Agriculture Waste To Packaging

Food Packaging and Shelf Life 40 (2023) 101166
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Food Packaging and Shelf Life

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fpsl
Turning agricultural waste into packages for food: A literature review from
origin to end-of-life
Haile Tesfaye Duguma a, b, Purva Khule a, Aidan McArdle a, Korey Fennell a, Eva Almenar a, *
a
School of Packaging, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48223, USA
b
Department of Post-harvest Management, Jimma University, Ethiopia
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: The upcycling of agricultural waste (AW) into monomers and additives for biopolymers/biocomposites pro
Monomer duction can contribute to developing sustainable and/or functional packaging for food. This literature review
Plastic filler aims to discuss AW’s potential as a material for food packages, considering its life cycle from raw material to end-
Barrier
of-life, using the latest published literature. Materials made of AW (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids) or containing
Active packaging
Intelligent packaging
AW as functional compound (antimicrobials, antioxidants, sensors/indicators) are mostly produced using solvent
Consumer behavior casting while those with AW as a plastic filler use a variety of common plastic processing technologies, blown
film extrusion and thermoforming being the most recent ones. AW-based biopolymers and biocomposites
generally present weaker barrier, mechanical, and thermal properties than traditional packaging materials,
however, some possess unique properties to extend food shelf life. Physical, chemical, and other treatments can
improve these properties and further enhance performance. Although consumers have a positive attitude toward
AW-incorporated packaging, further validation with food is required. Biodegradation under aerobic conditions is
a possible end-of-life scenario for these materials to get back to the soil. If AW-based biopolymers/biocomposites
are to be utilized for food packaging, advancements in conversion and performance, and studies on consumer
behavior, migration, and biodegradation are all necessary.
1. Introduction compounds such as proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids (Liu et al., 2023).
However, they are often used as animal feed or fertilizer, providing only
Plastic packaging accounted for roughly 46% of the 460 trillion minimal economic value. (Riven et al., 2014). The valorization of these
metric tons of plastic produced in 2019 (UNEP, 2022). Since only 9% of wastes into materials such as monomers and additives for production of
this waste is currently recycled (Thompson, 2022), a significant amount biopolymers and biocomposites can contribute to developing more
of it (up to 14.5 million tons) ends up in the world’s oceans (Lau et al., sustainable packaging while discovering ways to recycle these byprod
2020; Wayman & Niemann, 2021). This poor waste management of ucts. This potential use creates an opportunity to reduce plastic and AW,
plastic packaging negatively impacts the environment and contaminates providing eco-friendly alternatives to current plastic packaging and an
food (Almenar et al., 2023). The growing concern around the impact of abundant and low-cost raw material. Further, it would reduce waste
plastic packaging on the environment has led to exploration of disposal, lower environmental pollution, and eventually produce
eco-friendly packaging alternatives to current plastic packaging biodegradable plastics at a lower cost (Wojnowska-Baryła et al., 2020).
(Ahmadzadeh & Khaneghah, 2020; Bridson et al., 2021). The above makes AWs appealing candidates for biopolymer and bio
Food production and processing generate high levels of agricultural composite production in food packaging.
waste (AW) that also cause a negative environmental impact An official definition of “AW” is not available in the literature (Law
(Torres-León et al., 2018). These AWs are often sources of valuable Insider, 2023). AW can be defined as the residues left from the
Abbreviations: AW, agricultural waste; PVA, polyvinyl alcohol; PHB, polyhydroxy-butyrate; PLA, polylactic acid; PS, polystyrene; EVC, ethyl-co-vinyl chloride;
PHBV, (, poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate); LDPE, low density polyethylene; LLDPE, linear low-density polyethylene; PBAT, polybutylene adipate
terephthalate; HIPS, high impact polystyrene; HDPE, high density polyethylene; PP, polypropylene; PVOH, polyvinyl alcohol.; TBARS, thio barbituric acid reactive
substance; TVB-N, total volatile basic nitrogen; PEG, polyethylene glycol.
* Correspondence to: Michigan State University, 448 Wilson Road, Room 130, Packaging Building, East Lansing, MI 48824-1223, USA.
E-mail address: [email protected] (E. Almenar).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fpsl.2023.101166
Received 15 April 2023; Received in revised form 10 August 2023; Accepted 3 September 2023
Available online 14 September 2023
2214-2894/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H.T. Duguma et al. Food Packaging and Shelf Life 40 (2023) 101166
production and processing of fruits, vegetables, grains (cereals and le end-of-life scenarios. The collected information is presented as text and
gumes), meats (poultry, pork, beef), fish and sea food. During the past tables.
five years, several literature reviews focused on the use of AW for food
packaging development have been published (Bayram et al., 2021; 3. Agricultural waste as raw material
Deshwal et al., 2021; Dilucia et al., 2020; Gupta et al., 2022; Ortega
et al., 2022; Santhosh et al., 2021; Zhang & Sablani, 2021). However, Waste from many different food sources (e.g., cereals, legumes,
these literature reviews contain limited information due to their focus fruits, dairy, poultry, crustaceans) is abundant, easily accessible, and in
on specific topics (e.g., strictly one food group, the use of waste as a filler many cases not desired due to its negative impact on the environment.
or monomeric unit, specific applications). To the best of the authors’ These AWs contain valuable components that can be the primary
knowledge, there is no literature review that discusses AW as a pack building blocks forming a polymer (monomer) or additives that enhance
aging material for food based on the package life cycle in the food supply polymer processing, properties, stability, or usability. Additionally, they
chain. The goal of this literature review is to discuss the potential for AW can be used as stabilizers and indicators in packaging materials. The
as packaging material for food through all aspects, including origin (raw following sub-sections cover AW from various food sources as both
materials), treatments and processing (conversion), characterization monomer (proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids) (sub-Section 3.1.), ad
(validation), applications in food packaging (retail), regulations, con ditive (plastic filler and others) (sub-Section 3.2.), and others (section
sumer behavior, and end-of-life (Fig. 1). This discussion is based on the 3.3.).
literature published in the past 5 years.
3.1. Monomer
2. Material and methods
Proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids extracted from AW have been
This review includes information from books chapters, websites, and used as the constitutional repeating unit for biopolymer production for
177 research papers published in the last 5 years. The papers were food packaging applications (Birania et al., 2022).
selected based on the publication year and relevance to the topic of this
review. The authors accessed these papers through Google Scholar, Web 3.1.1. Proteins
of Science, and Scopus using the keywords: agro waste, agricultural Table 1 compiles biopolymeric films made of plant and animal pro
waste, byproduct, filler, biocomposite film, and active and intelligent teins extracted from AW with potential for food packaging. As shown in
biocomposite packaging, packaging material. Papers on AW as either the table, there is a large variety of food sources from which wastes can
monomer or additive, treatments and processing technologies to convert be used as protein sources for biopolymeric film development. More
these into packaging materials, and the properties and possible appli food products can be found in Álvarez-Castillo et al. (2021) and Mihalca
cations of these materials as barrier and active and intelligent packaging et al., 2021. Proteins obtained from AWs that have been widely studied
materials has been compiled. Other reviewed papers cover information for the development of films over the years include soy protein isolate
on AW-based materials in terms of consumer behavior, regulations, and (ß-conglycinin, glycinin, and lipophilic proteins), whey protein isolate
Fig. 1. Potential of agricultural waste as packaging material for food based on the life cycle of a package in the food supply chain.
2
H.T. Duguma et al.
Table 1
Barrier, mechanical, and thermal properties of biopolymers made from agricultural waste.
Food Waste Monomer extracted Additional Additives (w/w Thickness WVP* 10^− 15 OP * 10^− 18 Tensile Elongation at Tg (◦ C) References
category/Food from waste (% w/w) monomers monomer) (mm) (kg*m/ (kg*m/ strength break (%)
group m2 *s * Pa) m2 *s * Pa) (MP)
Tubers/ Juice from Potato protein isolate Glycerol(100–200) 0.21–0.24 11.3–650b 3.8–6.6b 0.6–1.9 6.1–11.7 NS Schäfer et al.,
Potaoes potato starch (patatin, protease 2018
industry inhibitor)(3,6,9) Glycerol(10,20,30) 0.30 39.5–109.5 0.0013–0.0023 0.1–1.2 NS 3–7 Poulose et al.,
2021
Grains/Cereals Brewer’s spent Spent grain protein Glycerol(30) pH 0.21 300–460 NS 0.7–1.4 2–55 Shroti et al., 2022
grain (barley isolate (albumin, 11,12,13
malt) globulin,etc.)(4,6,8,10)
Legumes/ Defatted meal Soy protein isolate(ß- NS Glycerol(20) 0.21 320 2 18 Li et al., 2017
Soybean from soy oil conglycinin, glycinin Chitosan(1) 0.19 350 3 63
extract and lipophilic proteins) 0.24 310 5 31
(4)
Crops/Canola Defatted meal Canola protein isolate NS Glycerol(50) 0.07 330 1 10 Zhang et al., 2018
from canola oil (napin, cruciferin, and Sorbitol(50) 0.09 140 10 4
extraction oleosin)(5) PEG-400(50) 0.10 250 5 7
Canola protein isolate NS Glycerol(50), 2.50 22–23 NS 32–50/ 30–125 Dissanayake
(5) cinnamaldehyde(0,1) et al.,2022
Nanocrystalline Glycerol(50), grafted 16–19 60–123
cellulose (0,1,3,5) TEMPO(1,3,5),
cinnamaldehyde(0,1)
Crops/ Sunflower meal Sunflower protein NS Glycerol(43) 0.23 290 2 33 Efthymiou et al., 2022
Sunflower from sunflower isolate(globulin, Nanocrystalline Glycerol(3) 0.23 200 2 65
oil extraction albumin)(5) cellulose(5)
Poultry/ Feathers Keratin (5) NS 0.27 4.0 NS 159a 14 Das et al., 2018
Chicken Pectin: keratin 0.27 4.3 286a 18
3
(25:75)
Pectin: keratin 0.27 4.6 196a 13
(50:50)
Pectin: keratin 0.26 5.1 184a 11
(75:25)
Eggs Egg white protein (2) NS Glycerol(1), water(1) 0.01–0.12 460 2.3 4 30 148.5/
260
Skin Gelatin(4) Glycerol(0,5,10,15,20) NS 1.8–33.7 3.9–148.3 Nor et al., 2017
Dairy/Cheese Whey Whey protein isolate Glycerol(30) 0.23 320b 1.7b 4 90 Schäfer et al., 2018
(10)
Whey protein Glycerol(40), fungal 0.15 74 Papadaki et al., 2022
concentrate(7) biomass
Fish/Cold Colagen from Gelatin(3.5) Glycerol(30) 0.05 83 43 3 Liu et al.,
water fish skin Glycerol(30), 60–71 46.7–51.5 2.9–3.7 2019
polyphenols(0.5,1,2,3)

Livestock/ Collagen from Type A gelatin(5) Glycerol(40) 0.12 630 NA 6 318 54.4 Liu et al.,
Porcine skin 2020
Livestock/ Collagen from Type B gelatin(8) Glycerol(10) 0.07 41 33 65 5 163/187 Ahammed er
Bovine skin Zein(5–40) Glycerol(10) 0.07–0.08 47–97 116–124 7–20 5–87 89–118/ al., 2020
176–196
Crustaceans/ Shell Chitosan(4) NS Neat 0.17 31.7 1.40 7 73 200 Ahmed et al.,
Crab Graphene oxide 0.17–0.18 14.3–28.4 0.5–1.2 8.9–15 57–69 205–227 2017
nanosheets(0.5,1,2)
Legumes/ Cotyledons Soluble soybean NS Glycerol(40) 0.11–0.12 688 NA 3 41 17.8 Liu et al.,
Soybean polysaccharide (S; not S:Gelatin (G) 696 86 49.2 2020
specified) (80:20)
S:G(60:40) 663 139 51.6
S:G(40:60) 565 5 253 52.9
(continued on next page)
H.T. Duguma et al.
Table 1 (continued )
Food Waste Monomer extracted Additional Additives (w/w Thickness WVP* 10^− 15 OP * 10^− 18 Tensile Elongation at Tg (◦ C) References
category/Food from waste (% w/w) monomers monomer) (mm) (kg*m/ (kg*m/ strength break (%)
group m2 *s * Pa) m2 *s * Pa) (MP)
S:G(20:80) 535 5 253 54

Grains/Rice Husk, germ, Starch (3) NS Glycerol (25) 0.13–0.14 41.6 0.04–37.5 14 28 /166 Suriyatem
broken pieces carboxy methyl 48.2 0.47–31.2 21 31 /109 et al., 2019
etc. cellulose (50:50)
Vegetable/ Peel and non- Dried powder NS NS NS NS 1488 38 0 Perotto et al., 2018
Carrots edible parts (cellulose, peptin and Peel powder: PVA 578 NS NS
hemocellulose) (5) (50:50)
Tubers/Potato Peel Dried powder (pectin NS Glycerol (50–70) 0.23 290–520b 0.1–1.2b 44932 21–25 Miller et al., 2021
and cellulose) (5) Sorbitol (90–110) 17–33.5b 0.03–0.05b 44961 15–34
Dried powder (PP) (5) NS Glycerol(4), egg yolk(2), 0.33 2.6 154.7a 5 Borah et al., 2017
CaCl2(2)
SL (PP:SL - 0.5:1) Glycerol(4), egg yolk(2), 2.1 252.5a 10
CaCl2(2)
a
Fruits/Sweet Peels Pectin(5) NS Glycerol(4), egg yolk(2), 0.33 1.9 NS 210.39 11 Borah et al., 2017
lime CaCl2(2)
Fruit/Pomelo Pectin(5) Glycerol(3) 0.28 5 NA 264.567a 11 Das et al., 2018
Fruits/Citrus Pectin(3) Glycerol(30) 0.08 220 1.70 17.59 4 Cavdaroglu et al., 2023
Glycerol(30), CaCl2(3) 0.07 170 1.3 27.7 4

Fruits/Apple Glycerol(30) 0.07 250 2.5 6.3 22
Glycerol(30), CaCl2(3) 0.07 240 2.1 8.4 6
4
Fruits/Fig Low-grade sun- Glycerol(30) 0.12 350 8.3 3.1 15

dried fruit
Glycerol(30), CaCl2(3) 0.08 200 2.2 5.3 8
Fruits/Fig Stalk Glycerol(30) 0.11 360 4.5 6.5 26

Glycerol(30), CaCl2(3) 0.07 210 8.8 7.8 14
Fruits/Mango Peel Pectin(10) Glycerol(25) NS 161 NS 15 25 -60 Ribeiro et al.,

Glycerol(25), aqueous 134 11 25 -58 2021
phenolic extract(20)
Fruits/Banana pectin(4.5) Glycerol(1.35), Cellulose 0.10 811–1058 5.9–8.6 3.3–5.3 Oliveira T, 2017
nanocrystals
(0,2.5,5.0,7.5,10.0)
Glycerol(1.35), Citric 789–972 6.52–9.12 3.00–4.68

acid(20)
Fruits/ Pectin(5) NS Glycerol(40) and 0.18 1413 5 14 Lalnunthari et al., 2019
Pumpkin Defatted seeds Protein:Pectin(50:50) Pumpkin protein calcium chloride(2) 0.20 1733 3 14
(Proteins) and (5)
Pectin from
peels
a
Denotes values in grams reported by the author.
b
The barrier properties were investigated by the author for thickness normalized as 100 µm; TEMPO= (2,2,6,6-Tetramethylpiperidin-1-yl) oxyl); NS= not specified; PVA= polyvinyl acetate; PEG= Polyvinyl alcohol;
PP= Pectin and starch; SL= Sweet lime peel powder
and concentrate, gelatin, and casein. Soy protein isolate constitutes of carbohydrate-based films made from waste. Blends between carbo
48–50% of soybean meal, a by-product of the soybean oil extraction hydrates and proteins have also been used to improve the properties of
process. Casein and whey protein are both by-products generated by these films. These proteins include gelatin (Liu et al., 2020), keratin
milk processing, milk that does not comply with safety regulations, or protein (Das et al., 2018) and pumpkin protein (Lalnunthari et al.,
milk production surplus and filtrate (Papadaki et al., 2022). Gelatin is 2020). Different carbohydrates have also been combined to improve
obtained by partial hydrolysis of the collagen present in animal waste, film properties, specifically potato peel starch and sweet lime peel pectin
including connective tissue, bones, and skin (Nor et al., 2017; Liu et al., (Borah et al., 2017) and rice husk/bran/germ starch and carboxyl
2019). Proteins that have been less studied as monomers include potato methyl cellulose (Suriyatem et al., 2019).
protein isolate from starch potato waste (patatin and protease inhibitor)
(Schäfer et al., 2018; Poulose et al., 2021), canola protein isolate (napin, 3.1.3. Lipids
cruciferin, and oleosin) (Dissanayake et al., 2022), proteins from spent The lipids to produce lipid-based polymers are commonly extracted
barley malt (albumin, globulin, hordein, glutelin) (Shroti & Saini, from fruit/vegetable waste like peels (oils), stems, and seeds (fatty acids,
2022), keratin (Das et al., 2018), and egg white protein (Pranata et al., oils, waxes, resins) (Mohamed et al., 2020). Composed of fatty acids
2019). containing 16 or 18 carbons or a mixture of them (Hood et al., 2021),
The above proteins show good film-forming properties when pre Cutin extracted from tomato pomace has been used to produce
pared by solvent casting with the aid of plasticizers, and improved lipid-based films with an improved water contact angle and barrier
tensile and barrier properties when mixed with other monomers and/or properties (Tedeschi, 2018). Waste oils, a rich source of lipid com
additives as shown in Table 1 and discussed in Section 5. Furthermore, pounds, can grow fermentative microorganisms to produce biopolymers
these films are transparent and able to solubilize (González et al., 2019; (El-Dalatony et al., 2022). Little information on the development of
Mihalca et al., 2021; Mohamed et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2019). Examples lipid-based polymers made of waste is available in the literature. How
of other monomers include more proteins like zein and carbohydrates ever, lipids are commonly used as additives in film production, paper
like chitosan, cellulose, and pectin. Plasticizers, catalysts, polymerizing coatings, and edible coatings (Mohamed et al., 2020).
agents, compatibilizers, and stabilizers are types of additives that have
been used to improve protein-based film properties (Table 1). Glycerol,
sorbitol, and PEG–400 are popular plasticizers to develop protein-based 3.2. Additive
films made of waste with glycerol being the most common (Table 1).
While extrusion is the most widely used film manufacturing process, it 3.2.1. Plastic filler
has hardly been used to produce protein-based films from AW. The few Plastic fillers are used to produce packaging with improved proper
exceptions include extruded egg white protein films (Pranata et al., ties, reduced cost, or a mix of both. The use of AW as a plastic filler
2019) and sunflower protein isolate films (Efthymiou et al., 2022) as contributes to sustainable stewardship of the environment with the
discussed in Section 4. replacement of plastic with AW. This reduces the raw plastic used and
finds a niche for an otherwise worthless material. Cereals, legumes,
3.1.2. Carbohydrates fruits, and vegetables are all crops that produce a significant amount of
Table 1 includes biopolymeric films made of carbohydrates extracted waste including primary residues (stalks, leaves, and straw) and sec
from AW with potential for food packaging. These carbohydrates ondary residues (peels, bran, and hulls) (Honorato-Salazar & Sadhu
include starch, chitosan, and pectin similarly to Perotto et al. (2018). khan, 2020). Both can be used as plastic fillers for packaging
Starch, consisting of anhydro-D-glucose units is the second most abun applications.
dant polysaccharide in nature (Chan et al., 2021). It occurs in the form of
granules, which are particularly abundant in legumes, cereals, vegeta 3.2.1.1. Legumes
bles, and tubers. Thus, the food wastes soy cotyledons (Liu et al., 2020), 3.2.1.1.1. Soybean. Straw is the main biomass residue of soybean.
rice husk, germ, bran, and its broken pieces (Suriyatem et al., 2019), and 437–546 million tons of soybean straw are produced annually, leading
potato peel (Borah et al., 2017) have all been used as a starch source for to a mass-ratio of soybean straw to soybeans of 1.2–1.5 on a dry basis
film development. Generally, the resultant films have good trans (Lopes et al., 2020). Secondary residues for soybean include hulls and
parency, sealing strength, thermal stability, forming properties, and meal, which are typical byproducts of soybean oil extraction. The soy
mechanical and barrier properties in comparison to films made from bean hull is about 8% (w/w) of the whole seed and becomes the major
other polysaccharides (Table 1). More films made of starch extracted waste component of soybean if not mixed with the meal (Liu and Li,
from waste can be found in Mohamed et al. (2020). Pectin, a complex 2017). Soybean straw and hull have been used to produce plastic bio
heteropolysaccharide structure rich in galacturonic acid, can be composites for packaging applications including PVA/starch/soybean
extracted from the cell wall and middle lamella of plants and used for hull (Bortolatto et al.,2022a), PVA/starch/soybean hull (Bortolatto
polymeric film production (Kumar et al., 2020). AWs like fruit peels et al.,2022b), and cassava starch/ soybean hulls (Merci et al., 2019). As
(pomelo, pumpkin, jackfruit, apple, mango, lime, orange) (Lalnunthari shown in Table 2 and further discussed in Section 5, soybean hulls as a
et al., 2020; Çavdaroğlu et al., 2023), vegetable peels (carrots) (Perotto filler have been shown to have little effect on barrier and decrease
et al., 2018), and tuber peels (potatoes) (Miller et al., 2021; Borah et al., mechanical strength of their resultant composites (Merci et al., 2019;
2017) have been used to develop pectin-based films. Pectin-based films Bortolatto et al., 2022a, 2022b). However, these changes can be mini
made from peels of either sweet lime or pomelo have greater oxygen mized to improve the performance of soybean waste-based bio
barrier and tensile strength, but weaker water vapor barrier than those composites for food packaging if nanocellulose extracted from soybean
made of other fruit peels (Table 1). Chitin, the amino-polysaccharide waste rather than powderized soybean waste is used (Merci et al., 2019).
most abundant in nature, is the building unit of the exoskeletons of
crustaceans, and of the cell walls of fungi. It can be extracted from AWs 3.2.1.2. Cereals
like seafood shells and converted into chitosan through enzymatic or 3.2.1.2.1. Rice. The 100 + million metric tons of husk obtained
chemical deacetylation for polymeric film production (Santos et al., annually from the 500 million metric tons of rice produced worldwide
2020; Ahmed et al., 2017). between 2017 and 2021 (Ezenkwa et al., 2021) indicate the abundance
All the carbohydrates discussed in Table 1 have been formed into of such waste. The secondary residues of rice, hulls and bran are pro
films by solvent casting. Plasticizers (glycerol, sorbitol), emulsifiers (egg duced as by-products of endosperm extraction and account for approx
yolk), fillers (cellulose, nanocellulose), cross-linking agents (citric acid, imately 20% and 8% of the rice kernel, respectively (McCaffrey, et al.,
calcium chloride), and others have been added to improve the properties 2022). Rice straw, bran, and husk have all been incorporated into
5
Table 2
Barrier, mechanical, and thermal properties of plastics incorporated with fillers from agricultural waste.
Waste Food Type of Packaging Neat Composite Barrier Thermal Mechanical Reference
by food Group waste format plastic
category waste (particle (processing
size (µm)) technology)
Oxygen Water Tm Tensile Elongation

strength at Break
wt% (Kg m/ (Kg m/ (◦ C) (MPa) (%)
m2 s m2 s
Pa) Pa)
x10¡18 x10¡15
@ 23∘C @ 23∘C
&0% &100%
RH RH
Fruit Orange Peel (<100) Solvent casting PVOH/ 0 0.53 69 NS 23 221 Terzioğlu et al.
Chitosan 0.25 0.53 81 21 241 (2021)
(2:1 0.5 0.49 94 21 247
ratio) 1 0.51 120 20 258
1.25 0.49 133 18 235
Peel Twin screw LLDPE 0 NS 1 101.2 52 569 Fehlberg et al.
(76–106) extrusion 5 1 101.6 34 456 (2023)
+ Pelletization 10 0.9 101.1 29 424
+ Blown film 11.5 1.2 101.4 23 354
extrusion
Peel Mechanical LLDPE 0 NS 6.2a. NS 14 792 Fehlberg et al.
(75–177) mixing + Hot 5 6.2 13 162 (2020)
pressing 10 NS 13 89
Peel Mechanical LLDPE 0 6.2 14 792
(355–420) mixing + Hot 5 NS 12 89
pressing 10 NS 9 72
Peel (<115) Mechanical LLDPE 0 112 f. 1 NS 25 830 McKay et al.
mixing + Hot 45 52 60 7 594 (2021)
pressing
Mango Integument Twin screw PLA 0 NS NS 176 61 6 Lima et al.
(<207) extrusion 10 175.4 53 3 (2021)
+ Injection 20 177.3 52 2
Kernel molding 10 175.1 38 2
(<440) 20 174.1 NS NS
Coffee
Powder Twin screw PLA 0 NS NS NS 73 5 Suaduang et al.
(<90) extrusion 5 25 4 (2019)
+ Pelletization 7.5 24 5
+ Blown film 10 18 7
extrusion
Chicken Eggshell Mechanical PP 0 NS NS NS 30 28 McGauran et al.
(37.7) mixing + Twin 5 28 21 (2020)
screw 10 28 6
extrusion.+ 25 25 4
Pelletization 40 21 4
+ Injection 55 16 1
molding
Cereals
Rice Husk Torque rheometer PHB 0 NS 2.4 171.3 41 2 Sánchez-Safont
(<140) + Hot pressing 10 5.1 171.2 35 1 et al. (2018)
+ Thermoforming 20 8.1 169 28 1
Corn Stalk Torque rheometer PBAT 0 0.85e. 31b. 123.7 28 1250 Tsou et al.
(<74) + Hot pressing 15 2.29 40 124.7 11 370 (2022)
30 4 50 126.1 10 30
45 5.42 85 126.0 5 10
60 7.57 149 127.4 5 2
Oilseed Soybean Cellulose Hand mixing Starch 0 NS 0.004c. NS 2 76 Merci et al.
extracted + Blown film 2.5 0.00355 1 92 (2019)
from Hulls. extrusion 5 0.0041 1 34
Powderized 2.5 0.00373 1 43
hulls 5 0.00873 1 42
(<300)
Nut Pecan Shell Hand mixing PLA 0 NS NS 149.5–154.9 47 43 Álvarez-Chávez
(<177) + Single screw 5 156 42 5 et al. (2017)
extrusion 7.5 148.3–155.9 31 5
Almond Shell Torque rheometer PHB 0 NS 2.4 171.3 41 2 Sánchez-Safont
(<140) + Hot pressing 10 3.2 171.3 36 1 et al. (2018)
20 5.2 170.3 32 1
Coconut Shell Fiber Injection molding HD(Bio) 0 NS NS NS 18 200 + Bazan et al.
(2000) PE 6 19 5 (2020)
12 19 5
(continued on next page)
6
Table 2 (continued )
Waste Food Type of Packaging Neat Composite Barrier Thermal Mechanical Reference
by food Group waste format plastic
category waste (particle (processing
size (µm)) technology)
Tomato Ground Hand mixing EVOH 0 NS NS NS 54 14 Nisticó et al.

Post-harvest + Single screw 2 38 7 (2017)
plant extrusion 5 32 8
(63–125) 10 14 5
polymer matrices such as PVA, PLA, and PHB (Perumal et al., 2018, considered waste and account for 40% of the corn grain production
Hamdan et al., 2019, Gigante et al., 2022). These rice wastes alone have (Miranda et al., 2018). There are 1115 million metric tons of corn pro
been shown to decrease mechanical, thermal, and barrier properties of duced annually, making it one of the most predominant waste products
their respective neat films (Table 2). However, various surface treat available (Gandam et al., 2022). Films of plastic biocomposites con
ments have been found to improve these degradations. This is further taining corn wastes as a filler have been produced, including films made
discussed in Section 4. of PLA /corn cob (Ng et al., 2019), PLA/corn stover (Guo et al., 2022),
3.2.1.2.2. Wheat. Wheat is the second most cultivated cereal PBAT/corn stalk (Tsou et al., 2022), LDPE/corn stalk (Ismail et al.,
worldwide (Mohite et al., 2022). Global wheat production in 2018/19 2020), phenolic resin/corn stalk (Liu et al.,2019), and starch/corn hulls
generated around 1310 metric tons of wheat straw resulting in a wheat (Ali et al., 2017). The performance of these biocomposites as food
straw-to-crop ratio of 1.7 (FAO, 2019). Other residues from wheat packaging materials is influenced by several factors including the
cultivation and processing are husk and bran (Mohite et al., 2022). loading, particle size, type, and treatment of the corn waste since these
Wheat straw and bran have been used to produce plastic biocomposites affect biocomposite barrier, mechanical, and thermal properties as
aimed for use in food packaging, including films made of PS/wheat shown in Tables 2 and 3. Greater loadings weaken properties (Tsou
straw (Dixit & Yadav, 2019), PP/wheat straw (Lendvai & Patnaik, et al., 2022; Table 2) while treating the corn waste with chemicals prior
2022), EVC/wheat straw (Dong et al., 2019), PLA/wheat straw (Yang to processing results in biocomposites with the same or greater prop
et al., 2018) and PHBV/ wheat bran (Gigante et al., 2020). The use of erties than the neat plastic (Ismail et al., 2020; Guo et al., 2022; Liu
wheat straw as a plastic filler has been found to consistently decrease the et al.,2019; Table 3) as further discussed in Sections 4 and 5. Examples of
mechanical properties of the resulting composite regardless of the these chemicals include coupling agents (silane, acrylic acid) and maleic
loading content and particle size of the waste (Dixit & Yadav, 2019; anhydride grafted polyethylene (Table 3). Furthermore, the incorpora
Lendvai & Patnaik, 2022). However, surface treatments such as alka tion of corn waste into a plastic has resulted in films less transparent (Ng
linization, acidification, and maleic anhydride have been found to et al., 2019) and with improved UV–vis barrier (Ali et al., 2017) and
improve these properties (Dixit & Yadav, 2019; Gigante et al., 2020; biodegradability (Tsou et al., 2022).
Lendvai & Patnaik, 2022) (Table 3). This is further discussed in Section 3.2.1.2.4. Produce. According to Edwiges et al. (2018), more than
4. 1748 million tons of waste are generated annually during produce
3.2.1.2.3. Corn. The cob, husk, stalk, and stover of corn are all processing worldwide. This waste mostly consists of peels, seeds, and
Table 3
Effects of treatments on the mechanical and barrier properties of biocomposites with incorporated agricultural waste.
Biocomposite Treatment Mechanical properties Barrier properties
WVP x10− 15 @ 25 ◦ C
&100%RH (Kg m/m2
s Pa)
Treated Untreated Treated Untreated References
TS E (%) TS E (%)
(MPa) (MPa)
Methylcellulose + gum arabic/ rice Alkali (NaOH) 24.2 16.7 23.0 9.1 1190 1170 Freitas et al. (2022)
straw
Phenolic resin/corn stalk Coupling agent (Silane) 225 4 112.5 3.7 NS NS Liu et al. (2019)
Soy protein isolate/ soybean straw Enzymatic hydrolysis 9.0 8.0 6.1 18 700 1290 Martelli-Tosi et al.
Acid (H2SO4) 8.4 4.2 6.1 18 1400 1290 (2018)
PP/coffee husk Acid (acetic acid + H2SO4 + anhydride 30 30. 8 27. 7 48.9 NS NS Bellili et al. (2022)
acetic)
LDPE/corn stalk Maleic anhydride grafted polyethylene 9.2 22 8 23 NS NS Ismail et al. (2020)
PP/wheat straw Maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene 28.1 9.5 27.6 6.8 NS NS Lendvai & Patnaik
(2022)
PLA/kiwi peel Alkali (NaOH) 27.6 4.8 21.4 4 30.6 33.3 SÖĞÜT & Seydim
Acid (H2SO4) 29.7 4.9 30.6 (2022)
Acetylated (glacial acetic acid) 26.1 4.7 27.8
PLA/chrysanthemum stem and stalk Maleic anhydride grafted polyethylene 34 3.5 29 3.8 NS NS Chun et al. (2020)
PLA/corn stover Coupling agent (Acrylic acid) 61 8.6 32 6 0.2 0.8 Guo et al. (2021)
3
PS/wheat straw Alkali (NaOH) 3.6 140 2.25 110 175 519 Dixit and Yadav
Acid (H2SO4) 3.1 127 2.25 110 262 (2020)
Acid (HCl) 3.2 132 2.25 110 244
PLA/potato pulp Coated (bee wax) 36 1.6 33 2.6 NS NS Righetti et al. (2019)
Coated (carnauba wax) 38 1.5
Coated (modified polypropylene wax) 42.5 1.8
HDPE/eggshell Coupling agent (silane) 22 14 21 20 NS NS Murugan et al. (2018)
TS = Tensile strength, E = Elongation at the break; WVP = Water vapor permeability coefficient. NS = Not specified.
WVP evaluation conditions; 1 25 ◦ C/53% RH, 225 ◦ C, and 323 ◦ C/50–60%.
7
shells (Figueroa et al., 2020; Osorio et al., 2021). Fruit peels in powder 4. Treating and processing agricultural waste
form have been incorporated as a plastic filler for biocomposite pro
duction. Orange and lemon peel powders have been used to produce Physical, chemical, and other treatments have been used to modify
films and trays involving corn starch (Chhatariya et al., 2022), LLDPE AW when used as a plastic filler to develop biocomposites with more
(Fehlberg et al., 2020; Fehlberg et al., 2023), PLA (Sambudi et al., 2022; desirable properties. These treatments are discussed in sub-Section 4.1.
Sawant, 2021), PVA (Rathinavel & Saravanakumar, 2021), chito AW used as monomer has also been treated to develop biopolymers with
san/PVA (Terzioğlu et al., 2021), and starch/ PVOH (Singha et al., more desirable properties as discussed in Section 3.1.1. and 3.1.2.
2023). Pomegranate, papaya, and jackfruit peel powders have been Treated and non-treated AW has been converted into films, trays, and
investigated in the production of biocomposite bilayer films (Hanani, other forms using a variety of processing technologies, some used by the
et al., 2018). Besides peels, rings (Sarebanha & Farhan, 2018), seeds plastic industry while others not. The conversion of agricultural waste
(Lothfy et al., 2018)), pseudostem (Kusić et al., 2020) and integument into packaging forms is discussed in Section 4.2.
(Lima et al., 2021) have all been investigated as plastic filler for devel
oping biocomposite films. The shells of nuts have also been pulverized 4.1. Treatments
and assessed as a plastic filler including almond shell (Sánchez-Safont
et al., 2018), nutshell (Loganathan & Saravanakumar, 2021), pecan AW as a plastic filler has no interfacial interaction with the polymer
nutshell (Agustin-Salazar, 2018), and walnut shell (Ali, 2019; Gulati chains and poor dispersion within the polymer matrix due to agglom
et al., 2022). The performance of produce waste-based biocomposite eration (Fehlberg et al., 2020). This is due to the hydrophilic nature of
films is influenced by factors like the source, loading, and surface the AW (many hydroxyl groups) contrary to the hydrophobic polymer
modification of the waste as presented in Tables 2 and 3 and discussed in matrix (Chun et al., 2020; Fehlberg et al., 2023). This leads to bio
Sections 4.1 and 5. Produce waste potential as a plastic filler in food composites with weaker mechanical and barrier properties compared
packaging has been shown by enhancing biocomposite properties with their neat counterparts, making them less suitable as food pack
including barrier properties (Terzioğlu et al., 2021), mechanical prop aging materials. Physical, chemical, and other treatments have been
erties (Lima et al., 2021), and thermal properties (Balavairavan and used to modify AW prior to its compounding with the plastic resin
Saravanakumar, 2021; Rathinavel & Saravanakumar, 2021; Terzioğlu resulting in more desirable properties (Tables 2 and 3).
et al., 2021). Like other agricultural wastes, the surface modification of The size reduction of the AW is the most common physical treatment
the produce waste prior to its processing can improve the mechanical (Table 2). It improves filler dispersion and distribution within the
properties of the resulting biocomposite (SÖĞÜT & Seydim, 2022) polymer matrix, producing biocomposites with improved mechanical
(Table 3). and thermal properties (Fehlberg et al., 2020, Betancourt & Cree, 2017).
Devices or machines commonly used to reduce particle size include the
3.2.1.3. Others. Waste from coffee and egg have also been incorporated traditional mortar and pestle (Azman et al., 2019), mechanical mills
into the plastic polymer to develop biocomposite films. Eggshells as a (ball mill (Tsao et al., 2022; Suaduang et al., 2019), hammer mill
plastic filler have been investigated using different plastics including (Fehlberg et al., 2023; McKay et al., 2021), roll mill (Melo et al., 2019)),
HDPE (Murugan et al., 2018) and PVA (Wu et al., 2020). Similarly, spent ultra-centrifugal mills (Freitas et al., 2022, Sánchez-Safont 2018),
coffee grounds (Suaduang et al., 2019) and coffee husk (Amena et al., cryo-mills (Saba et al., 2015), or a combination of these methods
2022) have been used as well (Table 1). (Munusamy et al., 2019). Manual sieving and electronic checkers are
Both primary and secondary residues from legumes, cereals, fruits often employed after milling to quantify particle size due to the disparity
including nuts, vegetables, and coffee have been used to produce plastic of the resulting particles. The average size, particle size range, or size
biocomposites with potential for food packaging applications. This is distribution of the waste can be determined using microscopy, laser
largely due to their high lignocellulosic content (e.g., 28.6–52.3% cel diffraction, and ImageJ, among others (Fehlberg et al., 2020, McKay
lulose for soybean straw and hull (Bittencourt et al., 2021) and 22% et al., 2021, Munusamy et al., 2019).
cellulose for orange peel (Ayala, 2021)). Cellulose acts as a reinforcing The most common chemical treatments used to modify the chemical
agent of the polymer matrix and works to improve its barrier properties. make-up of the AW surface include alkalinization, acidification, acety
However, surface treatments are often necessary to enhance the lation, and coupling agents. Both alkalinization and acidification first
compatibility and improve properties (Dixit & Yadav, 2019; Seggiani break the bonding between the components of the lignocellulose frac
et al., 2017; Hamdan et al., 2019; Xu et al., 2020; Tsou et al., 2022; De tion of the Aw, removing the hemicellulose. The lignin is partially dis
Baynast et al., 2022; Ismail et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2019; Lima et al., composed during acidification, while strongly discomposed during
2021; Lothfy et al., 2018; Sarebanha & Farhan, 2018). There are a few alkalinization (Dixit & Yadav, 2019). The impurity removal and change
exceptions (Kusić et al., 2020). Surface treatment of the waste is deemed in morphology of the cellulose fiber surface create a better interfacial
necessary to modify the waste-polymer matrix interface, enhancing relationship, promoting interlocking between the fiber and polymer
adhesion, and producing biocomposites with similar or enhanced me matrix, improvement of the dispersion, and overall better properties
chanical properties compared to neat plastic (Huner, 2017, Freitas et al., (Olonisakin et al., 2022, Table 3). Repeated or a combination of acid and
2022; Gigante et al., 2022). This is further discussed in Section 5. The alkali treatments can produce cellulose with a smaller particle size
mechanical, thermal, and barrier properties of biocomposite films ob (nanofibers and nanocrystals) that work to further improve properties
tained using AW as a filler vary with the type of waste, type of plastic, (Martelli-Tosi et al., 2018; SÖĞÜT and Seydim). NaOH is commonly
processing technology, filler concentration, filler particle size, and filler used in alkalinization (Dixit & Yadav, 2019; SÖĞÜT & Seydim, 2022)
treatment. In all, the waste does have potential to improve the properties while HCl and H2SO4 are used for acidification of AW (Bellili et al.,
of emerging and well-established packaging materials for these to be 2019; Martelli-Tosi et al., 2018; Dixit & Yadav, 2019). The property
used in a new generation of plastics. improvement associated with these treatments has been attributed to
the better interfacial interaction of the treated AW with the polymer
3.2.2. Others chains (Perumal et al., 2018). In the case of acetylation, more hydro
AWs have been utilized as a thermo-oxidative stabilizer, colorant, phobic waste is created due to the replacement of OH groups with acetyl
UV-absorber, sensor/indicator, light-absorber, antimicrobial, and anti groups (SÖĞÜT & Seydim, 2022). This results in less polarity difference
oxidant for the packaging material or the packaged food (Fehlberg et al., between the waste and a polymer matrix, enhancing its interfacial
2020; Iyer, Zhang and Torkelson, 2016; McKay et al., 2021; Santhosh interaction and improving biocomposite tensile strength (Table 3).
et al., 2021). Some of these properties are discussed in Section 6. Coupling agents have hydrophobic and hydrophilic areas within the
same molecule, allowing them to link the hydrophobic polymer matrix
8
and the hydrophilic waste together (Nechifor et al., 2022). Maleic an Thermoforming is extensively used in food packaging, including most
hydride (Hamdan et al., 2019; Ismail et al., 2020; Sahai et al., 2021) and trays and cups (Helmke, 2015). However, as shown in Tables 1 and 2,
silane (Lule & Kim, 2021; Murugan et al., 2018) are coupling agents the use of thermoforming by academia is somewhat rare (Sawant, 2022;
commonly used to improve compatibility. This is proven by the Diaz et al., 2020).
improvement of the biocomposite tensile strength and Young’s modulus
as shown in Table 3. Less common coupling agents include acrylic acid 4.2.6. Blow molding
(Guo et al., 2021), acrylated compounds (Quiles-Carrillo et al., 2018; Blow molding, which encompasses extrusion blow molding and in
Dong et al., 2019), isopropyl tri(dioctylpyrophosphate) (Melo et al., jection blow molding, is one of the most popular processing technologies
2019), and Scona TPPP 9112 FA (Bazan et al., 2020). in food packaging, responsible for the production of most bottles
Electron beam radiation, ultrasound combined with reflux heating, (Thomas, 2021). Both involve the use of a mold or preform, followed by
enzymatic hydrolysis, use of a masterbatch, and wax and oil coatings are the blowing of pressurized air to shape a melt resin around it. Despite its
other treatments reported effective in improving waste-polymer extensive use and feasibility in the food and beverage industry, blow
compatibility and thus mechanical, thermal, and/or barrier properties molding is not seen by academia for the production of AW-based
(Chan et al., 2019; Chun et al., 2018; Freitas et al., 2022; Gigante et al., packaging materials.
2020; Martelli-Tosi et al., 2018; Righetti et al., 2019; Sawant, 2021).
4.2.7. Blown and cast film extrusion
4.2. Processing Blown film extrusion involves the fitting of the resin melt in an
extruder through an angular die to be expanded into a thin tube by air
A variety of processing technologies have been used to transform Aw that is evenly “blown”. The thin tube is then air cooled and flattened by
into packaging for food. rollers (Selke et al., 2021). Despite its wide industrial use, blown film
extrusion is rarely incorporated in biocomposites from AW as a filler
4.2.1. Extrusion (Fehlberg et al., 2023; Suaduang et al., 2019), and scarce when AW is
Extrusion involves the conversion of solid plastic pellets into uniform incorporated as a monomer.
melted resins through the combination of heat, pressure, and shear Cast film extrusion involves an extrusion process where the melted
(Selke et al., 2021). This technology is often the precursor for many of resin is pushed through a slot die where it can expand into a flat sheet
the processes mentioned below and is often regarded as the most (Selke et al., 2021). Despite the technology’s growing prominence, cast
important technology in plastic packaging manufacturing today. film extrusion is rarely used to produce packaging materials incorpo
Although it is rarely used when incorporating waste as a monomer rated with AW filler, and is moderately incorporated in polymers with
(Table 1), extrusion is often the first step in the production of packaging waste as a monomer (Efthymiou et al., 2022; Pranata et al., 2019).
materials containing AW as a filler (Table 2).
5. Properties of packaging materials made of agricultural waste
4.2.2. Solvent Casting
Solvent casting involves the dissolution of a resin into a solvent, The mechanical, barrier, and thermal properties of a package play a
which is often cast onto a mold and left to form under various drying key role in the shelf life of its content. Packaging with good barrier
conditions (Miller-Chou & Koenig, 2003). Solvent casting is not often properties is necessary to preserve food freshness. Barrier to water is
seen in industry due to various difficulties with production, the most required to minimize moisture loss or gain in food, which affects pro
prevalent being time and price contingencies, and production capacity. cesses like microbial growth, transpiration, non-enzymatic browning,
Despite this, the technology has been widely adopted by academia due lipid oxidation, vitamin degradation, starch retrogradation, and textural
to its ease of integration of Aw into polymer matrices, this is shown in changes. Barrier to oxygen is needed if oxidation causes food to spoil.
Table 1, where it is nearly exclusively employed. Barrier to other gases (e.g., carbon dioxide) and vapors (e.g., aromas)
may be desired depending on the pair food product-packaging tech
4.2.3. Hot pressing nology. Resistance to breakage and flexibility are mechanical properties
Hot pressing is a processing technology like compression molding, relevant for food packaging materials to extend food shelf life. The
only lacking a mold between the plates. The two flat heated plates come thermal properties of packaging materials (i.e., melting temperature,
together onto a resin at a constant temperature and pressure. Hydraulic glass transition temperature) are also significant as packaged food can
presses are most often used, and typically incorporate a water-cooling be exposed to specific temperatures during processing, storage, and
system to provide quicker cooling if desired. Hot pressing is not often cooking conditions. The mechanical, barrier, and thermal properties of
used by the plastic industry for food packaging while compression petroleum-based and bio-based plastics containing AW as a plastic filler
molding is. Hot pressing is widely seen in the production of packaging (biocomposites) are compiled in Table 2, while those of biopolymers
materials containing AW as a filler (Sánchez-Safont et al., 2018, Tsao made of AW as main monomeric unit are displayed in Table 1. Table 2
et al., 2022, McKay et al., 2021, Fehlberg et al., 2020) (Tables 2 and 3) shows the effects of waste type, size, and concentration on plastic
but less so in biopolymers using waste as a monomer (Table 1). properties, while Table 1 presents the effects of waste concentration,
additives, and/or other monomers on biopolymer properties. Below are
4.2.4. Injection molding the discussed properties of AW-based biocomposites and biopolymers.
Injection molding is a process where plastic resin is melted and Furthermore, these are compared with commercially available plastics,
pushed into a mold where it is then formed and cooled. Due to its vast most of them being petroleum-based plastics.
usage in industry, injection molding is one of the more significant
technologies in the production of waste-based packaging materials. 5.1. Mechanical
Examples of the current usage of this processing technique in the pro
duction of these materials can be found in Table 2 (McGauran et al., As shown in Table 2, the loading of the polymer matrix with AW as
2020, Bazan et al., 2020), but are not found in Table 1. filler decreases its tensile strength (Suaduang et al., 2019; Aranberri
et al., 2017). This decrease is generally greater as the filler concentration
4.2.5. Thermoforming increases (Azman et al., 2019; Saied et al., 2022). Exceptions include
Thermoforming involves the heating of a plastic sheet to the point it Kusić et al. (2020), who reported an increased tensile strength for HIPS
becomes pliable, followed by shaping it around a mold by either vacuum and HDPE when leaves of the banana stem were used as filler, and Bazan
or pressure forming to create a more specific shape (Selke et al., 2021). et al. (2020) and Melo et al. (2019), who reported little to no change
9
when coconut shell fiber, and ground mollusk shell were incorporated 5.3. Barrier
into HDPE. Elongation at break also decreases when waste is loaded into
the polymer matrix (Tsao et al.,2022; Bazan et al., 2020). This decrease Water vapor (WV) permeability tends to increase by loading the
is generally greater with an increase in filler content (Munusamy et al., polymer matrix with AW as a filler (Table 2). The effect of the waste on
2019: Tsao et al., 2022). However, Saied et al. (2022) reported an in biocomposite oxygen barrier has not been thoroughly investigated.
crease in elongation at break when ground sunflower seed cakes were Terzioğlu et al. (2021) and McKay et al. (2021) reported an improved
increasingly incorporated into a PVC matrix. In the case of biopolymers oxygen barrier with the addition of orange peel powder to PVOH/Chi
made of AW, an increase in glycerol (plasticizer) generally decreases tosan and LLDPE matrices, respectively, while Tsou et al. (2022) re
their tensile strength (Miller et al., 2021; Schafer et al., 2018). Other ported a substantial decrease in oxygen barrier with the addition of
additives including cinnamaldehyde, grafted TEMPO, copper nano powderized cornstalk into PBAT. For biopolymers made of waste
particles, graphene oxide nanosheets, berry polyphenols, and CaCl2 (Table 1), Nazmi et al. (2017), Miller et al. (2021), and Schafer et al.
have been shown to improve the tensile strength of the biopolymer (2018) reported increased oxygen and WV permeability coefficients
(Dissanayake et al., 2022; Li et al., 2017; Ahmed et al., 2017; Liu et al., with higher glycerol content. Furthermore, the use of this plasticizer
2019; Çavdaroğlu et al., 2023). However, the effects of these additives results in films with higher oxygen and WV permeability coefficients
on the percent elongation are inconclusive Generally, the blending of the compared to sorbitol and PEG-500 (Miller et al., 2021; Zhang et al.,
monomer extracted from the waste with a different monomer improves 2019). Other additives can be used to improve the WV barrier of bio
the tensile strength and elongation at break of the resultant biopolymer polymers made of AW (Thilini et al., 2022; Li et al., 2017; Ahmed et al.,
(Borah et al., 2017; Das et al., 2018; Dissanayake et al., 2022; Li et al., 2017; Liu et al., 2019; Farris et al., 2023). Other studies attempted to use
2017; Liu et al., 2020; Suriyatem et al., 2019). an additional monomer to possibly improve the WV barrier properties
Resistance to breakage and flexibility are desired properties for food (Table 1), yet the results do not indicate any direct correlation between
packaging materials. Because the incorporation of both fillers and the two. Thilini et al. (2022) and Liu et al. (2020) reported an improved
plasticizers tends to decrease tensile strength and elongation at break, WV barrier with the inclusion of an additional monomer; however, Li
these materials may not prove useful for food packaging. For bio et al. (2017), Chang et al. (2020), and Syriyatem et al. (2019) observed
composites, filler size reduction appears to improve biocomposite me the opposite effect. The oxygen barrier of many varies greatly between
chanical properties. Fehlberg et al. (2020) and Betancourt and Cree biopolymers (Perotto et al., 2018; Shabbir et al., 2020; Syriyatem et al.,
(2017) both saw less reduction in tensile strength and elongation at 2019). When comparing Tables 1 and 2, films with higher oxygen and
break when using a smaller filler size for both orange peels and calcium WV permeability coefficients are obtained when AW is used as monomer
chloride from chicken eggshells. Other possible solutions to enhance rather than as plastic filler. Packaging materials with strong barrier
biocomposite mechanical properties including the chemical treatment properties are necessary to preserve food freshness, however, these
of the waste are discussed in Section 3. For biopolymers, as noted above, properties are rarely investigated compared to mechanical properties.
the use of specific additives or the mixture of the monomer from waste The lack of information makes it difficult to determine many of these
with other monomers improves the mechanical properties of bio materials’ potential uses as packaging materials for food.
polymers made of waste. However, their mechanical properties are still
far from those of commercial plastics (Almenar et al., 2023). 6. Applications in food packaging
5.2. Thermal Petroleum-based plastics are commonly used to package food

(Almenar, 2021; Almenar et al., 2023 ). AW-based biocomposites and
An increase in filler content does not seem to have a specific effect on biopolymers are possible alternatives to petroleum-based plastics for
the melting temperatures (Tm) of the resultant biocomposites as shown food packaging applications due to their barrier properties as discussed
in Table 2. Mild decreases (Azman et al., 2019; Sánchez-Safont et al., in Section 6.1. Furthermore, these biocomposites and biopolymers have
2019) and increases (Tsao et al., 2022; Dong et al., 2019) in Tm have potential for further development in antimicrobial, antioxidant, and
been reported, along with fluctuating Tm (Aranberri et al., 2017), or intelligent packaging. This novel packaging has resulted from AW-based
little to no change (Fehlberg et al., 2023, Melo et al., 2019). The effects polymers that have an innate antimicrobial and/or antioxidant capacity,
of incorporating additives or other monomers into biopolymers on compounds of AW with antimicrobial, antioxidant, or sensor/indicator
thermal properties have been less investigated and there is no clear capacity that have been incorporated into polymeric matrixes, and
trend (Table 1). The change seems to be specific to each non-AW derived active compounds that have been incorporated into an
additive-polymer pair and monomer-monomer pair. Ahammed et al. AW-based polymer matrix as shown in Sections 6.2 and 6.3.
(2020) observed a decrease in both glass transition temperature (Tg) and
Tm when zein was mixed with Type B gelatin compared with the neat 6.1. Barrier
gelatin film. In contrast, Liu et al. (2020) observed an increase in Tg with
the increase of gelatin in films made of polysaccharides extracted from Polymers produced using AW as either plastic filler (biocomposites)
soybean cotyledons. Ahmed et al. (2017) reported an increase in the Tg or monomeric unit (biopolymers) provide sufficient oxygen and water
of films made of chitosan obtained from crab shell with graphene oxide vapor barrier (Tables 4 and 5) to extend food shelf life. They have been
nanosheets while Suriyatem et al. (2019) reported a decrease in Tm for shaped into a variety of packaging formats to assess their potential as
films made of starch extracted from rice in the presence of carbox alternative food packaging materials. Duguma et al. reported that the
ymethyl cellulose. A stable Tm is relevant in food packaging because of weight, firmness, and color of sliced white bread in pouches made of
the vast range of temperatures packaged food products are exposed to linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) incorporated with 11.5 wt%
(sterilization, microwaving, cooking in an oven, etc.). Using AW as filler orange peel powder were similar to those of bread in pouches made of
that disrupts very little, if any, thermal resistance provides promise for neat LLDPE for 11 days at ambient conditions. Participants of a sensory
biocomposites within the food packaging industry. However, although evaluation were unable to differentiate between bread packaged in
the thermal resistance of biopolymers made of AW can be improved by either film stored for 10 days. When compared against unpackaged
either incorporating additives or blending with other monomers, it is mangos stored for 10 days, mangos stored in pouches made of 94%
generally still below the temperature range that packaged food products montmorillonite clay-polyvinyl alcohol/6% rice straw cellulose nano
can be exposed to during processing, storage, and cooking. crystal for 19 days exhibited half the weight loss and contained a higher
phenol content despite the mangos in the biocomposite pouches being
stored for nearly twice the amount of time (Perumal et al., 2018). Red
10
Table 4
Agricultural waste-based films with antimicrobial or antioxidant activity with potential for further development in active packages for food.
Agricultural waste-based film Control Food Storage time (days) Initial Difference Other quality parameters References
film product @ Temperature (◦ C) between compared to control
control &
agricultural
waste-based
film after
storage
Antimicrobial films
Log cfu/g Log cfu/
g
PVA/potato cellulose nanoparticle/ PE Prawns 70 @ − 20 3.3 0.5 Total Increase in pH, Shruthy et al.
fennel seed oil viable counts controlled the TVB-N (2021)
value by 31%
Plasma treated LDPE/ onion peel extract LDPE Chicken 6@4 3.5 2.6 Total Increase in redness & Moradi et al.
thighs viable counts yellowness, controlled the (2023)
TVB-N value by 28.9%
Carrageenan/ olive leaf extract PVC Lamb 2@7 1.1 18.4 Not reported Martiny et al.
meat Psychrophilic (2020)
bacteria
Chitosan/guar gum/ walnut green husk PE Fresh-cut 10 @ 4 3 1.7 Total Better maintained firmness, Jiang et al.
extract apples bacterial TSS, and color, and reduced (2022)
counts browning
2.1 1.2 Molds and
yeast
Carboxymethylcellulose/ waste from LDPE Salmon 10 @ 4 5.8 0.3 Total No differences in peroxide Jamróz et al.
green tea grounds fillets viable counts and acid values (2022a)
3.7 0.3 Molds and
yeast
5 0.5
Psychrophilic
bacteria
Antioxidant films
TBARS TBARS
values values
(mgMD/ (mgMD/
kg) kg)
PVA/corn starch/ coconut shell/ PVA/ Corn Oil 10 @ 60 0.5 4.1 Not reported Tanwar et al.
sepiolite clay starch (2021)
Furcellaran/ soybean protein LDPE Tofu 12 @ 4 0.58 -0.8 Increased weight loss, Tkaczewska
hydrolysates/ soybean bran extract hardness, and peroxide et al. (2023)
values
Furcellaran/ soybean protein LDPE Butter 12 @ 25 0.34 -0.6 No differences in peroxide Jamróz et al.
hydrolysates/ soybean bran extract and acid values (2022b)
12 @ 4 0.34 0.2 Increased peroxide values
and no differences in acid
values
Guar gum/ carboxymethylcellulose; GCH Peanut oil 8 @ 60 0.3 4.3 Not reported Deshmukh et al.
Halloysite nanotubes/ Litchi shell (2022)
extract
Table 5
Agricultural waste-based freshness indicators with potential for further development in intelligent packages for food.
Agricultural waste-based freshness Food Initial Final References
indicator product
Color of TVB-N value (mg/100 g) in Color of TVB-N value (mg/100 g) in
indicator food product indicator food product
Chitosan/ oxidized chitin nanocrystal/ Pomfret Red 2.4 Greyish 38.5 Wu et al. (2019)
black rice bran meat green
Shrimp Red 4.0 38.5
Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose/ grape Pork Blue 8.2 Green 14.6 Chi et al., 2020
skin powder
PVA/ gelatin/ amaranthus leaf extract Fish Red 7.0 Yellow 14.1 Kanatt (2020)
Chicken Yellow 3.0 Gray 7.8
PVC/ starch/ red pitaya flesh extract Shrimp Purple red 4.9 Yellow 21.9 Yao et al. (2021)
PVA/ locust bean gum/ cockscomb flower Shrimp Reddish 7.0 Brown/ 50.0 Wu et al. (2021)
extract purple yellow
PVA / glucomannan/ dragon fruits peel Fish Purple 2.4 Yellow 39.7 Apriliyanti et al.
extract (2018)
chilis packaged in a solvent-casted biocomposite film made of carbox those that were unpackaged, and packaged with neat carboxymethyl
ymethyl cellulose incorporated with 5 wt% pea hull cellulose nano cellulose film for 7 days at 20 ◦ C (Li et al., 2020). Apples coated with a
crystals had less weight loss and higher vitamin C content compared to chitosan solution incorporated with 4% banana peel extract had a lower
11
respiration rate, weight loss, and soluble solids content, and a higher activity was assessed using several postharvest molds.
firmness, titratable acidity, and vitamin C content compared to apples Films and coatings made from different AWs with antioxidant ac
coated with neat chitosan for 5 weeks at 25 ◦ C (Zhang et al., 2020). tivity have been developed, showing the potential of AW for further
Modified atmosphere packaging consisting of a tray made of polylactic development in antioxidant food packaging. Antioxidant packaging
acid (PLA) incorporated with orange peel powder wrapped with a slows down the oxidative process occurring in food because the active
microperforated PLA film extended cherry tomato shelf life by reducing compounds, also called antioxidants, act as scavengers of the free radi
weight loss, wrinkling, and preserving firmness compared to commer cals generated during the oxidative process. AW is abundant in com
cially used packaging for 13 days of simulated retail and household pounds with an antioxidant activity, such as polyphenols (Panzella et al.,
conditions (Duguma et al., 2022). There are commercially available 2020). Fruit waste, mainly peel powder, pomace, and peel extract, has
materials made of AW that are currently used to extend food shelf life been preferred over other AWs to develop antioxidant films due to its
such as Apeel (ApeelTM, 2022a) and NatureSeal® (NatureSeal, 2022). high content of polyphenols and other antioxidant compounds (Panzella
Both extend whole produce shelf life by slowing the rate of water loss et al., 2020). Solvent-casted polyvinyl alcohol/starch-based films (4:1)
and oxidation (ApeelTM, 2022b; NatureSeal, 2022). containing 20 w% coconut shell extract and sepiolite clay, when shaped
into sachets, improved the oxidative stability of packaged soybean oil
6.2. Active packaging compared with sachets without the extract for 10 days at 60 ◦ C (Tanwar
et al., 2021). The wrapping of fresh Himalayan cheese for 30 days in a
Besides oxygen and water vapor barrier, some AW-based polymers solvent casted zein film incorporated with 25–75 g of pomegranate peel
have an innate antimicrobial and/or antioxidant capacity showing po extract retarded the oxidation of the fats and proteins of the cheese
tential for further development in active packages for food. Active compared to cheese wrapped in neat zein film under refrigerated con
packages contain specific additives, known as “active compounds,” that ditions (Mushtag et al., 2018). The pH, TBARST and TVB-N values of
enhance food quality and/or safety (Almenar, 2020; Almenar, 2021). pork immersed for 20 s in a film forming solution made of chitosan and
Active compounds with antimicrobial and/or antioxidant capacity pre coix seed starch (2:1) incorporated with 5% nano zinc oxide and 8%
sent in AW can be incorporated into the polymeric matrix with the waste Artemisia annua essential oil were significantly lower than those of pork
(e.g., plastic filler) or be extracted from the waste prior to its incorpo either wrapped in PE film or unpacked during 11 days at 5 ◦ C (Zheng
ration. Additionally, non-AW derived active compounds can be incor et al., 2022). Other antioxidant AW-based films assessed using food are
porated into an AW-based polymer matrix. Regardless, the resultant compiled in Table 4. The effectiveness of most antioxidant AW-based
biocomposites and biopolymers have potential for further development films has also only been assessed in vitro. Most of these films have
in antimicrobial and antioxidant packages. been produced using the solvent casting technique and their antioxidant
Antimicrobial packaging involves exposing the food product surface capacity and polyphenol content have been evaluated using the DPPH
to the antimicrobial agent at or around the minimum inhibitory con and ABTS radical scavenging assays and Folin-Ciocalteu method,
centration necessary to control microbial growth during the entire respectively (Hanani et al., 2019 and 2019; Liu et al., 2019; Ribeiro
commercialization period (Almenar, 2020; Almenar, 2021 ). Research et al., 2021; Chollakup et al., 2020; Adilah, Jamilah, & Nur Hanani, Z.A.,
studies on a variety of films made of AW with antimicrobial capacity 2018; Kim et al., 2018; Kumar et al., 2021; Terzioğlu et al., 2021). In
have been performed. A solvent-casted film made of potato peel waste contrast, Estevez-Areco et al. (2019) produced a hot-pressed starch-
and sweet lime pomace (0.5:1) mixed with 1.5% clove essential oil, based nanocomposite film where the release of polyphenols from rose
when evaluated as wrapping material for sliced white bread, reduced mary nanoparticles was assessed using food simulants. More
microbial counts by 2 logs compared with polypropylene wrap for 5 information about biocomposites and biopolymers with potential for
days, and by 3 logs compared with no wrapping for 3 days. The bread further development in active packages can be found in literature re
wrapped in the antimicrobial film was softer and had less moisture loss views including Amin et al. (2022), Bhargava et al. (2020), and
than unwrapped bread after 5 days at 25 ◦ C and 75% RH. However, it Debeaufort (2021).
had 5% more weight loss and 23% more hardness than when wrapped in
a commercial polypropylene film (Borah et al., 2017). Chicken feather 6.3. Intelligent packaging
keratin film containing pomelo peel pectin (25:75) obtained by solvent
casting reduced microbial counts from 6.9 log cfu/cm2 to 4.2 log Most intelligent packages detect, indicate, and/or record changes in
cfu/cm2 in fried fish when used as wrapping material for 72 h in com the food product or the surrounding environment. Hence, intelligent
parison with no wrapping. Wrapped fish showed less weight loss and packaging can assure food safety and provide real-time food quality
hardness than the unwrapped one after 4 days at room temperature monitoring to processors, distributors, retailers, and consumers
when both placed inside a closed container (3% weight loss difference (Talukder et al., 2020; Kurek et al., 2018). Films incorporated with AW
and 11% hardness difference) (Das et al., 2018). Lamb meat packaged in have been investigated as potential materials for intelligent packaging.
pouches created using solvent-casted carrageenan film incorporated A variety of wastes have been used to create these films including black
with olive leaf extract had a 5-fold reduction of psychrophiles compared rice bran (Ge et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2019), purple corn cob (Wang et al.,
to lamb meat packaged in both control and PVC pouches (Martiny et al., 2022), amaranthus leaf (Kanatt, 2020), red pitaya peel (Qin et al.,
2020). When used to wrap peeled shrimps, solvent-casted films made of 2020), beetroot extract (Guo et al., 2021), dragon fruits peel (Apriliyanti
chitosan and sardinella protein isolate in different proportions (90:10 et al., 2018), and grape skin powder (Ch et al., 2020). Because these and
and 50:50) cut down the growth of psychrophiles and mesophiles by half many other AWs can change color after detecting metabolisms produced
compared with the chitosan wrap, and by 10-fold compared with no during food spoilage, they have been used as sensing dyes to produce
wrapping at 4 ◦ C (Azaza et al., 2022). The wrapping also reduced weight colorimetric indicators of food freshness. Anthocyanins are the most
loss and putrefaction in shrimp. The incorporation of sardinella protein common components in AW used to produce these colorimetric in
isolate into the chitosan film resulted in shrimps with a slightly higher dicators. Anthocyanin-rich films can indicate the freshness of
weight loss. Other antimicrobial AW-based films assessed using food are protein-rich food products due to the capability of the anthocyanins to
compiled in Table 4. The effectiveness of many other AW-based films change color based on pH when volatile amines (TVB-N) are produced
against microbial growth has only been assessed in vitro. Most of these due to microbial spoilage and endogenous enzymes. The literature il
films have been produced using the solvent casting technique and lustrates the potential of these films for further development in intelli
evaluated for pathogen growth using the diffusion agar assay (Saied gent packaging for food. A film made of gelatin from fish skin waste
et al., 2022; Salim et al., 2022; Szabo et al., 2020). However, McKay incorporated with 1 wt% polyphenols extracted from Haskap berries
et al. (2021) produced a hot-pressed composite film where antimicrobial changed color with variations in TVB-N levels, changing from brown to
12
green when shrimps were not edible according to Chinese food regula and/or loss of material properties over time. Some have reported an
tions (Liu et al., 2019). Similarly, Qin et al. (2020) developed a increased biodegradation rate (higher weight loss) in biocomposites
starch/polyvinyl alcohol film incorporated with 1% betalains-rich red compared to their neat counterparts (Dixit & Yadav, 2019; Diaz et al.,
pitaya peel extract capable of changing color from pink to yellow with 2020; Jamróz et al., 2022; Tsou et al., 2022) while others have reported
increasing TVB-N levels to monitor shrimp freshness for 48 h at 20 ◦ C. A no effect regardless of the waste fiber type or fiber content (San
film developed from watermelon peel pectin containing beetroot extract chez-Safont et al., 2019; Munusamy et al., 2019) or even a decreased
changed from pink to brown indicating the spoilage of chilled fresh beef biodegradation rate (Suriyatem et al., 2019).
after 8 days at 4 ◦ C when the TVB-N levels in the beef surpassed the
standardized Chinese critical limit (Guo et al., 2021). Wang et al. (2022) 9. Regulations
developed a chitosan film incorporated with lignin-containing cellulose
nanocrystals and purple corncob extract that changed from yellow to The primary goal in food packaging regulation is preventing the
gray after 4 days at 4 ◦ C in alignment with the increased TVB-N levels migration of undesired substances into the packaged food product
that indicated pork and shrimp spoilage. Other films incorporated with (Almenar et al., 2023). In the case of AW-based packaging materials, the
AW showing potential for further development in intelligent packages waste as either monomer or filler can move into the food. This is subject
for food are compiled in Table 5. Generally, the incorporation of AW rich to legal control by the FDA in the USA (U.S. FDA, 2021) and under
in anthocyanins into biopolymers to develop food freshness indicators Regulations EC 1935/2004 and 10/2011 in the European Union (EU)
results in films that have lower oxygen and water vapor permeability, (European Commission, 2022).
improved mechanical properties, higher thermal stability, and lower
transmittance than their neat counterparts. However, most of these 10. Conclusions
anthocyanin-rich films were produced using the solvent casting method
and evaluated without packaging. Some were attached to the lid of a Each year, massive amounts of AW are released into the environ
petri dish containing food prior to its wrapping with a polyolefin (Guo ment, causing significant pollution. Waste from many different food
et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2022), and others were placed directly on the sources has been found to contain valuable components that can be used
food (Qin et al., 2020) or used to fully wrap the food product (Ge et al., to create food packaging that is more sustainable and/or has improved
2020; Wu et al., 2019; Ch et al., 2020). pH and TVB-N values are properties. Components from AW have been investigated as both
commonly used to indicate food spoilage state and are catalysts to the monomers and additives. The latter have commonly been explored as
color changes of the film, which are commonly obtained using a color plastic fillers, antimicrobials, antioxidants, and sensors/indicators.
imeter (Qin et al., 2020; Guo et al., 202; Kanatt, 2020). More informa Mainly films have been produced from AW as a monomer. Solvent
tion about biopolymers with potential for further development in casting has been mostly used. These films generally present weaker
intelligent packages for food can be found in Amin et al. (2022), Bhar barrier, mechanical, and thermal properties than traditional packaging
gava et al. (2020), Nemes et al. (2020), and Wu et al. (2018). materials. More research is needed to improve properties and explore
processing technologies that align with current industry practices,
7. Consumer behavior towards agricultural waste-based making these materials more suitable for food packaging.
packaging materials AW is an excellent source of functional compounds used to develop
active and intelligent packaging materials. However, most of these
Consumers play a key role in the market penetration of environ compounds have been assessed in films produced using solvent casting
mentally friendly food packaging as consumers decide whether they are and evaluated in vitro. For the few assessed in food, a petri dish in place
willing to purchase this form of packaging or not (Ketelsen et al., 2020). of a package is often employed. In the future, more studies need to be
Hence, a significant amount of research work has been conducted to conducted in packaged food to fully grasp the effectiveness of these
examine both whole populations and demographic segments to under active or intelligent films.
stand customer needs and attitudes to assess whether consumers prefer AW as a plastic filler has been incorporated in both petroleum-based
and/or accept environmentally friendly food packaging (Popovic et al., and bio-based plastics using a variety of plastic processing technologies,
2019; Chirilli et al., 2022; Norton et al., 2022). In contrast, there is little resulting in different packaging formats. The treatment of AW (size
information in the literature on consumer behavior toward packaging reduction, alkalinization, acidification, coupling agents) prior to its
incorporated with AW for food. Fennell et al. (2023) studied consumers’ processing has improved the biocomposite mechanical and barrier
behavior towards this novel packaging. The results showed that most properties, some performing equal to the neat plastic in the preservation
participants “liked" the use of AW for food packaging and half of them of food. Currently, AW as a plastic filler has the most potential for
were ”likely” to buy bread in this type of packaging. Depending on the conversion into packaging for food.
participant’s gender, age, and level of environmental consciousness, In all, AW is a promising resource with various potential uses. If the
their liking and willingness to purchase this novel packaging were employment of waste-based biopolymers/biocomposites for food pack
significantly different (P ≤ 0.05). aging is to be utilized, advancements in conversion and performance,
studies on consumer behavior, migration, and biodegradation are all
8. End-of-life scenarios necessary.
The possible end-of-life scenarios for packaging materials involve: CRediT authorship contribution statement
disposal in a landfill, burning, recycling, biodegradability, and com
posting. Unfortunately, recycling is not yet a possibility for AW-based Haile Tesfaye Duguma: Methodology, Writing − original draft.
materials due to the outdated processing and material selection Purva Khule: Writing − original draft, Visualization. Aidan McArdle:
involved (Gökçe, 2018). However, biodegradation under aerobic con Writing − original draft, Writing − review & editing. Korey Fennel:
ditions has been widely investigated as a possible end-of-life scenario for Writing − original draft, Writing − review & editing. Eva Almenar:
these biopolymers and biocomposites. Common standards used to study Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing − original draft, Writing − re
the biodegradability of AW-based films include ASTMD5338:15/ISO view & editing.
14855–1:2012 (Jamróz et al., 2022; Suriyatem et al., 2019) and ISO
20200 standard (Sanchez-Safont et al., 2019). Degradability has been Declaration of Competing Interest
analyzed by measuring the emission of CH4 and CO2 gases or con
sumption of O2, measuring the percent weight loss of the material, The authors declare the following financial interests/personal
13
relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests: Bayram, B., Ozkan, G., Kostka, T., Capanoglu, E., & Esatbeyoglu, T. (2021). Valorization
and application of fruit and vegetable wastes and by-products for food packaging
Eva Almenar reports financial support was provided by US Department
materials. Molecules, 26(13), 4031. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26134031
of Agriculture. Korey Fennell reports financial support was provided by Bazan, P., Mierzwiński, D., Bogucki, R., & Kuciel, S. (2020). Bio-Based polyethylene
Michigan State University Graduate School. composites with natural fiber: mechanical, thermal, and ageing properties. Materials,
13(11), 2595. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13112595
Bellili, N., Dairi, B., Hammour, N., Djidjelli, H., & Boukerrou, A. (2022).
Data availability Physicomechanical behavior of agro waste-filled polypropylene composites
materials. Materials Today: Proceedings, 53, 42–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
No data was used for the research described in the article. matpr.2021.12.259
Betancourt, N. G., & Cree, D. E. (2017). Mechanical properties of poly (lactic acid)
composites reinforced with CaCO3 eggshell based fillers. MRS Advances, 2(47),
Acknowledgments 2545–2550. https://doi.org/10.1557/adv.2017.473
Bhargava, N., Sharanagat, V. S., Mor, R. S., & Kumar, K. (2020). Active and intelligent
biodegradable packaging films using food and food waste-derived bioactive
Eva Almenar thanks the US Department of Agriculture for financial compounds: A review. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 105, 385–401. https://
support. She also thanks the organizing committee of SLIM 2022 for the doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2020.09.015
invitation as keynote speaker. Korey Fennel thanks the Graduate School Birania, S., Kumar, S., Kumar, N., Attkan, A. K., Panghal, A., Rohilla, P., & Kumar, R.
(2022). Advances in development of biodegradable food packaging material from
for financial support. agricultural and agro-industry waste. Journal of Food Process Engerineering, 45(1),
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Food Packaging and Shelf Life 40 (2023) 101166

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Food Packaging and Shelf Life

Food Packaging and Shelf Life 40 (2023) 101166

S:G(20:80) 535 5 253 54

Glycerol(30), CaCl2(3) 0.07 170 1.3 27.7 4

Fruits/Fig Low-grade sun- Glycerol(30) 0.12 350 8.3 3.1 15

Fruits/Fig Stalk Glycerol(30) 0.11 360 4.5 6.5 26

Fruits/Mango Peel Pectin(10) Glycerol(25) NS 161 NS 15 25 -60 Ribeiro et al.,

Food Packaging and Shelf Life 40 (2023) 101166

Oxygen Water Tm Tensile Elongation

Tomato Ground Hand mixing EVOH 0 NS NS NS 54 14 Nisticó et al.

Treated Untreated Treated Untreated References

5.2. Thermal Petroleum-based plastics are commonly used to package food

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