triggers definition,syntax, its type in dbms

Here is a step-by-step explanation of database triggers, its type, and syntax in DBMS:
A trigger in a database management system (DBMS) is a powerful tool that allows you to
automate certain actions or tasks when specific events occur. These events can be
specific actions, such as inserting, updating, or deleting data in a table. Triggers are an
essential concept in DBMS, and understanding them is crucial for data integrity and
efficient database management.

Types of Triggers:
There are two primary types of triggers:

1. Before Triggers: These triggers are executed before the triggering event, allowing you
to modify data before it is committed to the database.
2. After Triggers: These triggers are executed after the triggering event, allowing you to
perform actions after the data has been committed.

Syntax:
The syntax for triggers varies depending on the DBMS being used. Here is a general
syntax for creating a trigger:

CREATE TRIGGER trigger name

TRIGGERING EVENT trigger event
ON table name

FOR EACH ROW

BEGIN

trigger code
END;

Here:

" triggername is the name of the trigger.

trigger event specifies the event that triggers the trigger (e.g., INSERT, UPDATE,
DELETE).
table name specifies the table on which the trigger is defined.
FOR EACH ROW specifies that the trigger will be executed for each row affected by the
triggering event.
BEGIN and END define the trigger code block.
Recoverability in dbms
Recoverability in DBMS refers to the ability of a database management system
(DBMS) to recover the database to a consistent state after a transaction failure. This
is crucial in ensuring the integrity and reliability of the database. Here are the
different types of recoverability in DBMS:
Recoverable Schedule: A schedule is recoverable if each transaction in the
schedule commits only after allthe transactions containing the changes it read
commit. This means that if a transaction fails, the database can be rolled back to a
consistent state by rolling back the failed transaction and any dependent
transactions.
" Cascading Schedule: Acascading schedule is a type of recoverable schedule
where the failure of one transaction causes several other dependent transactions
to roll back or abort.
" Cascade-Less Schedule: A cascade-less schedule is a type of recoverable
schedule where the failure of one transaction does not cause other dependent
transactions to roll back or abort.
" Irrecoverable Schedule: An irrecoverable schedule is a schedule that cannot be
recovered after a transaction failure. This is because the database has been left in
an inconsistent state, and there is no way to roll back the failed transaction.
Types of Recoverability
There are three types of recoverability in DBMS:

" Logging: A DBMS keeps a log of all transactions to ensure recoverability. The log
consists of data about all adjustments made to the database, as well as the
transactions that made those changes. In the event of a failure, the log may be
used to repair the database to a consistent state.
Checkpointing: Acheckpoint is a point in time in which the DBMS records the
state of the database and logs it. This allows for faster recovery in case of a
failure, as only the transactions since the last checkpoint need to be rolled back or
replayed.
" Media Recovery: Media recovery refers to the ability of a DBMS to recover from a
failure that affects the storage media, such as a hard disk crash. This includes
restoring the database from a backup and using the log to bring it up to date.
Functional dependency is a relationship between two attributes in a relation, where
the value of one attribute determines the value of another attribute. It is denoted by
an arrow " The functional dependency of Aon Bis represented by A’B, where
A and B are the attributes of the relation.

Types of Functional Dependencies:

There are four types of functional dependencies:
1. Trivial Functional Dependency

A trivial functional dependency is a dependency where the dependent attribute is a

subset of the determinant attribute. In other words, if X’Y and Y isasubset of X,
then it is called a trivial functional dependency.
Example: (Employee_ld, Name}’ Name
2. Non-Trivial Functional Dependency
Anon-trivial functionaldependency is a dependency where the dependent attribute
is not a subset of the determinant attribute. In other words, if X ’ Yand Y is not a
subset of X, then it is called a non-trivial functional dependency.
Example: {Employee Jd) ’ Name
3. Multivalued Functional Dependency
A multivalued functional dependency is a dependency where the dependent
attribute is not functionally dependent on the determinant attribute, but the
determinant attribute determines the value of the dependent attribute.
Example: {Employee ld)’{Name, Age}
4. Transitive Functional Dependency

A transitive functional dependency is a dependency where the dependent attribute

is indirectly dependent on the determinant attribute through another attribute. In
other words, if A Band B’C, then A ’Cis also a transitive functional
dependency.
Example: {Employee_ld}’Department and {Department) ’Street Number, then
(Employee Id} ’ Street Number
Schedules in dbms examples
In Database Management Systems (DBMS), aschedule is a plan or timetable that
outlines when specific tasks or activities are supposed to occur. There are two main
types of schedules:
1. Serial Schedule

Aserial schedule is a schedule in which the transactions are executed non

interleaved, i.e., a serial schedule is one in which no transaction starts until a running
transaction has ended.

Example:
Consider two transactions T1 and T2:

Time T1 T2

R1

1 W1

2 R2

3 W2

In this schedule, T1 completes its operations before T2 starts. This is an example of

a serial schedule.
2. Non-Serial Schedule

A non-serial schedule is a schedule in which multiple transactions can execute

simultaneously, and their operations may overlap.
Example:

Time T1 T2T3
R1

1 W1 R2

2 W2 R3

3 W3

In this schedule, T1, T2, and T3 execute concurrently, and their operations overlap.
3. Recoverable Schedule

A recoverable schedule is a schedule that allows for the recovery of the database to
a consistent state after a transaction failure.

Example:
Time T1 T2

R1

1 W1

2 R2

3 W2

In this schedule, T1 commits its operations before T2 starts. This is an example of a

recoverable schedule.

4. Non-Recoverable Schedule

A non-recoverable schedule is a schedule that is not recoverable, meaning that the

database cannot be recovered to a consistent state after a transaction failure.

Example:
Time T1 T2

R1

1 W1 R2

2 W2

In this schedule, T1 updates the database and then T2 reads the updated data,
making it non-recoverable.
5. Serializable Schedule

A serializable schedule is a schedule that is eguivalent to a serial schedule, meaning

that it can be executed asa serial schedule without changing the outcome.
Example:
Time T1 T2

R1

1 W1

2 R2

3 W2

In this schedule, T1 and T2 execute concurrently, but the outcome is equivalent toa
serial schedule.
6. Non-Serializable Schedule

A non-serializable schedule is a schedule that is not equivalent to a serial schedule,

meaning that it cannot be executed as a serial schedule without changing the
outcome.

Example:
Time T1 T2

R1

1 W1 R2

2 W2

In this schedule, T1updates the database and then T2 reads the updated data,
making it non-serializable.
Database programming control structures exception handling stored
procedures triggers in dbms
Control Structures
Follow up
Control structures in database programming are used to control the flow of a
program. They are essential for managing the execution of database operations and What are the differences between
ensuring that the program runs efficiently. The most common control structures stored procedures and functions in a
used in database programming are: database?

" Conditional Statements: These statements allow you to execute different blocks
of code based on certain conditions. For example, you can use an IF-THEN How do stored procedures and triggers
statement to execute a block of code if a certain condition is true. impact database performance and
scalability?
Loops: These statements allow you to execute a block of code repeatedly for a
specified number of times. For example, you can use a WHILE loop to execute a
block of code until a certain condition is met. What are some best practices for
writing efficient and readable SQL
" Switch Statements: These statements allow you to execute different blocks of
queries in a database?
code based on the value of a variable. For example, you can use a sWITCH
statement to execute a block of code based on the value of a variable.

Exception Handling
Exception handling is an essential part of database programming. It allows you to
handle errors and exceptions that occur during the execution of a program. The
most common exception handling mechanisms used in database programming are:

" TRY-CATCH Blocks: These blocks allow you to catch and handle exceptions that
occur during the execution of a program. For example, you can use a TRY-CATCH
block to catch an exception that occurs when a database query fails.
ERROR HANDLING: This is a mechanism that allows you to handle errors and
exceptions that occur during the execution of a program. For example, you can
use error handling to catch and handle errors that occur when a database query
fails.
Stored Procedures

Stored procedures are precompiled SQL statements that can be executed

repeatedly. They are stored in the database and can be invoked by calling their
name. Stored procedures can be used to:

" Improve Performance: Stored procedures can improve performance by reducing

the amount of data that needs to be transferred between the client and the
server.

" Improve Security: Stored procedures can improve security by reducing the risk of
SQL injection attacks.
" Simplify Code: Stored procedures can simplify code by encapsulating complex
logic and reducing the amount of code that needs to be written.

Triggers
Triggers are stored procedures that are automatically executed in response to
certain events. They can be used to:

" Enforce Business Rules: Triggers can be used to enforce business rules and
ensure that data is consistent and accurate.
" Improve Data Integrity: Triggers can be used to improve data integrity by ensuring
that data is updated correctly and consistently.
" Simplify Code: Triggers can simplify code by encapsulating complex logic and
reducing the amount of code that needs to be written.

Benefits of Stored Procedures and Triggers

The benefits of stored procedures and triggers include:

" Improved Performance: Stored procedures and triggers can improve performance
by reducing the amount of data that needs to be transferred between the client
and the server.
" Improved Security: Stored procedures and triggers can improve security by
reducing the risk of SQL injection attacks.
Simplified Code: Stored procedures and triggers can simplify code by
encapsulating complex logic and reducing the amount of code that needs to be
written.
" Improved Data Integrity: Stored procedures and triggers can improve data
integrity by ensuring that data is updated correctly and consistently.
Transaction states, Serializability
In a database management system (DBMS), a transaction goes through several
states duing its lifetime. These states govern the rules that decide the fate of the
transaction, whether it will commit or abort. The main transaction states are:

" Active: The transaction is currently being executed.

" Failed: The transaction has failed and will be rolled back.
" Aborted: The transaction has been aborted and will not be committed.
" Committed: The transaction has been successfully executed and its effects are
permanent.

Serializability
Serializability is a concept in DBMS that ensures the corectness of concurrent
transactions. It guarantees that the outcome of multiple transactions executed
concurrently is the same as if they were executed serially, one after the other. In
other words, serializability ensures that the database remains in a consistent state,
even when multiple transactions are executed simultaneously.
There are two types of serializability:

" Conflict Serializability: A schedule is conflict serializable if it can be transformed

into a serial schedule by swapping non-conflicting operations. This type of
serializability ensures that transactions do not have conflicting accesses to the
same data item.
" View Serializability: View serializability is a weaker form of serializability that only
requires that transactions produce the same final result as a serial schedule,
without considering the order of operations.