The French Revolution

03 March 2024 13:15

Introduction

French means the people of France as well as French is the language of

France also.

Most of the people thinks that revolution always led to violence but actually

it means the positive changes after an incidence which has a great

impact. Equality, liberty and fraternity are the important legacies of the

French Revolution.

Absolute Monarchy or Autocratic rule, Subsistence Crisis, Discrimination

based society, Role of writers and philosophers, Heavy burden of taxes, US

war of independence etc were the most important causes of the French

revolution.

French Society During the Late Eighteenth

Century:
In 1774, Louis XVI or Louis Auguste of the Bourbon family became the king
of France. He had a wife named Marie Antoinette (Austrian princess).
During his reign, French people faced economic crises which enraged
people and hence, the French revolution broke out. Now let’s discuss the
main causes; social, economic and political.
Social condition in France during the Old Regime:
• There was a system of estates in French society.
• The first estate consisted of Clergymen.
• Second estate was of nobility.
• And the rest of the French citizens, excluding women and children, were
part of third estate.
• The first and second estates enjoyed feudal privileges. Whereas the
third estate had to just serve them
• For Example: The third estate paid two types of tax; Tithes to the
Church and Taille to the state. But clergy and nobility had exemption
from any such taxes.
 Economic condition in France:
• In the Old Regime, people faced subsistence crises and struggled to
survive.
• Population of France rose from about 23 million in 1713 to 28 million in
1789.
• The rate of population growth exceeded the production of grains. Thus,
this led to price rise and unemployment.
• Wage rates were low.
• The year of bad harvest added the problem.

Political condition in France:

• Louis XVI, when came into power, found his treasure chamber empty
due to long years of war.
• He was already running out of financial resources, yet he aided the
thirteen American colonies to gain independence from the common
enemy, Britain.
• As a result, he became liable to pay back the debt of approximately two
billion livres with 10 percent interest.
• Moreover, in order to meet regular expenses such as the cost of
maintaining an army, the court, running government offices or
universities, the state had to increase taxes.
A Growing Middle Class Envisages an End to Privileges:

• Earlier, peasants and workers revolted against increasing tax and food
scarcity. However, they did not get much success due to lack of means
and programmes for bringing change in the social and economic order.
• In the Eighteenth century, a new social group emerged.
• Lawyers, administrative officials, philosophers, merchants, were all
termed as the middle class.
• They were educated and did not believe in privilege based on birth.
• They earned wealth through overseas trade and manufacture of goods
such as woollen and silk textiles.
• These groups put forward the ideas like freedom and equal laws and
opportunities for all.
• For Example: Philosophers like John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau and
Montesquieu contributed through their writings.
John Locke Jean Jacques Rousseau Montesquieu
Book Two Treatises of Social Contract The Spirit of the law
Government
Main He criticized the He proposed the He proposed a division of
Ideas doctrine of the divine government based on a power within the government
and absolute right of social contract between between the legislature, the
the monarch. people and their executive and the judiciary.
 representative.

The Outbreak of the Revolution:

Economic, political and social causes forced Louis XVI to increase taxes.
However, according to the Old Regime the monarch could not impose
taxes on his will alone. Thus, he called the meeting of the Estate General
to pass proposals for new taxes. On 5 May 1789, all three Estate Generals
gathered at the hall in Versailles.
Note: Last time, the Estate General meeting held 175 years back in 1614
Estate General:

It was a political body to which the three estates sent their

representatives.
1. First Estate: Clergy
• 300 representatives and 1 vote.
• Priests represented first estate.
2. Second Estate: Nobility
• 300 representatives and 1 vote.
• Aristocrats represented 2nd estate.
3. Third Estate: Commoners.
• 600 representatives and 1 vote.
• Prosperous and educated members represented the third Estate.
• However, peasants, artisans and women were denied entry to the
assembly. They could only list their demands in letters.
As you saw, each estate had one vote despite the fact that the third
Estate had more representatives. So, the third estate demanded for ‘one
member, one vote’ in the meeting. But when king rejected the demand,
all the members of the third estate walked out of the assembly in
protest.
• On 20th June, representatives of the third estate assembled in the hall
of indoor tennis court in the grounds of Versailles.
• They declared themselves a National Assembly and swore not to
disperse till they had drafted the constitution for France that would limit
the powers of the monarch.
• Mirabeau, a noble and Abbe Sieyes was a priest led the third estate.
• Where Mirabeau delivered powerful speeches, Abbe Sieyes wrote
influential pamphlet called ‘What is the Third Estate’?
While the National Assembly was busy at Versailles drafting a
constitution, the rest of France was in a state of turmoil.
Why the rest of France was agitated?

1. Increase in food prices: Severe winter destroyed the food crops which
led to rise in bread prices.
2. Hoarding of bread supplies: Bakers often hoard supplies. This resulted
in shortages of food in the real economy.
• As a consequence, crowds of angry women, who spent long hours
standing in a queue, stormed into the shops.
3. Rumours in Paris and countryside: At the same time, the king ordered
troops to move into Paris to control uprising. But rumours spread that
king would soon order the army to open fire upon the citizens. Thus, on
14th July, the agitated crowd stormed and destroyed the Bastille. In
countryside also, the rumours spread that the king has sent Lords of
manor to destroy the crops.
Recognition to National Assembly:

Finally, after facing the revolts from subjects, Louis XVI gave recognition
to the National Assembly and accepted the principle that his powers
would from now on be checked by a constitution.
Changes brought by National Assembly in 1789:

• On 4 August 1789, Assembly abolished the feudal system of obligations

and taxes.
• Members of the clergy were also forced to give up their privileges.
• Assembly abolished tithes and confiscated the lands owned by Church.

France becomes a Constitutional Monarchy:

• The National Assembly completed the draft of the constitution in 1791.
• It had two main objectives:
1. Limit the power of monarch.
2. Separation of power among different institutions- the legislature,
executive and judiciary.
How was the political system under the Constitution of 1791?

• Indirectly elected National Assembly got legislation powers.

• In this, only active citizens could vote.
• Men above 25 years of age
• who paid taxes equal to at least 3 days of a labourer’s wage.
• Moreover, to qualify as an elector and then as a member of Assembly, a
man had to belong to the highest bracket of taxpayers.
• Kings and royal ministers made up the executive branch.
• King had Veto power.
• The third institution remained independent from executive and
legislature i.e judiciary.
Changes in the constitution of 1791:

• Constitution began with the Declaration of the Rights of Man and

Citizen.
 • Natural and Inalienable rights were given to every citizens.
• For Example: Right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of opinion,
equality before law.
• State became responsible for protecting natural rights of citizens.
Revolutionary journalist during French Revolution: Jean-Paul Marat
influenced people through his newspaper L`Ami du peuple. In his works,
he raised voice for poor citizens.

France Abolishes Monarchy and Becomes a

Republic:
• Although Louis XVI had signed the Constitution, he entered into secret
negotiations with the King of Prussia.
• Rulers of other neighbouring countries made plan to send troops to put
down the events.
• Before this could happen, the National Assembly voted in April 1792 to
declare war against Prussia and Austria.
• Thousands of volunteers thronged from the provinces to join army.
• People saw this was as a war of the people against all the kings and
aristocracies in Europe.
• Volunteers of Marseilles sung the patriotic song ‘Marseillaise’ during
their march towards Paris.
• It was composed by the poet Roget de ‘Isle.
• The Marseillaise is now the national anthem of France.
Impact of Revolutionary Wars in 1792:

1. Economic losses: Due to war, people faced economic difficulties.

2. Women’s duel responsibilities: While the men were away fighting at
the front, women were left to cope with the tasks of earning a living and
looking after their families.
3. Political inequality: The Constitution of 1791 gave political rights only to
the richer sections of society.
4. Formation of political clubs: Circumstances were such that people
began to establish political clubs. The most successful of these clubs
was that of Jacobins.
Jacobin Club:

• The members of the Jacobin club belonged mainly to the less

prosperous sections of society.
• Such as small shopkeepers, servants, artisans, daily wage workers.
• Their leader was Maximilian Robespierre.
• To look different, they started wearing long stripped trousers and red
cap (symbol of liberty).
• These Jacobins came to be known as Sans-culottes, literally meaning
‘those without knee breeches’.
France becomes a republic:

• On 10 August 1792, the Jacobins stormed inside the palace of

the Tuileries, massacred the king’s guards and kept the king for several
hours.
• Later, the Assembly voted in imprisonment of the royal family.
• Elections were held and newly elected Assembly was called the
Convention.
• Now, all men of 21 years and above, regardless of wealth, got voting
rights.
• On 21 September 1792 it abolished the monarchy and declared
France republic.
• On 21 January 1793, Louis XVI (in the case of Treason) was executed
publicly at the Place de la Concorde.
The Reign of Terror (1793-1794):
• Maximilian Robespierre followed a policy of severe control and
punishment.
• He punished and guillotined all those he was suspicious of disloyalty to
the government.
• Such as ex-nobles, clergy, members of other political parties and even
members of his own party who disagreed with his methods.
• Robespierre’s government introduced laws for placing a maximum
ceiling on prices and wages.
• However, his policies were so persistent that even his supporters began
to demand moderation.
• Finally, the reign of terror ended when Robespierre was convicted by a
court.
• In 1794, he was arrested and on the next day sent to the guillotine.

A Directory Rules France:

• Again, wealthier middle class took over the power.
• They introduced the new constitution in which non propertied men
could not vote.
• New constitution provided for two elected legislative councils.
• Also, they appointed a Directory, an executive made up of five
members.
• It was because they did not want concentration of power in a one man
executive as under the Jacobins.
Downfall of Directory:
1. Political instability of Directory: The Directors often clashed with the
legislative councils, who then sought to dismiss them.
2. Rise of military Dictator: The above reason paved the way for the rise of
a military dictator, Napoleon Bonaparte.

4. Did Women have a Revolution?

• From the very beginning women were active participants in the events.
• For Example: Olympe de Gauges who was a politically active lady
protested against the biased constitution. She wrote ‘Declaration of the
Rights of Woman and Citizen’. Also, she criticized the Jacobin
government for forcibly closing down women’s clubs.
• They brought many changes in the French society.
• Revolutionary women demanded the same political rights and formed
their own political groups.
• In order to get access in the education system, they asked to make
schooling compulsory for girls.
• Moreover, they led the demand for ‘no marriage against will’.
• They worked towards changing the system of marriage and Divorce. As
a result, marriage became contract based and divorce became legal
which could be filed by both women and men.
• Although, women got voting rights in 1946.

The Abolition of Slavery:

Triangular Slave Trade: It was a triangular pattern trading system in
which slaves were sent overseas to work in plantations. It operated
between Europe, Africa and the Americas.
• The colonies in the Caribbean- Martinique, Guadeloupe and San
Domingo- were important suppliers of commodities such as tobacco,
indigo, sugar and coffee.
• However, there was a shortage of willing laborers from Europe. So, the
trading of slaves from African colonies became common.
Convention of 1794: In 1794, Jacobin government brought some
changes and abolition of Slavery was one of them. Although, soon after
the invasion of Napoleon, the system changed and slavery was
reintroduced in 1804.
The slaves in the French colonies became free from slavery in 1848.

The Revolution and Everyday Life:

After the revolution of 1789, many changes came into the lives of people.
Two most important changes were:-
1. The abolition of censorship.
2. Freedom of speech and expression.
Conclusion: The French people suffered losses, saw bad governance
and instability. They began revolutions in order to abolish the despotic
rule of the monarch, but unfortunately, ended up living under the
dictatorship of Napoleon. However, their efforts did not go in vain. They
left a long lasting impact on other European countries. Also, inspired
people throughout the world with the ideas of Liberty and democratic
rights.
Note: Tipu Sultan and Rammohan Roy are two examples of individuals
who responded to the ideas coming from revolutionary France.
Important Questions with Answers
1. Describe any three causes for the fall of the Jacobin government in France.
Answer: The causes for all of the Jacobin government were
(i) Many persons who were seen as ‘enemies’ of the republic, i.e., those who
did not agree with the strict measures taken by Robespierre, were executed.
(ii) A maximum ceiling was fixed on wages and prices. Rationing of essential
food items was introduced, causing hardships to the people.
(iii) Churches were shut down and converted into barracks or offices, causing
resentment in the clergy.
2. Describe the divisions in French society before the French Revolution.
Or
Describe the French division of society.
Answer: The French society was divided into three estates
(i) First Estate comprised of the Church and the clergy. They enjoyed certain
privileges by birth. They were exempted from paying taxes to the state.
(ii) Second Estate: They were big aristocrats and landlords. They were
considered above law and exempted from paying taxes.
(iii) Third Estate: This comprised the peasants, artisans, city workers and the
middle class people like teachers, doctors, lawyers, writers, etc. All such
people had no political rights. They had to pay many kinds of taxes.
3. How did peasants protest against the feudal lords or nobles of France?
Answer: (i) In the countryside, there were rumours that the landlords of the
manor had hired criminals to destroy the ripe crops of the peasants.
(ii) Being afraid of the situation, peasants in several districts seized hoes and
pitchforks and attacked chateaux (castles belonging to the noblemen). They
looted the hoarded grain.
(iii) They also burnt down documents containing records of the manorial dues.
As a result, a larger number of nobles fled from their home towns and
migrated to neighbouring countries.
4. How did France become a Constitutional monarchy?
Answer: In 1791, the National Assembly completed the draft of the
Constitution. Its main object was to limit the powers of the monarch. The
powers instead of being concentrated in the hands of the monarch, were now
separated and divided between the Legislature, the Executive and the
Judiciary. The Constitution also declared that it was the duty of the state to
protect each citizen’s natural rights. In this way, France became a
Constitutional monarchy.
5. Differentiate between active and passive citizens of France.
Answer: In France, only men above 25 years of age who paid taxes equal to at
least 3 days of a labourer’s wage were given the status of active citizen. They
were entitled to vote. The remaining men as well as women who were not
entitled to vote were called passive citizens. At that time to qualify as an
elector and a member of the assembly, a man had to belong to the highest
bracket to taxpayers.
6. What was the condition of women in France before the revolution? Or
Evaluate the role of women in France before the revolution.
Answer: (i) The role of the women in France before the revolution were All
women were classes as passive citizens. They did not have voting powers.
(ii) They worked as seamstresses or laundresses, sold flowers, fruits and
vegetables or worked as domestic servants.
(iii) Their wages were lower than those of men.
(iv) They looked after their children, did the cooking, fetched water and
queued for bread.
(v) Most women did not have access to education or job training. Only
daughters of wealthy parents could study at a convent, after which they were
married off.
7. Which laws were made to improve the status of women in the French
society?
Or
Discuss any four steps taken by the revolutionary government of France for
improving the lives of women.
Or
State any five laws introduced by the revolutionary government in France
that helped to improve the lives of women.
Answer: In the beginning, the revolutionary government introduced some
laws to improve the status of women in society. These were
(i) Schooling was made compulsory for all girls.
(ii) Their fathers could no longer force them into marriage against their will. If
they did so, they were punished.
(iii) Marriage was made into a contract entered into freely and it was
registered under civil law.
(iv) Divorce was made legal and could be applied for by both men and women.
(v) Women could train for jobs, could become artists or run small businesses.
8. What was the guillotine? How was it used?
Answer: The guillotine was a device consisting of two poles and a blade with
which a person was beheaded. It was used by Robespierre, who followed a
policy of’ Reign of Terror’ i.e., of severe control and punishment. Those who
did not agree with his methods were arrested, imprisoned and then tried by a
revolutionary tribunal. If the court found them ‘guilty’, they were guillotined.
9. Compare the manifesto drafted by Olympe de Gouges with the
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.
Or
Name one of the most important of the politically active women in
revolutionary France. What do you know about her?
Answer: While the manifesto drafted by Olympe de Gouges talked primarily
about women and equality, the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen talked
only about men. The manifesto sought to give political, social and economic
equality to all citizens including men and women. On the other hand, the
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen denied privileges to women. They
were side lined as passive citizens.
10. Explain any five features of the Constitution of 1791, framed by the
National Assembly in France.
Or
Write three main features of the French constitution of 1791.
Answer: The National Assembly completed the draft of the Constitution in
1791.
(i) It declared France as a Constitutional monarchy.
(ii) Powers of the king were separated and assigned to different institutions –
the Legislature, the Executive and the Judiciary.
(iii) The National Assembly was given the power to make laws.
(iv) To qualify as an elector, member of the assembly, a man had to belong to
the highest bracket of taxpayers.
(v) Only men above 25 years of age, who paid taxes equal to at least 3 days of
a labourers wage were given the status of active citizen, i.e., voters.
11. “The 18th century France witnessed the emergence of the middle class’.
Who were they and what were their ideas?
Answer: In the 18th century, the middle class was a social group who earned
their wealth through an expanding overseas trade and from the manufacture
of goods such as woollen and silk textile. In addition to merchants and
manufacturers it also included lawyers and administrative officials. They were
well educated and believed that
(i) No group in society should be privileged by birth.
(ii) A person’s social position must depend on his merit.
(iii) A society must be based on freedom and equal laws and opportunities for
all.
(iv) This idea was maintained by Locke, Rousseau and Montesquieu.
12. Which was the important law that came into effect soon after the
storming of the Bastille in the summer of 1789? How did it change the lives
of the common people? Explain.
Answer: After the fall of Bastille in the summer of 1789, one important law
that came into effect was the abolition of censorship. Before French
Revolution all written material and cultural activities? books, newspapers,
plays could be published or performed only after they had been approved by
the censors of the king. This law changed the lives of the common people in
the following ways
(i) The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen proclaimed freedom of
speech and expression to be a natural right.
(ii) Newspapers, pamphlets, books and printed pictures flooded the towns of
France from where they could rapidly reach the countryside.
(iii) These all discussed events and changes that took place in France.
(iv) Freedom of press meant that opposing views of events could be
expressed.
(v) Plays, songs and festive procession attracted common men through which
they could identify the ideas of liberty or justice of the political philosophers.
13. Explain the triangular slave trade carried on during 18th and 19th
century.
Answer: The triangular slave trade flourished in the 18th century and 19th
century as
(i) There was a shortage of labour in the colonies in the Caribbean due to the
reluctance of Europeans to go and work in distant, unfamiliar places.
(ii) This problem was solved by a triangular slave trade between Europe, Africa
and America. The slave trade began in the 17th century.
(iii) French merchants sailed from the ports of Bordeaux or Nantes to the
African coast from where they bought slaves from local chieftains.
(iv) The slaves were brought to Caribbean and were sold to plantation owners.
(v) The exploitation of slave labour made it possible to meet the growing
demand in European markets for sugar, coffee and indigo.
14. Write a short note on Napoleon Bonaparte.
Answer: In 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself as the Emperor of
France.
(i) In the administrative field he had incorporated many revolutionary
principles which made the whole system more rational and efficient.
(ii) His Civil Code of 1804 (known as the Napoleonic code) did away all
privileges based on birth, established equality before the law and secured the
right to private property.
(iii) He introduced a uniform system of weights and measures provided by the
decimal system.
(iv) Initially many believed Napoleon as a liberator who would bring freedom
for the people.
(v) Many of his reforms were exported to the regions under French control.
These left a long lasting effect on society.
15. What do you understand by the term ‘Reign of Terror’?
Answer: The period from 1793 to 1794 is referred to as the ‘Reign of Terror’
because during this time, Robespierre followed a policy of severe control and
punishment. All those whom he regarded as being ‘enemies’ of the
republic, e.g., nobles, clergy or members of his or other political parties, were
arrested and tried by a revolutionary tribunal. If found guilty, they were
guillotined. More than 15000 persons were guillotined during this period. The
‘Reign of Terror’ became intolerable and people were against Robespierre and
his followers. Finally, Robespierre was convicted and guillotined in July, 1794
and the Reign of Terror ended with his death.
16. (i) Which groups of French society benefited from the revolution?
(ii) Which groups were forced to relinquish power?
(iii) Which sections of society would have been disappointed with the
outcome of the revolution?
Answer: (i) All the groups which formed the third estate benefited from the
revolution. These groups included workers, businessmen, merchants, court
officials, lawyers, teachers and doctors etc.
(ii) The classes which formed the privileged sections of society like the nobility,
clergy and aristocracy were forced to relinquish their executive powers.
(iii) Naturally, the privileged classes, viz, the clergy and the nobles would have
been disappointed with the outcome of the revolution because their privileges
were taken away from them.
17. Draw up a list of democratic rights we enjoy today whose origins could
be traced to the French Revolution.
Or
Mention any five values which are associated with the Declaration of the
Rights of Man and citizen.
Answer: Some of the democratic rights which we enjoy today whose origins
could be traced to the French Revolution are given in the Indian Constitution.
(i) Right to Equality: The right to equality has its origin in the French
Revolution. In the Indian Constitution, right to equality means equality before
law, prohibition of discrimination and equality of opportunity in matters of
employment.
(ii) Right to Liberty or Freedom: The origin of this right can also be traced to
the French. In the Preamble to the Indian Constitution, Right to Liberty or
freedom means ‘freedom of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship.’
(iii) Encouraging the Spirit of Fraternity: The French Revolution introduced the
growth of the spirit of fraternity and social welfare. In the Indian Constitution
the concept of ‘fraternity’ abolishes untouchability, local or provincial anti-
social feelings.
(iv) Inspiring the Spirit of Democracy: The French Revolution inspired the
spirit of democracy which ensured many rights, viz., right against exploitation,
right to life, right to vote etc which we are enjoying today.
(v) Liberty: It consists of the power to do whatever is not hampering the
interests of other. The Constitution declared that these rights belonged to
each human.
18. What is the role of philosophers in the French Revolution?
Answer: The revolutionary ideas of philosophers encouraged people to fight
for their rights.
(i) Voltaire believed that man’s destiny was in his own hands.
(ii) John Locke criticized the divine and absolute rights of the rulers.
(iii) Rousseau put forward the idea of formation of a government based on a
social contract between people and their representatives. Men had the right
to change their government, if they were not satisfied with it.
(iv) Montesquieu believed that all powers should not be concentrated in one
person’s hand. They should be divided between the Legislature, the Executive
and the Judiciary. The ideas of these philosophers were discussed by common
people in salons and coffeehouses and inspired them to fight for their rights.
19. How was slavery abolished in France? Or Explain the process of slavery
abolition in France.
Answer: One of the most revolutionary social reforms of the Jacobin regime
was the abolition of slavery. An acute shortage of labour in the French
Caribbean colonies, Martinique, Guadeloupe and San Domingo, led to a
triangular slave trade between Europe, Africa and America in the 17th century.
The National Assembly held long debates and finally. The Convention in 1794
passed laws freeing slaves in the French overseas possessions but it was last
for a short term. After ten years, slavery was reintroduced by Napoleon.
Finally, it was abolished in 1848.
20. The French Revolution popularised many symbols. Each symbol depicted
some basic values. Mention such symbols and related values.
Answer:
(i) The Broken Chain was used to fetter slaves. A broken chain symbolised the
freedom from slavery.
(ii) The Bundle of Rods or Fasces One rod can be easily broken, but not an
entire bundle. It symbolises strength lies in unity.
(iii) The Eye within a Triangle Radiating Light The all seeing eye stands for
knowledge. The rays of the Sun will drive away the clouds of ignorance. It
depicts knowledge and removes ignorance.
(iv) Sceptre It was a symbol of royal power. It depicted the power of
autocracy.
(v) Snake Biting its Tail to form a Ring This type of ring has neither beginning
nor end. It is a symbol of eternity.
(vi) Red Phrygian Cap It worn by a slave upon becoming free. It symbolises the
freedom from bondage or slavery.
(vii) Blue-White Red These were the national colours of France. The use of
these colours depicted nationalism.
(viii) The Winged Woman Personification of the law. It symbolised the power
of law.
(ix) The Law Tablet The law is the same for all and all are equal before if it
symbolised equality and justice.
21. In ‘The Spirit of the Laws’, Montesquieu proposed a division of power
within the government between the Legislative, the Executive and the
Judiciary. Explain the values which can be reflected in this proposal.
Answer: The values which can he derived from Montesquieu’s proposal are
(i) Power Sharing Montesquieu suggested a division of power within the
government between the Legislative, the Executive and the Judiciary. This
arrangement refuted the absolute right of the king.
(ii) Equality There would be no special privileges for the first and second
estates, i.e., the clergy and nobility. Everybody in the country should enjoy
equal status.
(iii) Expansion of People’s Power Montesquieu opposed the theory of the
‘Divine Right of the King’. His concept of separation of powers is a prerequisite
to eliminate corruption from the administration. It was a great instrument
against the despotic rule of French emperor and established the common
man’s power. Montesquieu believed that all powers should not be
concentrated in one person’s hand. He stressed on individual liberty.
22. What was the impact of French Revolution on the world? Give your
points.
Or
What was the impact of French Revolution on the world? Name two Indians
who were very much influenced by the revolutionary France.
Or
Describe the legacy of the French Revolution for the people of the world.
Answer: Ideologically the impact of the French Revolution on the world was
immense.
(i) The ideas of liberty and democratic rights were the most important legacy
of the French Revolution. These ideas spread from France to the rest of
Europe during the 19th century, where feudal systems were abolished.
(ii) Colonised people in Africa, Asia and Latin America reworked the idea of
freedom from bondage into their movements to create a sovereign nation
state.
(iii) The French Revolution led to the end of monarchy in France. A society
based on privileges gave way to a new system of governance.
(iv) The idea that all individuals had rights and could claim equality became
part of the new language of politics, but in different countries they were
reinterpreted and rethought. Tipu Sultan and Raja Rammohan Roy are two
Indians who were very much influenced by the revolution in France.
23. What were the causes for the empty treasure of France under Louis XVI?
Assess any three causes.
Or
State any five causes for the empty treasury of France under Louis XVI. (v)
Lenders who had given the state credit, now began to charge 10 percent
interest on the existing loans. So, the French government had to spend an
increasing percentage of its budget on interest payment.
Answer: In 1774, Louis XVI of the Bourbon family of kings ascended the throne
of France. He found an empty treasury. The causes for it was
(i) Long years of wars had drained the financial resources of France. The
condition was served when under Louis XVI, France helped the thirteen
American colonies to gain their independence from Britain.
(ii) The king’s court at the immense palace of Versailles was extravagant. A
huge amount of money was required for its maintenance.
(iii) Taxes were levied only on third estate and exempted first and second
estates which were rich.
(iv) The war with Britain added more than a billion livres to a debt that had
already risen to more than 2 billion livres.
(v) Lenders who had given the state credit, now began to change 10 percent
interest on the existing loans. So, the French government had to spend an
increasing percentage of its budget on interest payment.
24. Why did the subsistence crisis frequently occur in France during the Old
Regime?
Or
List any five reasons that led to the subsistence crisis in France during the
Old Regime.
Answer: Subsistence crisis means an extreme situation where the basic means
of livelihood are endangered. During the Old Regime, subsistence crisis
frequently occurred in France. The reasons that led to subsistence crisis are
(i) The population of France rose from about 23 million in 1715 to 28 million in
1789 which led to a rapid increase in the demand for food grains.
(ii) Production of grains could not keep pace with the increasing demand. So,
the price of the foodstuff which is made from grains rose rapidly.
(iii) Most workers were employed as labourers on fixed wages. Their wages
could not keep pace with the rise in prices.
(iv) Gap between the poor and the rich widened. Poor remain poor, but the
rich become richer.
(v) The crisis of food grains became worse whenever drought or hail reduced
the harvest.
25. What were the results of the French Revolution for France?
Or
What landmark decisions were taken by the National Assembly led by the
third estate on the 4th August, 1789?
Answer: In June, 1789 the representatives of the third estate declared
themselves as a National Assembly. They drafted a Constitution for France.
(i) They discarded the power of absolute monarchy. Even Louis XVI accepted
the fact that his powers would be checked by a Constitution.
(ii) On 4th August, 1789 the assembly passed a decree abolishing the feudal
system of obligations and taxes.
(iii) Members of the clergy were forced to give up their privileges.
(iv) Tithe, was abolished and lands owned by the Church were also
confiscated.
(v) As a direct consequence of these measures taken by the government, the
government acquired assets worth at least 2 billion livres.
26. Describe the circumstances leading to the outbreak of revolutionary
protest in France.
Answer: The outbreak of revolutionary protest in France was a culmination of
social, political, economic and intellectual factors
(a) Social Causes or Social Conditions was the existing social division in France.
French society was divided into privileged and non-privileged sections. The
first estate and the second estate belonged to the privileged sections. The first
estate consisted of the clergy and the second estate comprised the nobility.
These two estates were exempt from payment of state taxes. The third estate
consisted of the lower and middle classes who bore the burden of taxes. But
they did not have any political rights and social status.
(b) Political Causes Louis XVI, the king of France was an autocratic, inefficient
ruler who led a luxurious life with his queen Marie Antoinette. People of
France became tired of this ratter system of administration and wanted a
change.
(c) Economic Causes The treasury of the king was empty on account of long
wars, involvement in the American War of Independence, luxurious living of
the king and faulty system of taxation.
(d) Intellectual Causes Philosophers like Rousseau, Voltaire and Montesquieu
played a significant role. The ideas of these philosophers were discussed
intensively in salons and coffee-houses and spread among people through
books and newspapers. Forced by financial bankruptcy, Louis XVI was
compelled to call an assembly of the Estates General to pass proposals for new
taxes in 1789. This time, the voting method was not accepted by the third
estate. They demanded each member should have one vote. This controversy
led to agitation among the people which became the immediate cause of the
French Revolution.
27. Describe the legacy of the French Revolution for the people of the world
during the 19th and 20th centuries.
Answer:
(a) The social and political changes that took place all over Europe can be
traced to the French Revolution. The French revolutionary ideas of Liberty,
Equality and Fraternity motivated the political movements in the world in the
19th and 20th centuries.
(b) The idea of Liberty expressed in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and
Citizen laid the foundation of a new social order. The ideals of freedom and
liberty formed the basis of national sovereignty.
(c) The idea of Equality led to the end of a society based on privileges. All
individuals have the same rights’ became the new slogan for world politics.
(d) The idea of Fraternity promotes the ideals of love, unity and cooperation
among different sections of society.
(e) Another great legacy of the French Revolution was the idea of nationalism.
The French Revolution promoted the concept of ‘nationalist’ which inspired
the people of Poland, Germany and Italy to establish nation-states in their
countries. This concept played a great role in reshaping the boundaries of
Europe and South America.
(f) The French Revolution gave us many new ideas like abolition of serfdom,
equal rights for women’, etc. Even today people get inspired by the great
ideals of the French Revolution.
28. What is the significance of ‘The Tennis Court Oath’ in the French
Revolution?
Answer: The representatives of the third estate viewed themselves as
spokesmen for the whole French nation. They assembled in the hall of an
indoor tennis court in the grounds of Versailles on 20th June, 1789. They
declared themselves as a National Assembly.
They decided not to disperse until they had drafted a constitution for France
which would curtail the power of the monarch. Mirabeau and Abbe’ Sieye’s
were the prominent leaders of the National Assembly while the National
Assembly was busy at Versailles, drafting a constitution. Bastille was stormed
and peasants revolts spread in the countryside.
29. Explain why the artist has portrayed the nobleman as the spider and the
peasant as the fly.
Answer: The spider feeds on the fly, whereas the fly does hard labour for
finding its food. Similarly, in 18th century, France, the nobles lived off the
labour of the peasants. The social reality of the time was that peasants had to
pay feudal dues as well as rendering services for the nobles.
30. Which groups of French society would have gained from the Constitution
of 1791? Which group would have had reason to be dissatisfied? What
developments does Marat (Source B) anticipate in the future?
Answer: Only some members of the Third Estate, who were rich and
propertied, would have gained from this Constitution. Members of the First
and Second Estates would have been Dissatisfied as their privileges were
abolished and they had to pay taxes. Marat anticipates another revolution in
which the poor will rebel against the rich persons of the Third Estate and
overthrow them, just like they had done the noblemen and clergy.
31. Imagine the impact of the events in France on neighbouring countries
such as Prussia, Austria-Hungary or Spain, all of which were absolute
monarchies. How would the kings, traders, peasants, nobles or members of
the clergy here have reacted to the news of what was happening in France?
Answer: The kings, nobles, clergy and other privileged sections of these
countries would become fearful that what has happened in France can happen
in their country also. The peasants would welcome the developments in
France and sympathise with the peasants and underprivileged sections of that
country. This is one of the rare paintings by a woman artist. The revolutionary
events made it possible for women to train with established painters and to
exhibit their works in the Salon, which was an exhibition held every two years.
The painting is a female allegory of liberty that is, the female form symbolizes
the idea of freedom.
32. Describe the picture in your own words. What are the images that the
artist has used to communicate the following ideas: greed, equality, justice,
takeover by the state of the assets of the Church?
Answer: Greed is symbolized by the fat clergyman on the left. The two men
accompanying him symbolize government officials who have taken over the
assets of the Church. The fat reducing press in the middle symbolizes justice.
The man and woman on the right symbolize equality. The whole picture
depicts what the revolution stood for.
33. How did the French people ultimately get the right to vote for all
citizens?
Answer: In the summer of 1792, the Jacobins planned an insurrection of a
large number of Parisians who were angered by the short supply and high
prices of food. On the morning of August 10, they stormed the palace of
Tuileries, massacred the king’s guards and held the king hostage for several
hours. Later the Assembly voted to imprison the royal family. Elections were
held. From now on all men of 21 years and above regardless of wealth, got the
right to vote.
34. How did peasants protest against the feudal lords or nobles of France?
Answer: There were rumours that the landlords of the manor had hired some
people to destroy the ripened crops. Being afraid of the situation, peasants in
several districts seized hoes and pitchforks and attacked chateaux (castles
belonging to the noblemen). They looted hoarded grain in the market. They
had also burnt the documents containing records of the manorial dues. With
the result, a large number of nobles fled from their homes and migrated to the
neighbouring countries.
35. Differentiate between Active and Passive Citizens.
Answer:
(i) Active Citizens: Only men above 25 years of age who paid taxes equal to at
least 3 days of a labourer’s wage were given the status of active citizens. Only
they had the right to vote.
(ii) Passive Citizens: Whereas, the remaining men as well as all the women of
France who were not entitled to vote were called Passive Citizens.
36. What rights were provided by the French Constitution?
Answer: The Constitution began with a Declaration of the Rights of Man and
Citizen. Rights such as the right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of opinion,
equality before law were established. These rights were considered as natural
rights, which belonged to each human being by birth and could not be taken
away. It was the duty of the government to protect these natural rights of the
citizens.
37. What do you know about the political clubs formed in France?
Answer: Large sections of the population believed that the revolution had to
be carried further, as the Constitution of 1791 had given the rights only to the
richer section. So, political clubs became important for the people who wished
to discuss government policies and plan their own forms of action. The most
successful of these clubs was the Jacobin Club. Women too formed their own
clubs to get the right to vote.
38. What was a ‘Directory’? Why was it removed from France?
Answer: After the fall of Jacobins, a new Constitution was formed which
denied the right to vote to non-propertied men. It provided two elected
legislative Councils, who appointed a Directory, an executive made up of five
members. However, the directors often clashed with the legislative councils
and were finally dismissed. With this, political instability emerged in France
which gave rise to a military dictator. Napoleon Bonaparte.
39. How did women suffer in France?
Answer: Most of the women had to work for a living. They worked as
laundresses or seamstresses sold flowers, fruits and vegetables or were
employed as domestic servants. They could not get education or job training.
Working women had also to take care of their families, that is cook, fetch
water, queue up for bread and look after children. Their wages were also
lower than men.
40. Which laws were made to improve the status of women in the French
society?
Answer: In the beginning, the revolutionary government introduced laws to
improve the lives of women.
(a) Schooling was made compulsory for all girls.
(b) Their fathers could no longer force them into marriage against their will.
(c) Divorce was made legal and could be applied for, by both men and women.
(d) Women could now be trained for jobs, could become artists or run small
businesses.
41. What was the immediate cause of the French Revolution?
Answer: A severe winter had meant a bad harvest, the price of bread rose,
often bakers exploited the situation and hoarded supplies. After spending long
hours in long queues at the bakery, crowds of angry women stormed into the
shops. At the same time, the king ordered troops to move into Paris and on
14th July, the agitated crowd stormed and destroyed the Bastille.
42. What was Guillotine? How was it used?
Answer: Guillotine is a device consisting of two poles and a blade with which a
person is beheaded. It was named after Dr. Guillotine who invented it.
It was used by Robespierre, who followed a policy of ‘reign of terror’ of severe
control and punishment. Those who did not agree with his methods were
arrested, imprisoned and then tried by a revolutionary tribunal. If the court
found them guilty, they were guillotined.
43. How did the fall of Bastille prison become the immediate cause of French
Revolution?
Answer: On the morning of 14th July 1789, the city of Paris was in a state of
alarm. The king ordered his troops to move into the city. Rumours spread that
he would soon order the army to open fire upon the citizens. Some 7,000 men
and women gathered in front of the town hall and decided to form a people’s
militia. A group of several hundred people marched towards the eastern part
of the city and stormed the fortress-prison, the Bastille. In the armed fight, the
commander of Bastille was killed and prisoners released. Since the Bastille
stood for the despotic power of the king, it led people towards the success of
French Revolution.
44. How can you say that Louis XVI was a despotic ruler?
Answer: Louis XVI of Bourbon dynasty, ascended the throne in 1774. He was
married to Austrian princess Marie Antoinette. When he became ruler, he
found an empty treasury. Long years of war had drained the financial
resources of France. Added to this was the cost of maintaining an extravagant
court at the immense palace of Versailles. Louis XVI also helped American
armies in their war of independence, which led to further rise to more than 2
billion livres debt. To meet its regular expenses, the state was forced to
increase taxes. Nobles, clergy and rich men were exempted from paying taxes,
it was the third estate which bore the brunt.
45. What does subsistence crisis mean? What led to subsistence crisis in
France?
Answer: Subsistence Crisis: It is an extreme situation where the basic means of
livelihood are endangered. The demand for foodgrains was increased as
population had increased in France from 23 million to 28 million. Production of
grains could not keep pace with the demand. So the price of bread, which was
the staple diet of the majority, rose rapidly. Most workers were employed as
labourers in workshops whose owner fixed their wages. But wages did not
keep pace with the rise in prices. So the gap between the poor and the rich
widened. Things became worse whenever drought or hail reduced the harvest.
This led to subsistence crisis, something that occurred frequently in France
during the Old Regime.
46. Who represented the National Assembly on 5th May 1789?
Answer: On 5th May 1789, Louis XVI called together an assembly of Estates
General to pass proposals for new taxes. A resplendent hall in Versailles was
prepared to host the delegates. The first and second estates sent 300
representatives each, who were seated in rows facing each other on two sides,
while the 600 members of the third estate had to stand at the back. The third
estate was represented by its more prosperous and educated members.
Peasants, artisans and women were denied entry to the assembly.
47. What was Marseillaise? What led to the formation of Marseillaise?
Answer: Marseillaise was a patriotic song composed by poet Roget de L Isle.
Although Louis XVI signed the constitution, he entered into secret negotiations
with the King of Prussia. Rulers of the other neighbouring countries too were
worried by the developments in France and made plans to send troops to put
down the events that had been taking place there since the summer of 1789.
Before this could happen, the National Assembly voted in April 1792, and
declared war against Prussia and Austria. Thousands of volunteers thronged
from the provinces to join the army. They saw this as a war of the people
against kings and aristocracies all over Europe. So Marseillaise was sung for
the first time by the volunteers from Marseilles as they marched into Paris and
so got its name. The Marseillaise is now the national anthem of France.
48. Why do you think that a growing middle class in France envisages an end
to the privileges?
Answer:
(a) In the past, peasants and workers had participated in revolts against
increasing taxes and food scarcity.
(b) But they lacked the means and programmes to carry out full-scale
measures that would bring about a change in the social and economic order.
(c) The 18th century witnessed the emergence of social groups termed the
“Middle Class”, who earned their wealth through an expanding overseas trade
and from the manufacture of goods such as woollen and silk textiles that were
either exported or bought by the richer members of the society.
(d) In addition to the merchants and manufacturers, the third estate included
professionals such as lawyers or administrative officers.
(e) All of these were educated and believed that no group in the society should
be privileged by birth. Rather a person’s social position must depend on his
merit. These ideas envisaging a society, based on freedom and equal laws and
opportunities for all, were put forward by philosophers.
49. What do you know about triangular slave trade? What legislative
measures were taken to end slavery in French colonies?
Answer: Reluctance of Europeans to go and work in distant and unfamiliar
lands meant a shortage of labour on the plantations. So this was met by a
triangular slave trade between Europe, Africa and the Americas. The
exploitation of slave labour made it possible to meet the growing demand in
European markets for sugar, coffee and indigo. Legislative Measures:
(a) Throughout the 18th century there was little criticism of slavery in France.
(b) The National Assembly held long debates about whether the rights of man
should be extended to all French subjects including those in the colonies. But it
did not pass any laws, fearing opposition from businessmen whose incomes
depended on the slave trade.
(c) It was finally the convention which in 1794 legislated to free all slaves in the
French overseas possessions.
(d) This however turned out to be a short-term measure; ten years later,
Napolean reintroduced slavery.
(e) Plantation owners understood their freedom as including the right to
enslave African Negroes in pursuit of their economic interests.
(f) Slavery was finally abolished in French colonies in 1848.
50. What kinds of freedoms were granted to the citizens of France after
French Revolution?
Answer:
(a) One important law that came into effect soon after the storming of the
Bastille in the summer of 1789 was the abolition of censorship.
(b) In the old regime all written material and cultural activities- books,
newspapers, plays- could be published or performed only after they had been
approved by the censors of the king.
(c) Now the declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen proclaimed freedom
of speech and expression to be a natural right.
(d) Newspapers, pamphlets, books and printed pictures flooded the towns of
France from where they travelled rapidly into the countryside. They all
described and discussed the events and changes taking place in France.
(e) Freedom of the press also meant that opposing views of events could be
expressed. Each side sought to convince the others of its position through the
medium of print.
(f) This was one way they would grasp and identify with ideas such as liberty or
justice that political philosophers whose about at length in texts which only a
handful of educated people could read.
51. In what circumstances did the French Revolution occur?
Or
Discuss the political, economic and social causes of the French Revolution.
Answer: Following were the reason of French Revolution –
(a) Social – The social conditions in France in late 18th century were extremely
unequal and exploitative. The clergy and the nobility formed the first two
Estates and were the most privileged classes in the French society. T Third
Estate that consisted of peasants and workers formed the majority of the
population. They were burdened with excessive taxes with no political and
social rights. As a result, they were extremely discontent.
(b) Economic – As a result of a numerous wars waged by Louis XVI the State
coffers were empty. The situation was made even more complex by France’s
involvement in the American War of Independence and the faulty system of
taxation. While the privileged classes were excused from paying taxes the
Third Estate was more and more burdened with them.
(c) Political – The Bourbon king of France, Louis XVI was an extremely
autocratic and weak silled king who led a life of obscene luxury. This led to a
lot of disenchantment among the masses who then were leading life of
extreme poverty and widespread hunger.
(d) Intellectual – The 18th century was marked by a conscious refusal by
French thinkers of the ‘Divine Rights Theory’. Philosophers like Rousseau,
rejected the paradigm of absolute monarchy and promulgated the doctrine of
equality of man and sovereignty of people. They played a pivotal role in
exposing the faultlines of old political system, i.e. the ancient regime, and
articulating the popular discontent.
52. ‘The French philosophers of the 18th century greatly influenced the
people and it led to the French Revolution.’ Comment on this statement.
Answer: Philosophers such as Montesquieu and Rousseau put forward ideas
envisaging a society based on freedom and equal laws and opportunities for
all. In his Two Treatises of Government, John Locke sought to refute the
doctrine of the divine and absolute right of the monarch. Rousseau carried the
idea forward, proposing a form of government based on ‘social contract’
between people and their representatives. In the spirit of the laws,
Montesquieu proposed a division of power within the government between
the legislature, the executive and the judiciary. This form of government was
put into force in the USA. It was an important example for political thinkers in
France.
53. Explain the importance of the following events on the course of the
French Revolution:
(a) Storming of the Bastille
(b) March on the Versailles by the women of Paris
(c) The passing of the Civil Constitution of the clergy
Answer: (a) On July 14, 1789, a mob of Paris stormed the fortress – the prison
of Bastille – considered a symbol of oppression and despotism. The Swiss
guards were killed and prisoners set free. The mob stole arms and
ammunition. To this day, France celebrates ‘Bastille Day’ on 14th July every
year.
(b) The march on the Versailles by women of Paris signified the fact that
women became an active participant in the French Revolution. They gained an
equal status in the society. The slogans of liberty, equality and fraternity
became true.
(c) In 1790, the Civil Constitution nationalised the church. The clergy or group
of persons who enjoyed special powers in the church were also forced to
relinquish power. Tithes were abolished and lands owned by the church were
confiscated.

54. Describe the Reign of Terror and role played by Robespierre in it.
Answer: The period from 1793 to 1794 is referred to as the Reign of Terror.
Maximilian Robespierre, leader of the Jacobins, followed the policy of severe
control and punishment. All those he saw as enemies of the Republic — ex-
nobles, clergy, political opponents — were arrested, tried and guillotined if
found guilty. He issued laws placing a maximum ceiling on wages and prices.
Meat and bread were rationed. Use of expensive white flour was forbidden.
Robespierre followed his policies so relentlessly that even his supporters
began to demand moderation. Finally, he was convicted, arrested and
guillotined in July 1794.
55. What is the legacy left by the French Revolution?
Answer: The ideas of liberty Equality (democratic rights) and Fraternity were
the most important legacy of the French Revolution. These spread from France
to the rest of Europe during the nineteenth century, where feudal systems
were abolished. Colonised people reworked the idea of freedom from
bondage into their movements to create a sovereign state. Tipu Sultan and
Ram Mohan Roy are two examples of individuals who responded to the ideas
coming from revolutionary France.

56. What did the following symbols convey in the Declaration of Rights?
(i) The broken chain
(ii) The bundle of rods or fasces
(iii) The eye within a triangle radiating light
(iv) Sceptre
(v) Snake biting its tail to form a ring
(vi) Red Phrygian cap
(vii) Blue-White-Red
(viii) The winged woman
(ix) The law tablet
Answer:
(i) The broken chain: Chains were used to fetter slaves. A broken chain stands
for the act of becoming free.
(ii) The bundle of rods or fasces: One rod can be easily broken, but not an
entire bundle. Strength lies in unity.
(iii) The eye within a triangle radiating light: The all-seeing eye stands for
knowledge. The rays of the sun will drive away the clouds of ignorance.
(iv) Sceptre: Symbol of royal power.
(v) Snake biting its tail to form a ring: Symbol of eternity. A ring has neither
beginning nor end.
(vi) Red Phrygian cap: Cap worn by a slave upon becoming free.
(vii) Blue-white-red: The national colours of France.
(viii) The winged woman: Personification of the law.
(ix) The law tablet: The law is the same for all, and all are equal before it.
57. Who were the Jacobins? What was their contribution to the French
Revolution?
Answer: The most successful of political clubs was that of the Jacobins. They
got their name from the former convent of St. Jacob in Paris. They included
small shopkeepers, artisans such as shoemakers, pastry cooks, watch-makers,
printers, as well as servants and daily wage earners. Their leader was
Maximilian Robespierre.
Contribution- In the summer of 1792, they planned an insurrection of a large
number of Parisians who were angered by the short supplies and high prices of
food. On August 10, they stormed the Palace of the Tuileries, massacred the
king’s guards and imprisoned the king. Elections were now held. The newly
elected assembly was called the Convention. On 21st September, 1792 it
abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic. Louis XVI was
sentenced to death by a court on the charge of treason and executed on 21st
January, 1793. The queen also met with the same fate.

58. Discuss the participation of women in political clubs, their activities and
demands.
Answer: (a) In order to discuss and voice their interests women started their
own political clubs and newspapers. About sixty women’s clubs came up in
different French cities.
(b) The Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women was the most famous
of them. One of their main demands was that women should be given the
same political rights as men.
(c) Women were disappointed that the constitution of 1791 reduced them to
passive citizens. They demanded the right to vote, to be elected to the
Assembly and to hold political office.
(d) Women’s struggle for equal political rights, however, continued. It was
finally in 1946 that women in France won the right to vote.
59. “The revolutionary government took it upon themselves to pass laws
that would translate the ideals of liberty and equality into everyday
practice.”
Discuss this statement with special emphasis on the abolition of censorship.
Answer: The years following 1789 in France saw many such changes in the
lives of men, women and children. The revolutionary governments took it
upon themselves to pass laws that would translate the ideals of liberty and
equality into everyday practice. One important law that came into effect soon
after the storming of the Bastille in the summer of 1789 was the abolition of
censorship. Earlier all written material and cultural activities — books,
newspapers, plays — could be published or performed only after they had
been approved by the censors of the king.
Now the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen declared freedom of
speech and expression to be a natural right. They all described and discussed
the events and changes taking place in France. Freedom of the press also
meant that opposing views of events could be expressed. Each side sought to
convince the others of its position through the medium of print. Plays, songs
and festive processions attracted large numbers of people. This was one way
they could grasp and identify with ideas such as liberty or justice that political
philosophers wrote about at length in texts. Newspapers, pamphlets, books
and printed pictures flooded the towns of France from where they travelled
rapidly into the countryside.
60. Describe any four causes for the fall of Jacobin government in France.
Answer: (a) The Jacobin government in France was based on extreme
measures. The period from 1793- 1794 is referred to as the reign of terror.
Robespierre followed a policy of severe control and punishment. This led to
chaos and resentment among the people.
(b) The Jacobin government issued laws placing a maximum ceiling on wage
and prices. Meat and bread were rationed. Peasants were forced to transport
their grain to the cities and sell it at prices fixed by the government. This led to
a feeling of resentment against the Jacobins. Peasants began opposing them.
(c) Robespierre’s government ordered shutting down of churches and
converting church buildings into barricades or offices. Thus the clergy turned
against the Jacobin regime and hastened its fall.
(d) Robespierre pursued his policies so relentlessly that even his supporters
turned against him. They began to demand moderation and a middle path.
Finally, he himself was tried by a court in July 1794, arrested and guillotined.
61. State the election process of the National Assembly in France.
Answer: The constitution of 1791 vested the power to make laws in the
National Assembly, which was indirectly elected. Citizens voted for a group of
electors, who in turn close the assembly. All citizens did not have the right to
vote. Only men above 25 years of age who paid taxes equal to at least 3 days
of a labourer’s wage were given the status of active citizens, that is, they were
entitled to vote. The remaining men and all women were classed as passive
citizens. To qualify as an elector and then as a member of the assembly, a man
had to belong to the highest bracket of tax payers.
62. What changes were brought in France after the fall of Robespierre’s
government? How did it lead to the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte?
Answer:
(a) The fall of the Robespierre’s government led to the seizure of power by the
wealthier middle classes.
(b) A new constitution was introduced which denied the vote to non-
propertied sections of society.
(c) It provided for two elected legislative councils. These then appointed
a Directory, an executive made up of five members.
(d) This was to check concentration of powers in the hands of a one man
executive which could turn tyrannical.
(e) But the directors often clashed with the legislative councils, who then
sought to dismiss them. The political instability of the Directory paved the way
for the rise of a military dictator Napoleon Bonaparte.
63. Describe the importance of Declaration of the Right of Man in France.
Answer:
(a) The Declaration of the Right of Man in France was a landmark decision in
the history of France. The constitution began with a declaration of the Rights
of Man and Citizen.
(b) Rights such as the right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of opinion,
equality before law, were established as ‘natural and inalienable’ rights.
(c) That is, they belonged to each human being by birth and could not be taken
away.
(d) It was the duty of the state to protect each citizen’s natural rights.
(e) The declaration of the Right of Man and Citizens influenced revolutionary
movements elsewhere too.
64. What landmark decisions were taken by the National Assembly led
by the Third Estate on 4th August, 1789?
Answer:
(a) On 4 August 1789, the Assembly passed a decree abolishing the federal
system of obligations and taxes.
(b) Members of the clergy too were forced to give up their privileges.
(c) Tithes were abolished and lands owned by the church were confiscated. As
a result, the government acquired assets worth at least 2 billion livres.