20EEGO1

Basic Electrical and Electronics

Engineering

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Identify the type of source ?

current current
Alternating Current Direct Current

+ +
time time
-

An alternating current (a.c) An direct current (d.c) is

is the current which the current which has
changes periodically both constant magnitude with
in magnitude and direction. respect to time

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Identify the type of source ?

current

Pulsating d.c

+ + +
time

In some cases, the magnitude changes but the direction

remains the same as positive or negative. Such waveform
is called pulsating d.c.

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Difference Between AC and DC

Comparison Basis AC DC
Energy Transmission Travels over long distance Large amount of energy is lost
Capacity with minimal Energy loss when sent over long distances
Rotating a Magnet along a Steady Magnetism along a
Generation Basics
wire. wire
Usually 50Hz or 60Hz
Frequency Frequency is Zero
depending on Country
Reverses direction
It steady constant flow in one
Direction periodically when flowing
direction.
through a circuit

Current Its Magnitude Vary with time Constant Magnitude

All forms of AC Generators and Cells, batteries, Conversion

Source
Mains from AC
Passive Parameters Impedance (RC, RLC, etc) Resistance Only
Power Factor Lies between 0&1 Always 1
Sinusoidal, Trapezoidal, Straight line, sometimes
Waveform
Triangular and Square Pulsating.

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Types of AC waveforms:
current current
Square Triangular

time time

current
Trapezoidal

time

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Why Sine wave? ➢ Mathematically, it is very easy to write

equations for sinusoidal waveform.

➢ Any other type of waveform can be

resolved into series of sine or cosine
current waves of fundamental and higher
Sine wave frequencies, sum of all these waves
gives the original wave form.

➢ The sine and cosine waves are the only

time
waves which can pass through linear
circuits containing resistance,
inductance and capacitance without
distortion.

➢ The integration and derivative of a

sinusoidal function is again a
sinusoidal function. This makes the
analysis of linear electrical networks
with sinusoidal inputs, very easy.

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Generation of A.C Voltage

➢ The machines which are used to generate electric voltage is called
Generators. The Generators which generates purely sinusoidal a.c.
voltages are called alternators.

➢ The basic principle of alternators works on FARADAY’s Law of

Electromagnetic Induction. He states: “that a voltage is induced in a circuit
whenever relative motion exists between a conductor and a magnetic field
and that the magnitude of this voltage is proportional to the rate of change
of the flux”.

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Generation of A.C Voltage

➢ Consider the stationary coil places inside the uniform magnetic field. The load is
connected across the coil with the help of brushes and the slip rings. When the
coil rotates it cuts the magnetic lines of force, first in one direction and then the
other.

➢ At the instant the loop is in the vertical position, the coil slides are moving
parallel to the field and do not cut the magnetic lines of force. In this instant, there
is no voltage induced in the loop. As the coil rotates in a counter – clockwise
direction, the coil sides will cut the magnetic lines of forces in opposite directions.
The direction of the induced voltages depends on the direction of movement of
the coil.
S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Generation of A.C Voltage

➢ The induced voltages add in series, making
slip ring X positive(+) and slip ring Y
negative (-). The potential across resistor R
will cause a current to flow from Y to C
through the resistor. This current will
increase until it reaches a maximum value
when the coil is horizontal to the magnetic
lines of force.
➢ The horizontal coil is moving
perpendicular to the field and it is cutting
the greatest number of magnetic lines of
force. As the coil continues to turn, the
voltage and current induced decrease until
they reach zero, where the coil again in the
vertical position. In the other half
revelation, an equal voltage is produced
except that the polarity is reversed. The
current flow through R is now from X to Y.
➢ The periodic reversal of polarity results in
the generation of a voltage. The rotation of
the coil through 360 degree results in an
AC sine wave output.

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Equation for Alternating Voltage or Current

➢ Consider a rectangular coil of N turns rotating in the anticlockwise direction at a
angular velocity of ω radians/sec. Time is measured from x-axis. Let 𝝋𝒎 is the flux
linked with the coil when the plane coincides with the x-axis. In time t seconds. The
coil rotates through an angle of 𝜽 = 𝝎𝒕.
➢ At this position, the flux linked by the coil is 𝝋= 𝝋𝒎cos 𝝎𝒕.

➢ 𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒙 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒌𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑵 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔 = 𝐍 𝝋𝒎cos 𝝎𝒕.

➢ According to Faraday’s Laws of electromagnetic induction, the emf induced in the

conductor is equal t the rate of change of flux linking the coil.

𝒅𝝋 𝒅𝝋𝒎𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕
𝒆 = −𝑵 = −𝑵 = 𝝎𝑵𝝋𝒎𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 = 𝝎𝑵𝝋𝒎𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Equation for Alternating Voltage or Current

➢ When the coil is turned to 90°, the emf induced is 𝐞 = 𝝎𝑵𝝋𝒎𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟗𝟎 = 𝝎𝑵𝝋𝒎

Let 𝑬𝒎 = 𝝎𝑵𝝋𝒎 = 𝝎𝑵𝑩𝒎𝑨 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑵𝑩𝒎𝑨 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔

➢ Where Em is the maximum voltage, 𝝎 is the angular velocity in rad/sec, f is the

frequency in Hz, Bm is the maximum flux and A is the cross section in m2.

𝟐𝝅
𝒆 = 𝑬𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕 = 𝑬𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝝎 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇 =
𝑻

𝟐𝝅
𝒆 = 𝑬𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒕 = 𝑬𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕
𝑻

➢ Hence, it can be inferred that the induced emf varies as a sine function and when

plotted against time we will get sinusoidal waveform.

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Different forms of emf equation:

𝒆 = 𝑬𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕

𝒆 = 𝑬𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽

𝒆 = 𝑬𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒕

𝟐𝝅
𝒆 = 𝑬𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕
𝑻
S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Get Familiarized: Instantaneous Value :

The value of an alternating
quantity at any instant of time is
known as the instantaneous value.
Generated e.m.f
Cycle :
emax Each repetition of a set of
e1 e2
positive and negative instantaneous
time
values of alternating quantity is called
a cycle
Time Period Time Period :
T seconds
One Cycle
The time taken by an ac
quantity to complete its one cycle is
known as its time period denoted by T
seconds

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Terminologies to be known : Frequency :

The number of cycles
completed by an alternating quantity
per second is known as its frequency.
𝟏
Generated e.m.f 𝒇 = 𝑻 𝑯𝒛.
Amplitude :
Em Em the maximum value
attained by an alternating quantity
𝝅
time during positive or negative half cycle is
𝟎 𝝅 𝟑𝝅 𝟐𝝅
𝟐 𝟐
called its amplitude.
-Em Angular Frequency :
Time Period
T seconds It is the frequency expressed in
One Cycle
electrical radians per second. As one
cycle of an alternatingquantity
corresponds to 𝟐𝝅 radians, the
angular frequency can be expressed as
𝟐𝝅 ∗cycles/sec. It is denoted as 𝝎.
S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

An alternating current of frequency 60Hz has a maximum value of 12A

i. Write down the equation for instantaneous values.
ii. Find the value of the current after 1/360 second.
iii. Time taken to reach 9.6 A for the first time.

Solution:
Given
frequency, f = 60Hz
Im = 12A
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋 ∗ 60 = 377 𝑟𝑎𝑑 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
Equation for instantaneous values
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝑓𝑡 = 12 𝑠𝑖𝑛377𝑡
Current after 1/360 second
377
𝐼 = 12 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 12 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1.0472 = 10.3924 𝐴
360
Time Taken to reach 9.6 A for the first time
9.6 = 12 𝑠𝑖𝑛377𝑡
_ 9.6
377𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1
12
𝑡 = 2.459 ∗ 10_3

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Root Mean Squared (RMS) Value

➢ The RMS value of an alternating quantity is given that of a steady state current
which when flowing through a given circuit for a given time produces the
same amount of heat produced by the alternating current when flowing
through the same circuit for the same time.

How to find the RMS vale ?

1. Mid ordinate method

2. Analytical method

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

RMS Value – Mid ordinate Method

➢ Consider sinusoidal varying current.
The r.m.s. value is obtained by
current
comparing heat produced.
➢ Heat produced is proportional to
square of current (i2R) so heat
i3
i2 produced in both positive and
i1 in
𝝅 2𝝅 time negative half cycles will be same.
0 1 2 3 n-1 n
➢ Hence, consider only positive half
cycle, which is divided into ‘n’

Time Period
intervals. The width of each interval
T seconds
One Cycle is ‘t/n’ seconds and the average
height of each interval is assumed to
be average instantaneous values of
current i.e. i1, i2, i3, ……. in.
S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

RMS Value – Mid ordinate Method

➢ Let us consider this current is passing through a resistance ‘R’ ohms. Hence, heat produced
can be calculated as,
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 𝑖2𝑅 𝑡 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 1𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 = 𝑖12 𝑅 𝑡 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 2𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 = 𝑖22 𝑅 𝑡 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 = 𝑖n2 𝑅 𝑡 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠

′
[𝑖12 + 𝑖22 +…..+ 𝑖n2 ]
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 ′𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 = 𝑅 ∗ 𝑡 ∗
𝑛
Now the heat produced by direct current I amperes passing through same resistance ‘R’ for the
same time ‘t’ is = 𝐼2𝑅 𝑡 joules
For I to be the r.m.s. value of an alternating current, these two heats must be equal.
2 2 2
[𝑖1 + 𝑖2 +…..+ 𝑖n ]
𝐼2𝑅 𝑡 = 𝑅 ∗ 𝑡 ∗
𝑛
𝑖12 + 𝑖22 +…..+ 𝑖n2
𝐼2 =
𝑛 𝑣12 + 𝑣22 +…..+ 𝑣n2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
𝑛
𝑖12 + 𝑖22 +…..+ 𝑖n2
𝐼= = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠.
𝑛

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

RMS Value – Analytical Method

Consider a sinusoidally varying alternating current and square of the current,

Waveform for current and Square of current

The current equation is,

𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Similarly the square of current is ,
𝑖 2 = 𝐼𝑚
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

RMS Value – Analytical Method

Area of the curve over half a cycle can be calculated by considering an interval d𝜃 as
shown in the figure
𝜋
Area of square curve over half cycle = ‫𝑖 𝜃׬‬2𝑑𝜃 and length of the base is 𝜋.

Therefore, the average value of square of the current over half cycle

𝜋
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 ‫׬‬0 𝑖2𝑑𝜃
=
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝜋

1 𝜋2 1 𝜋 2 2
2 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
𝐼𝑚
= න 𝑖 𝑑𝜃 = න 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝜃
𝜋 0 𝜋 0 𝜋 2

2 𝜋 2
𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 𝐼𝑚
= 𝜃− = 𝜋
𝜋 2 0
2𝜋
2
𝐼𝑚
=
2
S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

RMS Value – Analytical Method

Hence, the root mean square value i.e. r.m.s value can be calculated as,

𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡

2
𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚
= = = 0.707𝐼𝑚
2 2

The r.m.s value of the sinusoidal alternating current is 0.707 times the maximum or

peak amplitude of the alternating current.

Similarly, for alternating voltage, we can express the equation as

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 0.707𝑉𝑚

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Steps involved in finding the RMS Value

1. Write the equation of the a.c. quantity and observe its behavior in various time

intervals

2. Take square of the equation for the a.c. quantity

3. Take average of the square of the a.c. quantity using,

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚

𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒

4. Find the square root of the average value which gives the r.m.s value of an a.c

alternating quantity

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Average Value
➢ The average value of an alternating quantity is given that of steady current which

transfers across any circuit the same charge as that of being transferred by that

alternating current during the same time.

➢ In case of symmetrical current (with two half cycles exactly similar), the average

vale over a complete cycle is zero. Hence, the average value is computed only over a

half cycle.

How to find the Average value ?

1. Mid ordinate method

2. Analytical method

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Average value -Mid Ordinate method:

➢ Consider a a.c. quantity as ‘n’ equal half

current cycles as shown in the figure. To

determine the average vale of current

i3 over ‘n’ cycles consider the currents 𝑖1 , 𝑖2 ,

i2

i1 in
𝑖3 , … . . 𝑖𝑛 for 1𝑠𝑡 , 2𝑛𝑑 , 3𝑟𝑑 , … … . 𝑛𝑡ℎ

time intervals.
0 1 2 3 n-1 n

t
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 + ⋯ + 𝑖𝑛

𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 + ⋯ + 𝑖𝑛
𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =
𝑛

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Average value -Analytical method:

➢ Since the average value for the complete

cycle is zero, we consider only the half
i
cycle.
Average value of a sinusoidal wave:
𝐼𝑚
𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

0 𝝅
time 1 𝜋 𝜋
2𝝅
𝜃 𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑒 = න 𝑖𝑑𝜃 = න 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋 0 0

𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚 2𝐼𝑚
= [−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃]𝜋𝑜 = −cosπ + 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 =
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋

𝐼𝑚
= 𝜋 = 0.637𝐼𝑚
ൗ2

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Significance of average value:

➢ Battery Charging

➢ Charge transferred in capacitor circuits is measured using average value.

➢ Analysis of rectifier circuits.

➢ Average value is indicated in d.c. voltmeters and ammeters .

➢ Average value of purely sinusoidal waveform is always zero.

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Form Factor 𝑲𝒇

➢ Form factor is defined as the ration of r.m.s value to average value

𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠

𝐾𝑓 = =
𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑒
Form factor of a sinusoidal voltage:

𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠

𝐾𝑓 = =
𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑒

0.7071𝑉𝑚
=
0.637𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑒
= 1.11

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Crest Factor or Peak Factor 𝑲𝒂

➢ Crest factor or Peak factor is defined as the ration of maximum value to r.m.s
value.

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝐼𝑚
𝐾𝑎 = =
𝑟. 𝑚. 𝑠. 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
Peak factor of a sinusoidal voltage:

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑉𝑚
𝐾𝑎 = =
𝑟. 𝑚. 𝑠. 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠

𝑉𝑚
=
0.7071𝑉𝑚
= 1.414

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Phasor representation of Alternating quantity :

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Concept of Phase :
The phase of an alternating quantity at any instance is the angle
𝜑, 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 travelled by the phasor representing that alternating
quantity up to the instant of consideration, measured from the reference.

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Concept of Phase :

𝒆 = 𝑬𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝝎𝒕 ± 𝝋)
S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Concept of Phase :

𝒆 = 𝑬𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕
𝒊 = 𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕
S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Concept of Phase difference (lag) :

𝒆 = 𝑬𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕
𝒊 = 𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝝎𝒕 − 𝝋)
S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Concept of Phase difference (lead) :

𝒆 = 𝑬𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕
𝒊 = 𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝝎𝒕 + 𝝋)
S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Phasor Diagram :

The diagram in which different alternating quantities of the same frequency,

sinusoidal in nature are represented by individual phasors indicating exact phase
interrelationships is known as phasor diagram.
𝐸𝑚 𝐸𝑚

𝐼𝑚

𝐼𝑚
0 𝐸𝑚 0

𝒆 = 𝑬𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕

𝒊 = 𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕
𝐸𝑚

𝐼𝑚 0
𝐸𝑚
0
𝐼𝑚

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

AC through Pure Ohmic Resistance :

Let us consider a simple circuit consists of pure ohmic resistance ‘R’ connected to
a voltage supply 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡.
According to ohms law,
𝑣
𝑖= R
𝑅
𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
=
𝑅

𝑉𝑚
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑅 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
Comparing with a standard equation
𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
𝑉𝑚
𝑖= and 𝜑 = 0
𝑅

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Wave form and Phasor Diagram :

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Power :

𝑃 = 𝑣 ∗ 𝑖 = (𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡)*( 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡)

= 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡

1−cos(2𝜔𝑡)
= 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 2

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃= − cos(2𝜔𝑡) Fluctuating Power
2 2
Constant
Power

Average power Consumption over a single cycle is equal to the constant power
𝑉 𝐼
component 𝑚2 𝑚
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = . = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
2 2 2

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

v, i and P for purely resistive circuit :

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

AC through Pure Inductance :

Let us consider a simple circuit consists of pure inductance ‘L’ henries, connected
to a voltage supply 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡. Pure inductance has zero ohmic internal
resistance.
The self induced emf in the coil is given by,

𝑑𝑖
𝑒 = −𝐿
𝑑𝑡
At all instants, applied voltage V, is equal and opposite to the self induced emf, e.,

L 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝑣 = −𝑒 = − −𝐿 =𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑖
𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑖 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐿

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

AC through Pure Inductance :

𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
𝑖 = න 𝑑𝑖 = න 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = −
𝐿 𝐿 𝜔

𝑉𝑚 𝜋
=− sin − 𝜔𝑡
𝜔𝐿 2
𝑉𝑚 𝜋
= sin 𝜔𝑡 −
𝜔𝐿 2
Where,

𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑚 = =
𝜔𝐿 𝑋𝐿
𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 Ω

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

AC through Pure Inductance :

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Inductance reactance:
For purely inductive circuit,

𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑚 =
𝑋𝐿
Where, 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 Ω

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Power :
For purely inductive circuit,

𝜋
𝑃 = 𝑣 ∗ 𝑖 = (𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡)* 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 − 2

= 𝑃 = 𝑣 ∗ 𝑖 = −𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
=− sin 2𝜔𝑡
2

2𝜋
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = න − sin 2𝜔𝑡 𝑑 𝜔𝑡 = 0
0 2

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Waveforms of voltage current and power for purely inductive

circuit :

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

AC through Pure Capacitance :

Let us consider a simple circuit consists of pure capacitor ‘C’ farads, connected to
a voltage supply 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡. The current I charges the capacitor ‘C’. The
instantaneous charge ‘q’ on the plates of the capacitor is given by
𝑞 = 𝐶𝑣 = 𝐶𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
We know the rate of flow of charge,

𝑑𝑞 𝑑
𝑖= = (𝐶𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑
C = 𝐶𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 𝐶𝑉𝑚 𝜔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑚 =
𝑉𝑚 𝜋 𝑋𝐶
= sin 𝜔𝑡 + Where,
1 2
𝜔𝐶 1 1
𝑋𝐶 = = Ω
𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝜔𝐶 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
𝜋
𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 +
2
S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

AC through Pure Capacitance :

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Capacitance Reactance :

➢ The term 𝑋𝑐 is called capacitive Reactance and is measured in ohms.

➢ So, capacitive reactance is defined as the opposition offered by the capacitance

of a circuit to the flow of an alternating sinusoidal current.

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Power :

𝜋
𝑃 = 𝑣 ∗ 𝑖 = (𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡)* 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 2

= 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos(𝜔𝑡)

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃= sin(2𝜔𝑡)
2

2𝜋
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = න sin 2𝜔𝑡 𝑑 𝜔𝑡 = 0
0 2

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Waveforms of voltage current and power for purely capacitive

circuit :

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

A 50Hz, alternating voltage of 150 V (rms) is applied

independently to
1) Resistance of 10Ω
2) Inductance of 0.2 H
3) Capacitance of 50𝝁𝑭
Find the expression for the instantaneous current in each
case. Draw the phasor diagram in each case

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Case 1:
R=10Ω
𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑉𝑚 = 2𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠

= 2 ∗ 150
= 212.13 𝑉
𝐼𝑚 = 21.213 𝐴
In a pure resistive circuit, current is in phase with voltage.
𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡
= 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋𝑓𝑡
𝑖 = 21.213 sin 100𝜋𝑡 𝐴

V
0 I

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Case 2:
L=0.2 Ω
Inductive reactance, 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿
= 2𝜋 ∗ 50 ∗ 0.2
= 62.83 Ω
V
𝑉𝑚 212.13 0
𝐼𝑚 = =
𝑋𝐿 62.83 𝜋
90º= 𝑟𝑎𝑑
2
= 3.37 𝐴
In a pure inductive circuit, current lags voltage by 90º.

𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑
I
𝜋
𝑖 = 3.37 sin 100𝜋𝑡 − 𝐴
2

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Case 3:
C=50𝜇𝑓 = 50 ∗ 10−6 𝑓
1 1
Capacitive reactance, 𝑋𝑐 = 𝜔𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶

1
=
2𝜋 ∗ 50 ∗ 50 ∗ 10−6 I
= 63. 66 Ω

𝑉𝑚 212.13
𝐼𝑚 = =
𝑋𝐶 63.66
= 3.33 𝐴 𝜋
90º= 𝑟𝑎𝑑
2
In a pure inductive circuit, current leads voltage by 90º. 0
𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑 V

𝜋
𝑖 = 3.33 sin 100𝜋𝑡 + 𝐴
2

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Mathematical Representation of a Phasor:

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Mathematical Representation of a Phasor:

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

A.C. through RC circuit:

Consider a circuit consisting of a pure resistance R and connected in series with a pure
capacitor C across an ac supply of frequency f.
When the circuit draws a current I, then there are two voltage drops.
(i) Drop across pure resistance VR = I  R
(ii) Drop across pure capacitance VC = I  XC
1 1
Where 𝑋𝐶 = 𝜔𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

A.C. through RC circuit:

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

A.C. through RC circuit:

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

A.C. through RC circuit:

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

A.C. through RLC circuit:

Consider a circuit consisting of resistance R, inductance L, and capacitance C

connected in series with each other across an ac supply.
The circuit draws a current I. Due to flow of current I, there are voltage drops across
R, L, and Cwhich are given by
(i) drop across resistance R is VR = IR
(ii) drop across inductance L is VL = IXL
(iii) drop across capacitance C is VC = IXC
where I, VR, VL, and VC are the RMS values.
The phasor diagram depends on the magnitude of VL and VC, which obviously depends
upon XL and XC.
S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

A.C. through RLC circuit:

Let us consider the different cases.
(a) When XL > XC, i.e., when inductive reactance is more than the capacitive reactance.
The circuit will effectively be inductive in nature. When XL > XC, obviously, IXL, i.e.,
VL is greater than IXC, i.e., VC. So the resultant of VL and VC will be VL − VC so that V is
the phasor sum of VR and (VL − VC). The phasor sum of VR and (VL − VC) gives the
resultant supply voltage V.

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

A.C. through RLC circuit:

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

A.C. through RLC circuit:

(b) When XL < XC
The circuit will effectively be capacitive in nature. When XL < XC, obviously, IXL, i.e.,
VL is less than IXC, i.e., VC. So the resultant of VL and VC will be directed towards VC.
Current I will lead (VC − VL). The phasor sum of VR and (VC − VL) gives the resultant
supply voltage V.

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

A.C. through RLC circuit:

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

A.C. through RLC circuit:

(c) When XL = XC
When XL = XC, obviously, VL = VC. So, VL and VC will cancel each other and their
resultant will be zero. So, VR = V. In such a case the overall circuit will behave like a
purely resistive circuit. The impedance of the circuit will be minimum, i.e., equal to R.

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

A.C. through RLC circuit:

Power and power triangle
The average power consumed by the circuit is Pav= Average power consumed by R +
Average power consumed by L + Average power consumed by C.
But pure L and C never consume any power.
Therefore, Pav = Power taken by R = I2R = IVR
But VR = V cos  in all the cases.
Therefore, P = VI cos W.
Thus, for any condition, that is when XL > XC or XL < XC or XL = XC, power can be
expressed as P =Voltage  Component of I in phase with V = VI cos 
Note that when XL = XC, the component of I in phase with V is I only because I cos  =
I (as cos  = 1).

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

AC Parallel Circuits:
Parallel circuits are formed by two or more series circuits connected to a
common source of supply. The parallel branches may include a single element or
a combination of elements in series.

Methods for solving ac parallel circuits:

The following three methods are available for solving ac parallel circuits:
1. phasor or vector method
2. admittance method
3. using vector algebra (symbolic method or j-operator method)

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

AC Parallel Circuits:

1. Phasor or vector method

A parallel circuit consisting of three
branches, Branch 1 consists of R1, L1, and C1 in
series. Branch 2 is resistive and capacitive and
branch 3 is resistive and inductive. Let the
current be I1, I2, and I3 in the branch 1, 2, and 3,
respectively. The total current drawn by the
circuit is the phasor sum of I1, I2, and I3.

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

AC Parallel Circuits:

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

AC Parallel Circuits:

X component of I1 (OL) = I1 cos 1 Y component of I1 (AL) = −I1 sin 1

X component of I2 (OM) = I2 cos 2 Y component of I2 (BM) = +I2 sin 2
X component of I3 (ON) = I3 cos 3 Y component of I3 (ON) = −I3 sin 3

Sum of X component (active component) of Sum of Y component (reactive component) of

branch currents = I1 cos1 + I2 cos2 + I3 cos3 branch currents = −I1 sin 1 + I2 sin 2 − I3 sin 3
S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

AC Parallel Circuits:

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

AC Parallel Circuits:

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

AC Parallel Circuits:

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Two impedences Z1 and Z2 are connected in parallel across a 230 V, 50 Hz supply. The
impelance, Z1 consists of a resistance of 14 Ω and an inductance of 16 mH. The
impedance, Z2 consists of a resistance of 18 Ω and an inductance of 32 mH. Calculate
the branch currents, line current, and total power factor. Draw the phasor diagram
showing the voltage and currents.

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Three Phase AC :
In a three-phase system we have three independent voltages induced in the three
windings of the generator

In a three-phase system we will have three-phase voltages induced in the three-

phase windings of the generator. In all generating stations three-phase
generators are installed.

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Advantages of three-phase systems:

(i) the output of a three-phase machine generating electricity is more than the
output of a single-phase machine of the same size;
(ii) the most commonly used three-phase induction motors are self starting. For
single-phase motors, as will be explained in a separate chapter, a separate
starting winding is required;
(iii) electrical power transmission from the generating station to the places of
use is done by transmission lines. It has been seen that three-phase power
transmission is more economical than single phase power transmission;
(iv) the power factor of three-phase systems is better than that of the single-
phase systems;
(v) single-phase supply can also be obtained from a three-phase supply;
(vi) the instantaneous power in a single-phase system is fluctuating with time
giving rise to noisy performance of single-phase motors. The power output of a
symmetrical three-phase system is steady;
(vii) for rectification of ac into dc, the dc output voltage becomes less fluctuating
if the number of phases is increased.

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Generation of three-phase voltages:

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Generation of three-phase voltages:

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Generation of three-phase voltages:

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Generation of three-phase voltages:

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Terms used in three-phase systems and circuits:

(i) Balanced supply: a set of three sinusoidal voltages (or currents) that are
equal in magnitude but has a phase difference of 120º, constitute a balanced
three-phase voltage (or current) system.
(ii) Unbalanced supply: a three-phase system is said to be unbalanced when
either of the three-phase voltages are unequal in magnitude or the phase angle
between the three phases is not equal to 120º.
(iii) Balanced load: if the load impedances of the three phases are identical in
magnitude as well as phase angle, then the load is said to be balanced. It implies
that the load has the same value of resistance R and reactance XL and/or XC in
each phase.
(iv) Unbalanced load: if the load impedances of the three phases are neither
identical in magnitude nor in phase angle then the load is said to be unbalanced.
(v) Single phasing: when one phase of the three-phase supply is not available
then the condition is called single phasing.
S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Terms used in three-phase systems and circuits:

(vi) Phase sequence: the order in which the maximum value of voltages of each
phase appear is called the phase sequence. It can be RYB or RBY.
(vii) Coil: a coil is made of conducting wire, say copper, having an insulation
cover. A coil can be of a single turn or many number of turns. Normally a coil will
have a number of turns. A single turn of a coil will have two conductors on its two
sides called coil sides
(viii) Winding: a number of coils are used to make one winding. Normally the
winding coils are connected in series. One winding forms one phase.
(ix) Symmetrical system: in a symmetrical three-phase system the magnitude of
three-phase voltages is the same but there is a time phase difference of 1200
between the voltages.

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Three-Phase Winding Connections:

A three-phase generator will have three-phase windings. These phase windings
can be connected in two ways:
1. Star connection
2. Delta connection

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Star Connection:

The star connection is formed by connecting the starting or finishing ends of all
the three windings together. A fourth conductor which is taken out of the star
point is called the neutral point. The remaining three ends are brought out for
connection to load. These ends are generally referred to as R–Y–B, to which load
is to be connected

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Delta Connection:

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Relationship of Line and Phase Voltages, and Currents

in a Star-connected System:
Consider the balanced star-connected
system,
Suppose load is inductive and, therefore,
current will lag the applied voltage by angle
𝜑. Consider a balanced system so that the
magnitude of current and voltage of each
phase will be the same.

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Relationship of Line and Phase Voltages, and Currents

in a Star-connected System:

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits
Phasor Representation:
Draw three phasors VR,VY, and VB
representing the phase voltages. These
voltages are of equal magnitude but
displaced by 120º. The line voltage
phasors, VRY, VYB, VBR are drawn by 𝑉𝑅𝑌
𝑉𝑅
vectorially adding the phase voltages. For 𝐼𝑅
−𝑉𝑌 −𝑉𝐵
example, to draw line voltage VRY we
have to add the phase voltages as
𝐼𝐵 𝑉𝑌𝐵
VRY = VRN + VNY = VRN + (- VYN) 30 60

The phasor VYN is obtained by reversing 𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝑌

VNY. VRY is obtained by vectorially adding 𝐼𝑌
VRN and VYN as has been shown in phasor
𝑉𝐵𝑅 −𝑉𝑅
diagram. Similarly the other line voltages
have been drawn. The phase currents IR,
IB, and IY have been shown lagging the
phase voltages by the power factor angle
𝜑.
S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits
Phasor Representation:
The phase angle between phasors VR and (–VY) is 60°.

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Relationship of Line and Phase Voltages, and Currents

in a Delta-connected System:
Consider the balanced delta-connected system as shown in diagram.
➢ In a delta-connected system the voltage aeros the winding, i.e., the phases is
the same as that across the line terminals. However, the current through the
phases is not the same as through the supply lines.
➢ Therefore, in the case of the delta-connected circuit, phase voltage is equal to
the line voltage, but line current is not equal to phase current.

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

The line currents are IR, IY, and IB,

respectively. The phase currents are IRY, IYB,
and IBR.
The phasor diagram in has been developed
by first showing the three-phase voltages VYB,
VBR, and VRY of equal magnitude but displaced
by 120° from each other. Then the phase
currents IYB, IBR, and IRY have been shown
lagging respective phase voltages by power
factor angle 𝜑. The line currents are drawn
by applying KCL at the nodes R, Y, and B and
adding the phasors.

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Active and Reactive Power:

The in-phase component of IPh along V has been shown in diagram as IPh cos 𝜑 and
the perpendicular component as IPh sin 𝜑. If we multiply all the sides of the
triangle ABC by VPh, the triangle becomes a power triangle where AB = VPh IPh cos 𝜑
is called the active power, BC = VPh IPh sin f is called the reactive power, and VPh IPh is
called the apparent power.

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Active and Reactive Power:

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Solve :
1. A 400 V, three-phase, 50 Hz power supply is applied across the three terminals
of a delta connected three-phase load. The resistance and reactance of each phase
is 6  and 8 , respectively. Calculate the line current, phase current, active
power, reactive power, and apparent power of the circuit.

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Solve :

2. A balanced star-connected load of (8 + j6) Ω per phase is connected to a

balanced three phase,400 V supply. Find the line current, power factor,
power, and total volt-amperes.

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Measurement of power in three-phase circuits:

➢ We have known that in dc circuits power is measured as the product of voltage and current,
i.e., power, P = VI. DC power can be measured using a voltmeter and an ammeter.
➢ In ac circuits power, P = VI cos . In three-phase ac circuits, total power is three times the
power per phase. Wattmeter is an instrument used for measurement of power in ac circuits.
Wattmeters are available as single-phase wattmeters and three-phase wattmeters.
➢ Single-phase wattmeters can be used to measure three-phase power. In case of star-
connected balanced load with neutral connection, only one single-phase wattmeter can be
used to measure the three-phase power. The three-phase power is three times the single-
phase power.
➢ For unbalanced three-phase loads, i.e., if the currents in the three phases are not the same,
two wattmeters are to be used to measure the three-phase power.

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

One-Wattmeter Method:

In this method, the current coil

(CC) of the wattmeter is connected
in series with any phase and the
pressure coil (PC) is connected
between that phase and the neutral
One-wattmeter method has a
demerit that even a slight degree of
unbalance in the load produces a
large error in the measurement.
In this method one wattmeter will measure only the power of one phase. Hence, total
power is taken as three times the wattmeter reading.
 Total Power = 3𝑉𝑝ℎ 𝐼𝑝ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Two -Wattmeter Method:

➢ This method requires only two wattmeters to measure three-phase power for
balanced as well as unbalanced loads. In this method two wattmeters are
connected in two phases and their pressure coils are connected to the remaining
third phase.
➢ This method of measurement is useful for balanced and unbalanced loads.
S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Two -Wattmeter Method:

➢ Let us consider the measurement of three-phase power of a star-connected load
using two single phase wattmeters. We will calculate the power measured by the
two wattmeters separately.
➢ Let W1 and W2 respectively be the two wattmeter readings. Current flowing through
the current coil of wattmeter W1 is IR.
➢ The voltage appearing across its pressure coil is VRB. The wattmeter reading will be
equal to, W1 = VRB IR. cos of angle between VRB and IR.
➢ Similarly, the wattmeter reading W2 will be equal to, W2 = VYB IB cos of angle
between VYB and IB.
➢ We will now draw the phasor diagram, and calculate W1 and W2.

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Two -Wattmeter Method:

We know that the total power in a three-phase circuit is 3Vph Iph cos  or equal to 3 VLIL cos 
S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Two -Wattmeter Method:

Thus, it is proved that the sum of the two wattmeter readings is equal to the three-
phase power.

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Two -Wattmeter Method:

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

THREE -Wattmeter Method:

➢ In this method, three wattmeters are used

to measure three-phase power. Three
wattmeters are connected in each phase
and their pressure coils are connected
between each phase and the neutral.
➢ This method is valid for the measurement
of three-phase power for balanced and
unbalanced loads. The main drawback of
this method is the requirement of three
wattmeters.

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

Problems and Solution:

1. An alternating voltage of 100 sin 314 t is applied to a half-wave diode rectifier

which is in series with a resistance of 20 . What is the RMS value of the current
drawn from the supply source?

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

2. An alternating voltage of RMS value 100 V, 50 Hz is applied separately across a

resistance of 10 ohm, an inductor of 100 mH, and a capacitor of 100 μF. Calculate the
current flow in each case. Also draw and explain the phasor diagrams.

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits
4. A coil having a resistance of 5ohm and inductance of 30 mH in series are connected
across a 230 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate current, power factor, and power consumed.

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT
 Module 2:AC Circuits

5. A three-phase star-connected load consumes a total of 12 kW at a power factor of

0.8 lagging when connected to a 400 V, three-phase, 50 Hz power supply. Calculate
the resistance and inductance of load per phase.

S.Thiyagarajan, AP/ECE/SRIT