot-design – required intake flow of outdoor air, dm3/s; Rp – required outdoor
airflow rate per person, dm3/s *person; Pz – zone population, person; Ra – required
outdoor airflow rate per unit area, dm3/s *m2; Az – zone flow area, m2; Ez – zone air
distribution effectiveness.

Except for 40 m2 of the storage area, 460 m2 is used for public needs. Then the inside
space is taken as the retail space. The data for the retail space are taken in Table 6.1 and
Table 6.2 from ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2004 /1/.

ሺ3.8 × 30ሻ + ሺ0.3 × 460ሻ

V୭୲ିୢୣୱ୧୥୬ = = 252 dmଷ /s
1.0
 25

2. To determine the required intake flow of outdoor air when the zone is unoccupied,
that is, Pz = 0 person

ሺ3.8 × 0ሻ + ሺ0.3 × 460ሻ

V୭୲ି୫୧୬ = = 138 dmଷ /s
1.0

3. To determine the target indoor CO2 concentration at design outdoor-air intake

flow

After frequent measuring during a week at lunchtime the target indoor CO2 concentration
at minimum outdoor-air intake flow (Co), which is equal to the outdoor CO2
concentration, appears to range from 400 to 420 ppm. As the levels appear to be
consistent, the designer has assumed that the outside level will be 400 ppm.

The target indoor CO2 concentration is calculated with Formula 5.

୒
Cୱିୢୣୱ୧୥୬ = C୭ + Formula 5
ሺ୚౥౪షౚ౛౩౟ౝ౤ /୔౰షౚ౛౩౟ౝ౤ ሻ

where: Cs-design – target indoor CO2 concentration at design outdoor-air intake flow,
ppm; Co – target indoor CO2 concentration at minimum outdoor-air intake flow, ppm; N –
CO2 generation rate, dm3/s*person; Vot-design – required intake flow of outdoor air,
dm3/s; Pz-design – target zone population, person.

0.00517
Cୱିୢୣୱ୧୥୬ = 400 + = 1015 ppm
ሺ252/30ሻ

When the indoor CO2 concentration equals to Cs-design (1015 ppm), the required intake
flow of outdoor air has to be equal to Vot-design (252 dm3/s). When the concentration of
CO2 indoors equals to Cs-min (400 ppm), the required intake flow of outdoor air has to be
equal to Vot-min (138 dm3/s). When the CO2 concentration in the interior of the building
is between its minimum (Cs-min) and designed (Cs-design) values, a controller has to
 26

adjust outdoor-air intake flow Vot proportionally between Vot-min and Vot-design using
Formula 6:

େ ିେ
V୭୲ = େ ౩ష౗ౙ౪౫౗ౢ ିେ౩షౣ౟౤ × ൫V୭୲ିୢୣୱ୧୥୬ − V୭୲ି୫୧୬ ൯ + V୭୲ି୫୧୬ Formula 6
౩షౚ౛౩౟ౝ౤ ౩షౣ౟౤

As Figure 10 shows, the proportional control approach yields an outdoor-air intake flow
(Vot) that equals or exceeds the requirement of the ASHRAE 62.1-2004 standard. It
requires a modulating outdoor-air damper, and a controller with two CO2 limits (Cs-
design, Cs-min) and two OA-damper limits that correspond to intake airflows (Vot-
design, Vot-min).

Figure 10. Proportional control strategy

Outdoor-air intake flow (Vot) and CO2 are proportional (or linear) to each other, but
neither is linear with respect to zone population. The controller adjusts intake airflow
(Vot) in proportion to the percentage of the CO2 signal range. But when the controller
changes outdoor airflow, the indoor CO2 concentration changes, too. So, the controller
 27

has to adjust Vot in small increments until the indoor CO2 reaches a stable value. When
plotted in relation to zone population, the results of these control actions are curves for
both Vot and indoor CO2.

8.3 Sensor selection

As a proportional control is selected, one CO2 sensor is recommended for using in the
given example. A sensor has to be capable to handle about 500 m2. A sensor has to be
provided with a self-calibration feature. For more correct operation of this feature a
sensor will utilize a pre-occupancy purge of the system that will automatically occur
every morning to provide inside CO2 levels are similar to outside levels. This will also
ensure that any contaminants appearing over closing hours are exhaust of the space before
occupancy begins.

The sensor will be mounted open on a centrally located support post and about 1,8 m
above the floor but is placed in such a way that occupants cannot directly breathe on the
sensor. The proportional signal from the CO2 sensor is provided directly to an air
handling unit. The CO2 sensor will be located as shown in Figure 8.

To conclude it has to be said that DCV will operate during all occupied hours. The
economizer will be programmed to override DCV control if outside air is used for free
cooling. Every morning pre-occupancy purge can be used in the sequence of operations of
the air handler. The air handler can be set up to begin modulation of outside air when
inside concentrations are 100 ppm over outside concentrations (500 ppm). The damper
position on the air handler will be proportionally modulated so that when levels reached
the equilibrium point the design ventilation rate of 252 dm3/s are provided. The maximum
position of the air handler outdoor air damper for ventilation delivery under the DCV
strategy will be 252 dm3/s (based on 3.8 l/s*person and volume of the space of 30
people/100 m2).
 28

9 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

DCV system controls the amount of outdoor fresh air supply, depending on the number of
people in a building and their activity. DCV makes it possible to maintain the needed
ventilation and improve indoor air quality while saving energy. Such systems benefit both
building operators and building occupants.

CO2-based DCV, when applied in spaces subject to variable or intermittent occupancy or

in spaces where actual occupancies are greatly below design occupancy, reduces
unnecessary overventilation while ensuring that target per person ventilation rates are
met. Such ventilation systems use CO2 as a control input to modulate ventilation below
the maximum total outdoor air intake rate while still maintaining the required ventilation
rate per person. Using CO2 data logged over time in an occupied space, it is possible to
estimate the ventilation rate of a continuously ventilated space, even if equilibrium levels
have not been reached, provided that occupancy age, activity level, and varying densities
within the space over time are known. In such a way, demand controlled ventilation saves
energy by preventing heating, cooling, and dehumidification of more ventilation air than
it is needed. DCV reduces electricity requirements when an actual occupancy level is
below than the design occupancy level during the demanded periods. The lower amount
of supplied outdoor air reduces cooling and ventilation loads and, therefore, air-
conditioning power reduces. Maximum saving energy using DCV is provided in
buildings, where the number of people continuously changed, is unpredictable and attains
a high level, for example, office buildings, shopping malls, cinemas, auditoriums,
schools, nightclubs etc.

In buildings with a more stable occupancy level, DCV provides enough amount of fresh
air supply per person all the time. But it could be uneconomical, because DCV reduces
energy costs less in the areas with a high utility level.

Saving energy potential can change as well, depending on climate, the type of a building,
the type of a HVAC system with which DCV is implemented and other operating
conditions. The achievement of improvements in the design characteristics of DCV is
 29

feasible with minimal additional equipment and modifications of the system. This may be
also mentioned as one of many advantages of DCV.

Controlling indoor air quality is carried out by active control of the ventilation system.
Demand controlled ventilation creates improved indoor air quality by increasing
ventilation, when CO2 level rises to an unacceptable level.

One of the most important aspects of designing DCV is correct control strategy selection.
In such a manner the set-point control strategy can be designed for spaces with high
occupant densities, which reach full or nearly full occupancy rapidly once occupancy
commences. While the proportional control strategy is applicable to a wide range of
occupant densities and patterns. A proportional control approach starts to open a damper
or increase the introduction of outdoor air when indoor CO2 levels are a certain amount
above outdoor levels. This lower control set point in the control range is 100 to 200 ppm
above outdoor levels. As CO2 levels in the occupied zone rise, the damper opens wider.
Two important criteria for any CO2 control strategy are that the target per-person
ventilation rate is met at all times and that during periods of changing occupancy the lag
times as prescribed in ASHRAE standard 62.1-2004 are met. It is possible to determine
the number of sensors and to select types of sensors, when a control strategy is chosen
correctly.
 30

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3. Shilong Piao, Philippe Ciais, Pierre Friedlingstein et al. Net Carbon Dioxide Losses of
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6. D2: Indoor Climate and Ventilation of Buildings. Finnish Ministry of the Environment.

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 31

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