BS102

Discrete Mathematics
Chapter 02
Basic Structures
Dr. Ahmed Hagag
Faculty of Computers and Artificial Intelligence
Benha University
Fall 2020
 Chapter 2: Basic Structures

• Sets.
• Functions.
• Sequences, and Summations.
• Matrices.

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 Sets (1/24)

A set is an unordered collection of objects .

The objects in a set are called the elements, or

members, of the set. A set is said to contain its
elements.

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 Sets (2/24)

𝑆 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑}

We write 𝑎 ∈ 𝑆 to denote that 𝑎 is an element of

the set 𝑆. The notation 𝑒 ∉ 𝑆 denotes that 𝑒 is not
an element of the set 𝑆.

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 Sets (3/24)

The set 𝑂 of odd positive integers less than 10

can be expressed by 𝑂 = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}.

The set of positive integers less than 100 can be

denoted by {1, 2, 3, … , 99}.

ellipses (…)

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 Sets (4/24)

Another way to describe a set is to use set

builder notation.

The set 𝑂 of odd positive integers less than 10

can be expressed by 𝑂 = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}.

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 Sets (5/24)

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 Sets (6/24)

Interval Notation
Closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏]
Open interval (𝑎, 𝑏)

[𝑎, 𝑏] = {𝑥 | 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏}
[𝑎, 𝑏) = {𝑥 | 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝑏}
(𝑎, 𝑏] = {𝑥 | 𝑎 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏}
(𝑎, 𝑏) = {𝑥 | 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏}

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 Sets (7/24)

If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are sets, then 𝐴 and 𝐵 are equal if and only if

∀𝑥(𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ↔ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵). We write 𝐴 = 𝐵, if 𝐴 and 𝐵 are
equal sets.

• The sets {1, 3 , 5} and {3, 5 , 1} are equal, because

they have the same elements.

• {1 , 3 , 3 , 5 , 5 , 5} is the same as the set

{1, 3 , 5} because they have the same elements.

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 Sets (8/24)

Empty Set
There is a special set that has no elements. This set is
called the empty set, or null set, and is denoted by ∅.
The empty set can also be denoted by { }

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Cardinality
The cardinality is the number of distinct elements in 𝑆.
The cardinality of 𝑆 is denoted by 𝑆 .

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 Sets (10/24)

Example1

𝑆 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑}
𝑆 =4
𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 7, 9}

∅=

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 Sets (10/24)

Example1

𝑆 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑}
𝑆 =4
𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 7, 9}
𝐴 =5
∅=
|∅| = 0

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 Sets (11/24)

Example2

𝑆 = 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 2
𝑆 =
𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, {2,3}, 9}
𝐴 =
{∅} = { }
∅ =

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 Sets (11/24)

Example2

𝑆 = 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 2
𝑆 =5
𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, {2,3}, 9}
𝐴 =5
{∅} = { }
∅ =1

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 Sets (12/24)

Infinite
A set is said to be infinite if it is not finite.
The set of positive integers is infinite.
𝑍 + = {1,2,3, … }

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Subset
The set 𝐴 is said to be a subset of 𝐵 if and only if
every element of 𝐴 is also an element of 𝐵 .

We use the notation 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 to indicate that

𝐴 is a subset of the se𝑡 𝐵 .

𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 ↔ ∀𝑥(𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 → 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵)

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Subset
The set 𝐴 is said to be a subset of 𝐵 if and only if
every element of 𝐴 is also an element of 𝐵 .

We use the notation 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 to indicate that

𝐴 is a subset of the se𝑡 𝐵 .
(𝑨 ⊆ 𝑩) ≡ (𝑩 ⊇ 𝑨)
𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 ↔ ∀𝑥(𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 → 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵)

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 Sets (13/24)

Subset

To show that two sets A and B are equal, show that

𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴.

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Proper Subset
The set 𝐴 is a subset of the set 𝐵 but that 𝐴 ≠ 𝐵,
we write 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵
and say that 𝐴 is a 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐬𝐮𝐛𝐬𝐞𝐭 of 𝐵.

𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵 ↔ ∀𝑥 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 → 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 ∧ ∃𝑥 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 ∧ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴

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 Sets (15/24)

Example
For each of the following sets,
determine whether 3 is an element of that set.

1,2,3,4
1, 2, 3, 4

1,2, 1,3

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 Sets (16/24)

Venn Diagram
𝐴 = 1,2,3,4,7
𝐵 = 0,3,5,7,9
𝐶 = 1,2

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 Sets (17/24)

Venn Diagram
𝐴 = 1,2,3,4,7
𝐵 = 0,3,5,7,9
𝐶 = 1,2 1, 2

3, 7 0, 5, 9
Universal Set

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 Sets (18/24)

Power Set
𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐞𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐥𝐥 𝐬𝐮𝐛𝐬𝐞𝐭𝐬.

If the set is 𝑆. The power set of 𝑆 is denoted by 𝑃(𝑆).

The number of elements in the power set is 2 𝑆

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 Sets (18/24)

Power Set
𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐞𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐥𝐥 𝐬𝐮𝐛𝐬𝐞𝐭𝐬.

If the set is 𝑆. The power set of 𝑆 is denoted by 𝑃(𝑆).

The number of elements in the power set is 2 𝑆
𝑆 = 1,2,3 𝑷 𝑺 = 𝟐𝟑 = 𝟖 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬

𝑃 𝑆 = 2𝑆
= ∅, 1 , 2 , 3 , 1,2 , 1,3 , 2,3 , 1,2,3
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 Sets (19/24)

Example1

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 Sets (19/24)

Example1

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 Sets (20/24)

Example2

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 Sets (20/24)

Example2

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 Sets (21/24)

The ordered 𝒏-tuple

The ordered 𝑛-tuple (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ) is the ordered

collection that has 𝑎1 as its first element, 𝑎2 as its
second element, … , and 𝑎𝑛 as its 𝑛th element.

In particular, ordered 2-tuples are called ordered

pairs (e.g., the ordered pairs (𝑎, 𝑏))

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Cartesian Products

Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets.

The Cartesian product of 𝐴 and 𝐵, denoted by 𝐴 × 𝐵,
is the set of all ordered pairs (𝑎, 𝑏), where 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 and
𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 . Hence, 𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 𝑏) | 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 ∧ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵}.

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Cartesian Products - Example

Let 𝐴 = 1,2 , and 𝐵 = 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐

𝐴×𝐵= 1, 𝑎 , 1, 𝑏 , 1, 𝑐 , 2, 𝑎 , 2, 𝑏 , 2, 𝑐 .

𝐴×𝐵 = 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 =2∗3=6

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Cartesian Products - Example

Let 𝐴 = 1,2 , and 𝐵 = 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐

𝐴×𝐵= 1, 𝑎 , 1, 𝑏 , 1, 𝑐 , 2, 𝑎 , 2, 𝑏 , 2, 𝑐 .

𝐴×𝐵 = 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 =2∗3=6

Find 𝐵 × 𝐴 ?

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 Sets (23/24)

The Cartesian product of more than two sets.

The Cartesian product of the sets 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , … , 𝐴𝑛 ,

denoted by 𝐴1 × 𝐴2 × ⋯ × 𝐴𝑛 , is the set of ordered
𝑛-tuples (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ), where 𝑎𝑖 belongs to 𝐴𝑖 for
𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑛. In other words,
𝐴1 × 𝐴2 × ⋯ × 𝐴𝑛 =
𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑖 ∈ 𝐴𝑖 for 𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑛 .

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 Sets (24/24)

Example:

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 Set Operations (1/7)

Union
Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets. The union of the sets A and B ,
denoted by 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵, is the set that contains those
elements that are either in 𝐴 or in 𝐵 , or in both.

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 Set Operations (1/7)

Union
Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets. The union of the sets A and B ,
denoted by 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵, is the set that contains those
elements that are either in 𝐴 or in 𝐵 , or in both.

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 Set Operations (1/7)

Union
Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets. The union of the sets A and B ,
denoted by 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵, is the set that contains those
elements that are either in 𝐴 or in 𝐵 , or in both.

The union of the sets {1, 3, 5} and {1, 2, 3}

is the set {1, 2, 3, 5}

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 Set Operations (2/7)

Intersection
Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets. The intersection of the sets A and
B , denoted by 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵, is the set that contains those
elements that are in both 𝐴 and 𝐵.

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 Set Operations (2/7)

Intersection
Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets. The intersection of the sets A and
B , denoted by 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵, is the set that contains those
elements that are in both 𝐴 and 𝐵.

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 Set Operations (2/7)

Intersection
Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets. The intersection of the sets A and
B , denoted by 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵, is the set that contains those
elements that are in both 𝐴 and 𝐵.

The intersection of the sets {1, 3, 5} and {1, 2, 3}

is the set {1, 3}

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 Set Operations (3/7)

Disjoint

Two sets are called disjoint if their intersection is the

empty set.

𝐴∩𝐵 =∅

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 Set Operations (4/7)

Difference

Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets. The difference of 𝐴 and 𝐵 ,

denoted by 𝐴 − 𝐵 , is the set containing those
elements that are in 𝐴 but not in 𝐵.

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 Set Operations (4/7)

Difference

Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets. The difference of 𝐴 and 𝐵 ,

denoted by 𝐴 − 𝐵 , is the set containing those
elements that are in 𝐴 but not in 𝐵.

𝐴 = 1,3,5 , 𝐵 = 1,2,3
𝐴−𝐵= 5

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 Set Operations (4/7)

Difference

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 Set Operations (5/7)

Complement

Let 𝑈 be the universal set.

The complement of the set 𝐴 , denoted by 𝐴ҧ
An element 𝑥 belongs to 𝑈 if and only if 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴.

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 Set Operations (5/7)

Complement

Let 𝑈 be the universal set.

The complement of the set 𝐴 , denoted by 𝐴ҧ
An element 𝑥 belongs to 𝑈 if and only if 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴.

𝑈 = 1,2,3,4,5 , 𝐴 = 1,3
𝐴ҧ = 2,4,5

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 Set Operations (5/7)

Complement

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 Set Operations (6/7)

Generalized Unions

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 Set Operations (6/7)

Generalized Unions

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 Set Operations (7/7)

Generalized Intersections

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 Set Operations (7/7)

Generalized Intersections

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 Set Identities (1/8)

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 Set Identities (2/8)

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 Set Identities (3/8)

Example1

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 Set Identities (4/8)

Example1 – Answer

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 Set Identities (5/8)

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 Set Identities (6/8)

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 Set Identities (7/8)

Example2

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 Set Identities (8/8)

Example2 – Answer

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 Functions (1/21)

Function
Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be nonempty sets. A function 𝑓 from 𝐴 to
𝐵 is an assignment of exactly one element of 𝐵 to
each element of 𝐴.

We write 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏 if 𝑏 is the unique element of 𝐵

assigned by the function 𝑓 to the element 𝑎 of 𝐴.

If 𝑓 is a function from 𝐴 to 𝐵, we write 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵.

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 Functions (2/21)

Function

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 Functions (3/21)

The Function 𝒇: 𝑨 → 𝑩

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 Functions (3/21)

The Function 𝒇: 𝑨 → 𝑩

Domain: 𝐴

Co-Domain: 𝐵

𝑓 𝑎 =𝑏
𝑏 is the image of 𝑎
𝑎 is a preimage of 𝑏

The range, or image, of 𝑓

is the set of all images of
elements of 𝐴.

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The Function 𝒇: 𝑨 → 𝑩

1 Domain = 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒
𝑎 2
𝑏 3 Co-Domain = 1,2,3,4,5,6,7
𝑐 4 Range = {1,3,4,5,7}
𝑑 5
𝑒 6
7
𝑨 → 𝑩

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 Functions (5/21)

Definition
Let 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 be functions from 𝐴 to R. Then 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 and 𝑓1 𝑓2 are also
functions from 𝐴 to R defined for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 by
𝑓1 + 𝑓2 (𝑥) = 𝑓1 (𝑥) + 𝑓2 (𝑥),
(𝑓1 𝑓2 )(𝑥) = 𝑓1 𝑥 𝑓2 (𝑥).

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 Functions (6/21)

Example
Let 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 be functions from R to R such that 𝑓1 (𝑥) = 𝑥 2 and
𝑓2 (𝑥) = 𝑥 − 𝑥 2. What are the functions 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 and 𝑓1 𝑓2 ?

𝑓1 + 𝑓2 𝑥 = 𝑓1 𝑥 + 𝑓2 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 = 𝑥,

𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑥 = 𝑓1 𝑥 𝑓2 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 4.

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 Functions (7/21)

Definition
Let 𝑓 be a function from 𝐴 to 𝐵 and let 𝑆 be a subset of 𝐴.
The image of 𝑆 under the function 𝑓 is the subset of 𝐵 that consists of
the images of the elements of 𝑆.
We denote the image of 𝑆 by 𝑓(𝑆), so
𝑓 𝑆 = 𝑡 ∃𝑠 ∈ 𝑆 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑠 .
or shortly {𝑓 𝑠 | 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆}.

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 Functions (8/21)

Example
Let 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒} and 𝐵 = {1, 2, 3, 4} with 𝑓(𝑎) = 2, 𝑓(𝑏) = 1,
𝑓(𝑐) = 4, 𝑓(𝑑) = 1, and 𝑓(𝑒) = 1.

𝑆 = 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ⊆ 𝐴
The image of the subset 𝑆 = {𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑} is the set 𝑓(𝑆) = {1, 4}

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 Functions (9/21)

One-to-One function (injective)

A function f is said to be one-to-one, or injective,

if and only if f(a) = f(b) implies that a = b for all a and b in the domain
of f.

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 Functions (9/21)

One-to-One function (injective)

1 𝑓 𝑎 =1
𝑎 2
𝑏 3 𝑓 𝑏 =3
𝑐 4 𝑓 𝑐 =7
𝑑 5
𝑒 6 𝑓 𝑑 =4
7 𝑓 𝑒 =5
𝑨 → 𝑩

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 Functions (9/21)

NOT One-to-One function (Not injective)

1 𝑓 𝑎 =1
𝑎 2
𝑏 3 𝑓 𝑏 =1
𝑐 4 𝑓 𝑐 =7
𝑑 5
𝑒 6 𝑓 𝑑 =4
7 𝑓 𝑒 =5
𝑨 → 𝑩

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 Functions (10/21)

onto function (surjective)

A function f from A to B is called onto, or surjective, if and only if for

every element b ∈ B there is an element a ∈ A with f(a) = b.

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 Functions (10/21)

onto function (surjective)

𝑓 𝑎 =1
𝑎
1
𝑏 𝑓 𝑏 =1
2
𝑐
3 𝑓 𝑐 =4
𝑑
4
𝑒 𝑓 𝑑 =2
Co-Domain = 1,2,3,4
𝑓 𝑒 =3
𝑨 → 𝑩 Range = {1,2,3,4}

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 74

 Functions (10/21)

NOT onto function (Not surjective)

𝑓 𝑎 =1
𝑎
1
𝑏 𝑓 𝑏 =1
2
𝑐
3 𝑓 𝑐 =4
𝑑
4
𝑒 𝑓 𝑑 =1
Co-Domain = 1,2,3,4
𝑓 𝑒 =3
𝑨 → 𝑩 Range = {1,3,4}

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 75

 Functions (11/21)

One-to-one correspondence (bijection)

The function f is a one-to-one correspondence, or a bijection, if it is

both one-to-one and onto.

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 Functions (11/21)

One-to-one correspondence (bijection)

|A| = |B|

𝑓 𝑎 =1
𝑎 1
𝑏 2 𝑓 𝑏 =3
𝑐 3
𝑓 𝑐 =5
𝑑 4
𝑒 5 𝑓 𝑑 =2
Co-Domain = 1,2,3,4,5
𝑓 𝑒 =4
𝑨 → 𝑩 Range = {1,2,3,4,5}

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 77

 Functions (11/21)

NOT One-to-one correspondence (Not bijection)

𝑓 𝑎 =1
𝑎 1
𝑏 2 𝑓 𝑏 =3 NOT one-to-one
𝑐 3 NOT onto
𝑓 𝑐 =5
𝑑 4
𝑒 5 𝑓 𝑑 =1
Co-Domain = 1,2,3,4,5
𝑓 𝑒 =4
𝑨 → 𝑩 Range = {1,3,4,5}

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 78

 Functions (11/21)

NOT One-to-one correspondence (Not bijection)

𝑓 𝑎 =1
𝑎 1
𝑏 2 𝑓 𝑏 =2 Onto
𝑐 3
𝑓 𝑐 =3 NOT one-to-one
𝑑 4
𝑒 𝑓 𝑑 =1
Co-Domain = 1,2,3,4
𝑓 𝑒 =4
𝑨 → 𝑩 Range = {1,2,3,4}

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 79

 Functions (11/21)

NOT One-to-one correspondence (Not bijection)

𝑓 𝑎 =1
𝑎 1
𝑏 2 𝑓 𝑏 =3 One-to-one
𝑐 3 NOT onto
𝑓 𝑐 =5
𝑑 4
5 𝑓 𝑑 =2
Co-Domain = 1,2,3,4,5

𝑨 → 𝑩 Range = {1,2,3,5}

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 80

 Functions (12/21)

Examples

𝑨 → 𝑩

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 81

 Functions (12/21)

Examples

One-to-one

NOT onto

𝑨 → 𝑩

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 82

 Functions (12/21)

Examples

𝑨 → 𝑩

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 83

 Functions (12/21)

Examples

NOT One-to-one

Onto

𝑨 → 𝑩

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 84

 Functions (12/21)

Examples

𝑨 → 𝑩

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 85

 Functions (12/21)

Examples

One-to-one

Onto

∴ bijection

𝑨 → 𝑩

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 86

 Functions (12/21)

Examples

𝑨 → 𝑩

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 87

 Functions (12/21)

Examples

NOT One-to-one

NOT Onto

𝑨 → 𝑩

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 88

 Functions (12/21)

Examples

𝑨 → 𝑩

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 89

 Functions (12/21)

Examples

NOT a function
from 𝑨 to 𝑩

𝑨 → 𝑩

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 90

 Functions (13/21)

Examples

Determine whether the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1 from the set of integers

to the set of integers is one-to-one.

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 91

 Functions (13/21)

Examples (Answer)
Determine whether the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1 from the set of integers
to the set of integers is one-to-one.
𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑎 + 1 and 𝑓 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 1

𝑓 𝑥 is one−to−one (if 𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑓 𝑏 and a equal b then).

𝑎+1=𝑏+1
𝑎=𝑏
∴ 𝑓 𝑥 is one−to−one

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 92

 Functions (14/21)

Examples
Determine whether the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 from the set of integers to
the set of integers is one-to-one.

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 93

 Functions (14/21)

Examples (Answer)
Determine whether the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 from the set of integers to
the set of integers is one-to-one.
𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑎2 and 𝑓 𝑏 = 𝑏2
𝑓 𝑥 is one−to−one (if 𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑓 𝑏 and a equal b then).
𝑎2 = 𝑏2
±𝑎 = ±𝑏
𝑎 may be not equal 𝑏
∴ 𝑓 𝑥 is NOT one−to−one

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 94

 Functions (15/21)

Inverse Functions
Let f be a one-to-one correspondence from the set A to the set B. The
inverse function of f is the function that assigns to an element b
belonging to B the unique element a in A such that 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏. The
inverse function of f is denoted by 𝒇−𝟏. Hence, 𝑓 −1 𝑏 = 𝑎 when
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏.

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 95

 Functions (15/21)

Inverse Functions

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 96

 Functions (16/21)

Invertible
A one-to-one correspondence is called invertible because we can
define an inverse of this function. A function is not invertible if it is
not a one-to-one correspondence, because the inverse of such a
function does not exist.

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 97

 Functions (17/21)

Invertible – Example
Let f be the function from 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 to { 1 , 2, 3} such that 𝑓(𝑎) = 2,
𝑓(𝑏) = 3, and 𝑓(𝑐) = 1. Is 𝑓 invertible, and if it is, what is its
inverse?

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 98

 Functions (17/21)

Invertible – Example
Let f be the function from 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 to {1, 2, 3} such that 𝑓(𝑎) = 2,
𝑓(𝑏) = 3, and 𝑓(𝑐) = 1. Is 𝑓 invertible, and if it is, what is its
inverse?
Answer:
The function 𝑓 is invertible because it is a one-to-one correspondence.
The inverse function 𝑓 −1 reverses the correspondence given by 𝑓, so
𝑓 −1 (1) = 𝑐, 𝑓 −1 (2) = 𝑎, and 𝑓 −1 (3) = 𝑏.

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 99

 Functions (18/21)

Composition of the Functions f and g

Let g be a function from the set 𝐴 to the set 𝐵 and let f be a function
from the set 𝐵 to the set 𝐶. The composition of the functions f and g,
denoted by 𝑓 ∘ g, is defined by 𝑓 ∘ g 𝑎 = 𝑓 g 𝑎 .

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 100

 Functions (18/21)

Composition of the Functions f and g

Let g be a function from the set 𝐴 to the set 𝐵 and let f be a function
from the set 𝐵 to the set 𝐶. The composition of the functions f and g,
denoted by 𝑓 ∘ g, is defined by 𝑓 ∘ g 𝑎 = 𝑓 g 𝑎 .

Note that the composition f ∘ g cannot be defined unless the range of g is

a subset of the domain of f .

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 101

 Functions (19/21)

Composition Example 1
Let g be the function from the set {𝑎 , 𝑏, 𝑐} to itself such that g(a) = b,
g(b) = c, and g(c) = a. Let f be the function from the set {𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐} to
the set { 1 , 2 , 3 } such that f(a) = 3 , f(b) = 2 , and f(c) = 1. What is the
composition of f and g, and what is the composition of g and f ?

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 102

 Functions (19/21)

Composition Example 1
Let g be the function from the set {𝑎 , 𝑏, 𝑐} to itself such that g(a) = b,
g(b) = c, and g(c) = a. Let f be the function from the set {𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐} to
the set { 1 , 2 , 3 } such that f(a) = 3 , f(b) = 2 , and f(c) = 1.
Answer:
1) The composition of f and g (i.e., (f ∘ g))
(f ∘g)(a) = 2, (f ∘g)(b) = 1, (f ∘g)(c) = 3
2) The composition of g and f (i.e., (g ∘ f)) cannot be defined
because the range of f is NOT a subset of the domain of g .

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 103

 Functions (20/21)

Composition Example 2
Let f and g be the functions from the set of integers to the set of
integers defined by f(x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = 3x + 2. What is the
composition of f and g? What is the composition of g and f ?

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 104

 Functions (20/21)

Composition Example 2
Let f and g be the functions from the set of integers to the set of
integers defined by f(x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = 3x + 2.
Answer:
1) The composition of f and g (i.e., (f ∘g))
(f ∘g)(x) = 𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 = 2 3𝑥 + 2 + 3 = 6𝑥 + 7

2) The composition of g and f (i.e., (g ∘f))

(g ∘f)(x) = 𝑔 𝑓 𝑥 = 3 2𝑥 + 3 + 2 = 6𝑥 + 11

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 105

 Functions (21/21)

The Graphs of Functions

Let 𝑓 be a function from 𝐴 to

𝐵. The graph of the function
𝑓 is the set of ordered pairs
{(𝑎, 𝑏)| 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵}.

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 106

 Some Important Functions (1/4)

Floor function 𝒚 = 𝒙

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 107

 Some Important Functions (2/4)

Ceiling function 𝒚 = 𝒙

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 108

 Some Important Functions (3/4)

Useful Properties

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 109

 Some Important Functions (4/4)

Examples
0.5 =
0.5 =
3 =
−0.5 =
−1.2 =
1.1 =
0.3 + 2 =
1.1 + 0.5 =

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 110

 Some Important Functions (4/4)

Examples-Answer
0.5 = 0
0.5 = 1
3 =3
−0.5 = − 0.5 = −1
−1.2 = −1
1.1 = 1
0.3 + 2 = 2
1.1 + 0.5 = 3

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 111

 Sequences (1/13)

Definition
• A sequence is a set of things (usually numbers) that
are in order.
➢ For example, 1 , 2, 3, 5, 8 is a sequence with five terms and
1, 3, 9, 27, 81, . . . , 30, . . . is an infinite sequence.

• We use the notation 𝑎𝑛 to denote the image of the

integer 𝑛. We call 𝑎𝑛 a term of the sequence.

• We use the notation {𝑎𝑛 } to describe the sequence.

{𝑎𝑛 } = 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , …

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 112

 Sequences (2/13)

Example
• Consider the sequence {𝑎𝑛 } , where
1
𝑎𝑛 =
𝑛
The list of the terms of this sequence, beginning with 𝑎1 ,
namely,
𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , 𝑎4 , … ,
Starts with
1 1 1
1, , , , …
2 3 4
@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 113
 Sequences (3/13)

Geometric

2, 10, 50, 250, …

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 114
 Sequences (4/13)

Geometric – Example1

𝑎𝑟 𝑛 , 𝑛 = 0,1,2, …

𝑎=1
𝑟 = −1

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 115

 Sequences (5/13)

Geometric – Example2

𝑎𝑟 𝑛 , 𝑛 = 0,1,2, …

𝑎=2
𝑟=5

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 116

 Sequences (6/13)

Geometric – Example3

𝑎𝑟 𝑛 , 𝑛 = 0,1,2, …

𝑎=6
𝑟 = 1/3

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 117

 Sequences (7/13)

Geometric – Example4

Find 𝒂, 𝒓? 𝟑 ∗ 𝟒𝒏 , 𝒏 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, …

𝑎𝑟 𝑛 , 𝑛 = 0,1,2, …

𝑎=3
𝑟=4

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 118

 Sequences (8/13)

Geometric – Example5

Find 𝒂, 𝒓? 𝟑 ∗ 𝟒𝒏 , 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, …

𝑎 = 12
𝑟=4

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 119

 Sequences (9/13)

Arithmetic

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 120

 Sequences (10/13)

Arithmetic – Example1

𝑎 + 𝑛𝑑 , 𝑛 = 0,1,2, …

𝑎 = −1
𝑑=4

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 121

 Sequences (11/13)

Arithmetic – Example2

𝑎 + 𝑛𝑑 , 𝑛 = 0,1,2, …

𝑎=7
𝑑 = −3

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 122

 Sequences (12/13)

Notes:
• Are terms obtained from previous terms by adding the
same amount or an amount that depends on the
position in the sequence?
• Are terms obtained from previous terms by
multiplying by a particular amount?
• Are terms obtained by combining previous terms in a
certain way?
• Are there cycles among the terms?

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 123

 Sequences (13/13)

Fibonacci Sequence

0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, …

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 124

 Summations (1/8)

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 125

 Summations (1/8)

Here, the index of summation runs through all integers

starting with its lower limit m and ending with its upper
limit n. A large uppercase Greek letter sigma, ∑, is used
to denote summation.

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 126

 Summations (2/8)

Example 1

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 127

 Summations (3/8)

Example 1

Answer

100

෍ 1/𝑛
𝑛=1

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 128

 Summations (4/8)

Example 2

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 129

 Summations (4/8)

Example 2

Answer

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 130

 Summations (5/8)

Example 3

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 131

 Summations (5/8)

Example 3

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 132

 Summations (6/8)

Example 4

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 133

 Summations (7/8)

Double Summation

Find

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 134

 Summations (8/8)

Double Summation

Find

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 135

 Matrices (1/14)

Definition:
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers. A matrix
with 𝑚 rows and 𝑛 columns is called an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix. A
matrix with the same number of rows as columns is
called square.
1 2

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 136

 Matrices (1/14)

Definition:
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers. A matrix
with 𝑚 rows and 𝑛 columns is called an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix. A
matrix with the same number of rows as columns is
called square.

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 137

 Matrices (2/14)

𝒎 × 𝒏 matrix

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 138

 Matrices (3/14)

𝒎 × 𝒏 matrix

The (2, 1)th element or entry of A is the element 𝒂𝟐𝟏 ,

means 2nd row and 1st column of A.

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 139

 Matrices (4/14)

Matrix Arithmetic (Sum.)

Let A = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] and B = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ] be 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrices.
The sum of A and B, denoted by A + B, is the 𝑚 × 𝑛
matrix that has 𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗 as its (i, j)th element. In other
words, A + B = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗 ].

A B A+B
@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 140
 Matrices (4/14)

Note: matrices of different sizes

Matrix Arithmetic (Sum.) can not be added.

Let A = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] and B = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ] be 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrices.

The sum of A and B, denoted by A + B, is the 𝑚 × 𝑛
matrix that has 𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗 as its (i, j)th element. In other
words, A + B = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗 ].

A B A+B
@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 141
 Matrices (5/14)

Matrix Arithmetic (Product/Multiplication)

𝐀 𝒎𝒌 𝐁𝒌𝒏 𝐀𝐁 = 𝐂𝒎𝒏

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 142

 Matrices (5/14)

Matrix Arithmetic (Product/Multiplication)

𝐀 𝒎𝒌 𝐁𝒌𝒏 𝐀𝐁 = 𝐂𝒎𝒏

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 143

 Matrices (6/14)

Example1 (1/2)
1 1 2 1 2
𝐀3×3 = 1 2 3 𝐌3×2 = 3 −1
1 3 −1 3×3 1 1 3×2

𝐀3×3 × 𝐌3×2 = 𝐁3×2

1 2
1
1 1 2 1 2 1 2
2 1 2 3 × 3 −1 = 3 −1
3 1 3 −1 1 1 1 1

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 144

 Matrices (6/14)

Example1 (2/2)
1 1 2 1 2
𝐀3×3 = 1 2 3 𝐌3×2 = 3 −1
1 3 −1 3×3 1 1 3×2

𝐀3×3 × 𝐌3×2 = 𝐁3×2

𝒂𝟏𝟏 = 𝟔
= 𝟏×𝟏+𝟏×𝟑+𝟐×𝟏
1 2
1
1 1 2 1 2 6 3
2 1 2 3 × 3 −1 = 10 3
3 1 3 −1 1 1 9 −2

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 145

 Matrices (6/14)

Example1 (2/2)
1 1 2 1 2
𝐀3×3 = 1 2 3 𝐌3×2 = 3 −1
1 3 −1 3×3 1 1 3×2

𝐀3×3 × 𝐌3×2 = 𝐁3×2

𝒂𝟑𝟏 = 𝟗
= 𝟏 × 𝟏 + 𝟑 × 𝟑 + (−𝟏) × 𝟏
1 2
1
1 1 2 1 2 6 3
2 1 2 3 × 3 −1 = 10 3
3 1 3 −1 1 1 9 −2

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 146

 Matrices (7/14)

Example2 (1/2)

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 147

 Matrices (7/14)

Example2 (2/2)

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 148

 Matrices (8/14)

Identity matrix (𝐈𝒏 )

The identity matrix of order 𝑛 is the 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix
𝐈𝑛 = [𝛿𝑖𝑗 ], where 𝛿𝑖𝑗 = 1 if 𝑖 = 𝑗 and 𝛿𝑖𝑗 = 0 if 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗.

1 0 0
𝐈3 = 0 1 0
0 0 1 3×3

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 149

 Matrices (9/14)

Powers of square matrices (𝐀𝒓 )

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 150

 Matrices (10/14)

Transpose of 𝐀 (𝐀𝒕 )
Interchanging the rows and columns of 𝐀

𝐀 𝒕
𝐀

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 151

 Matrices (10/14)

Transpose of 𝐀 (𝐀𝒕 )
Interchanging the rows and columns of 𝐀

𝐀 𝒕
𝐀

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 152

 Matrices (11/14)

Symmetric
A square matrix 𝐀 is called symmetric if 𝐀 = 𝐀𝒕

𝐀 𝐀𝒕

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 153

 Matrices (11/14)

Symmetric
A square matrix 𝐀 is called symmetric if 𝐀 = 𝐀𝒕

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 154

 Matrices (12/14)

Zero–One Matrices
A matrix all of whose entries are either 𝟎 or 𝟏

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 155

 Matrices (13/14)

join and meet (Zero–One Matrices)

meet

join

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 156

 Matrices (14/14)

Example (1/3)

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 157

 Matrices (14/14)

Example (2/3)

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 158

 Matrices (14/14)

Example (3/3)

@Ahmed Hagag BS102 Discrete Mathematics 159

Dr. Ahmed Hagag
[email protected]