COMPUTER NETWORKING

Computer Network is a group of computers connected with each other through wires, optical
fibres or optical links so that various devices can interact with each other through a network.
The aim of the computer network is the sharing of resources among various devices.

Computer Network uses distributed processing in which task is divided among several
computers. Instead, a single computer handles an entire task, each separate computer
handles a subset.

Basic Terminologies of Computer Networks

Network: A network is a collection of computers and devices that are connected together
to enable communication and data exchange.
Nodes: Nodes are devices that are connected to a network. These can include computers,
Servers, Printers, Routers, Switches, and other devices.
Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules and standards that govern how data is transmitted over
a network. Examples of protocols include TCP/IP, HTTP, and FTP.
Topology: Network topology refers to the physical and logical arrangement of nodes on a
network. The common network topologies include bus, star, ring, mesh, and tree.
IP Address: An IP address is a unique numerical identifier that is assigned to every device
on a network. IP addresses are used to identify devices and enable communication between
them.
DNS: The Domain Name System (DNS) is a protocol that is used to translate human-
readable domain names (such as www.google.com) into IP addresses that computers can
understand.
Firewall: A firewall is a security device that is used to monitor and control incoming and
outgoing network traffic. Firewalls are used to protect networks from unauthorized access
and other security threats.

Major components of a computer network

NIC(National interface card): NIC is a device that helps the computer to communicate with
another device. The network interface card contains the hardware addresses, the data-link
layer protocol use this address to identify the system on the network so that it transfers the
data to the correct destination. It can support a transfer rate of 10,100 to 1000 Mb/s.

There are two types of NIC: wireless NIC and wired NIC.

o Wireless NIC: All the modern laptops use the wireless NIC. In Wireless NIC, a
connection is made using the antenna that employs the radio wave technology.
o Wired NIC: Cables use the wired NIC to transfer the data over the medium.
Hub : Hub is a central device that splits the network connection into multiple devices. When
computer requests for information from a computer, it sends the request to the Hub through
cable. Hub distributes this request to all the interconnected computers.
Switches: Switch is a networking device that groups all the devices over the network to
transfer the data to another device. A switch is better than Hub as it does not broadcast the
message over the network, i.e., it sends the message to the device for which it belongs to.
Therefore, we can say that switch sends the message directly from source to the destination.
Router: Router is a device that connects the LAN to the internet. The router is mainly used to
connect the distinct networks or connect the internet to multiple computers.

Modem: Modem connects the computer to the internet over the existing telephone line. A
modem is not integrated with the computer motherboard. A modem is a separate part on the
PC slot found on the motherboard.

Cables and Connectors: Cable is a transmission media used for transmitting a signal.

There are three types of cables used in transmission:

1. Twisted Pair Cable, 2. Coaxial Cable, 3. Fibre Optic Cable

Features Of Computer network

Communication speed: Network provides us to communicate over the network in a fast and
efficient manner.
File sharing: File sharing is one of the major advantage of the computer network. Computer
network provides us to share the files with each other.
Back up and Roll back is easy: Since the files are stored in the main server which is centrally
located. Therefore, it is easy to take the back up from the main server.
Software and Hardware sharing: We can install the applications on the main server,
therefore, the user can access the applications centrally. So, we do not need to install the
software on every machine. Similarly, hardware can also be shared.
Security: Network allows the security by ensuring that the user has the right to access the
certain files and applications.

Reliability: Computer network can use the alternative source for the data communication in
case of any hardware failure.
Scalability: Scalability means that we can add the new components on the network. Network
must be scalable so that we can extend the network by adding new devices. But, it decreases
the speed of the connection and data of the transmission speed also decreases, this increases
the chances of error occurring. This problem can be overcome by using the routing or
switching devices.
Computer Network Architecture: Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical
and logical design of the software, hardware, protocols, and media of the transmission of
data. Simply we can say that how computers are organized and how tasks are allocated to the
computer.
The two types of network architectures are used:

1. Peer-To-Peer network: Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are
linked together with equal privilege and responsibilities for processing the data.

o Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10 computers.

o Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
o Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources, but this
can lead to a problem if the computer with the resource is down.

Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

o It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.
o If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop working.
o It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.

Disadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

o In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized system .
Therefore, it cannot back up the data as the data is different in different locations.
o It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.

2. Client/Server Network: Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end
users called clients, to access the resources such as songs, video, etc. from a central computer
known as Server.

o The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in the network
are called clients.
o A server performs all the major operations such as security and network management.
o A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories, printer,
etc.
o All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if client1
wants to send some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to the server for
the permission. The server sends the response to the client 1 to initiate its
communication with the client 2.
Advantages Of Client/Server network:
o A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore we can back up
the data easily.
o A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the overall performance
of the whole system.
o Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server administers the shared
resources.
o It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.

Disadvantages Of Client/Server network:

o Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large memory.
o A server has a Network Operating System(NOS) to provide the resources to the clients,
but the cost of NOS is very high.
o It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the resources.

Computer Network Types: A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer
network is mainly of four types:

1. LAN(Local Area Network): Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each
other in a small area such as building, office.

o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication
medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters,
and ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
o Local Area Network provides higher security.

2. PAN(Personal Area Network): Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an

individual person, typically within a range of 10 meters.

o Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is
known as Personal Area Network.
o Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal
Area Network.
o Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
o Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are
the laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.

There are two types of Personal Area Network:

Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by simply
using wireless technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.

Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the USB.

3. MAN(Metropolitan Area Network): A metropolitan area network is a network that covers

a larger geographic area by interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.

o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3,
ADSL, etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:

o MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
o It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
o It can be used in a college within a city.
o It can also be used for communication in the military.

4. WAN(Wide Area Network): A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large
geographical area such as states or countries.

o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.

o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and
education.

Transmission modes: The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another device
is known as transmission mode.
o The transmission mode is also known as the communication mode.
o Each communication channel has a direction associated with it, and transmission
media provide the direction. Therefore, the transmission mode is also known as a
directional mode.
o The transmission mode is defined in the physical layer.

The Transmission mode is divided into three categories:

1. Simplex mode: In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, i.e., the data flow in
one direction.

o A device can only send the data but cannot receive it or it can receive the data but
cannot send the data.
o This transmission mode is not very popular as mainly communications require the
two-way exchange of data.
o The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits the signal to the listeners but
never allows them to transmit back.
o Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the simplex mode as a keyboard can only
accept the data from the user and monitor can only be used to display the data on the
screen.
o The main advantage of the simplex mode is that the full capacity of the
communication channel can be utilized during transmission.

Advantage of Simplex mode:

o In simplex mode, the station can utilize the entire bandwidth of the communication
channel, so that more data can be transmitted at a time.

Disadvantage of Simplex mode:

o Communication is unidirectional, so it has no inter-communication between devices.

2. Half-Duplex mode: In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e., the station can
transmit and receive the data as well.

o Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same time.
o The entire bandwidth of the communication channel is utilized in one direction at a
time.
o In half-duplex mode, it is possible to perform the error detection, and if any error
occurs, then the receiver requests the sender to retransmit the data.
o A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex mode.

Advantage of Half-duplex mode:

o In half-duplex mode, both the devices can send and receive the data and also can
utilize the entire bandwidth of the communication channel during the transmission of
data.

Disadvantage of Half-Duplex mode:

o In half-duplex mode, when one device is sending the data, then another has to wait,
this causes the delay in sending the data at the right time.
3. Full-duplex mode: In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e., the data
flow in both the directions.

o Both the stations can send and receive the message simultaneously.
o Full-duplex mode has two simplex channels. One channel has traffic moving in one
direction, and another channel has traffic flowing in the opposite direction.
o The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of communication between devices.
o The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a telephone network. When
two people are communicating with each other by a telephone line, both can talk and
listen at the same time.

Advantage of Full-duplex mode:

o Both the stations can send and receive the data at the same time.

Disadvantage of Full-duplex mode:

o If there is no dedicated path exists between the devices, then the capacity of the
communication channel is divided into two parts.

Network Topology: Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components
are interconnected to each other. There are two types of topology: physical and logical
topology.

Types of Network Topology: Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the
nodes in a network. There are six types of network topology which are Bus Topology, Ring
Topology, Tree Topology, Star Topology, Mesh Topology, and Hybrid Topology.

1) Bus Topology: Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network
device is connected through a single cable known as a backbone cable.

o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly
connected to the backbone cable.
o It is bi-directional.
o It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone
fails the topology crashes.
o In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control) protocols are followed by LAN
ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.
o The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access).
CSMA: It is a media access control used to control the data flow so that data integrity is
maintained, i.e., the packets do not get lost. There are two alternative ways of handling the
problems that occur when two nodes send the messages simultaneously.

o CSMA CD: CSMA CD (Collision detection) is an access method used to detect the
collision. Once the collision is detected, the sender will stop transmitting the data.
Therefore, it works on "recovery after the collision".
o CSMA CA: CSMA CA (Collision Avoidance) is an access method used to avoid the
collision by checking whether the transmission media is busy or not. If busy, then the
sender waits until the media becomes idle. This technique effectively reduces the
possibility of the collision. It does not work on "recovery after the collision".

Advantages of Bus topology:

o Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable without
passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
o Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based
networks that support upto 10 Mbps.
o Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation and
troubleshooting techniques are well known.

Disadvantages of Bus topology:

• A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
• If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
• If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this,
various protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha,
CSMA/CD, etc.
• Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
• Security is very low.
Example: A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices are
connected to a single coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This topology is also used in cable
television networks.

2) Ring Topology: In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two
neighboring devices. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number
of nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology
with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node.
Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by
having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring
Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol is used by the workstations to transmit the data.

The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.

• Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed from

one node to another node.
• Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Advantages of Ring Topology
• The data transmission is high-speed.
• The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
• Cheap to install and expand.
• It is less costly than a star topology.
Drawbacks of Ring Topology
• The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
• Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
• The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the
whole topology.
• Less secure.

3) Star Topology: In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a
cable. This hub is the central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node.
The hub can be passive in nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices,
at the same time the hub can be intelligent known as an active hub. Active hubs have
repeaters in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers. In Star
Topology, many popular Ethernet LAN protocols are used as CD(Collision Detection), CSMA
(Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.

Advantages of Star Topology

• If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of
cables required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
• Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total
number of ports required is N.
• It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
• Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
• Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
Drawbacks of Star Topology
• If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole
system will crash down.
• The cost of installation is high.
• Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an office where all
computers are connected to a central hub.

4) Tree topology: This topology is the variation of the Star topology. A tree topology is a type
of structure in which all the computers are connected with each other in hierarchical fashion.
In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC (Standard Automatic Configuration ) are
used.

Advantages of Tree Topology

• It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it decreases
the distance that is traveled by the signal to come to the devices.
• It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different computers.
• We can add new devices to the existing network.
• Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
Drawbacks of Tree Topology
• If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
• The cost is high because of the cabling.
• If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
A common example of a tree topology is the hierarchy in a large organization. At the top of
the tree is the CEO, who is connected to the different departments or divisions (child nodes)
of the company. Each department has its own hierarchy, with managers overseeing
different teams (grandchild nodes). The team members (leaf nodes) are at the bottom of
the hierarchy, connected to their respective managers and departments.

5) Mesh topology: In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a
particular channel. In Mesh Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration
Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), etc. It does not contain the switch,
hub or any central computer which acts as a central point of communication. Mesh topology
is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication failures are a critical concern.
The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.

o Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:

Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2; Where n is the number of nodes that represents the
network.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

• Communication is very fast between the nodes.
• Mesh Topology is robust.
• The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among
the devices through dedicated channels or links.
• Provides security and privacy.
Drawbacks of Mesh Topology
 • Installation and configuration are difficult.
• The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less
number of devices.
• The cost of maintenance is high.

Mesh topology is divided into two categories:

o Fully connected mesh topology

o Partially connected mesh topology
o Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is connected to all the
computers available in the network.
o Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain computers are
connected to those computers with which they communicate frequently.

6) Hybrid Topology: The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid

topology. Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free to take any form. It means these
can be individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can be a combination of various types of
topologies seen above.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

• This topology is very flexible.
• The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices.
Drawbacks of Hybrid Topology
• It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
• Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
• The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling
and network devices.
A common example of a hybrid topology is a university campus network.

7. Point to Point Topology-------->(Extra hai bss padhlo)

Point-to-Point Topology is a type of topology that works on the functionality of the sender
and receiver. It is the simplest communication between two nodes, in which one is the
sender and the other one is the receiver. Point-to-Point provides high bandwidth.
Computer Network Models

Layered Architecture: The main aim of the layered architecture is to divide the design into
small pieces.

o Each lower layer adds its services to the higher layer to provide a full set of services to
manage communications and run the applications.
 o The basic elements of layered architecture are services, protocols, and interfaces.
o Service: It is a set of actions that a layer provides to the higher layer.
o Protocol: It defines a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange the information
with peer entity. These rules mainly concern about both the contents and
order of the messages used.
o Interface: It is a way through which the message is transferred from one layer
to another layer.

OSI Model: OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It is a reference framework that
explains the process of transmitting data between computers. It is divided into seven layers
that work together to carry out specialised network functions, allowing for a more
systematic approach to networking. It is a 7-layer architecture with each layer having
specific functionality to perform.. OSI model was developed by ISO – ‘International
Organization for Standardization‘, in the year 1984.
1) Physical Layer
o It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
o The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one
node to another node.
o It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
o When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and
1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.

Functions of the Physical Layer

• Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits
by providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus
providing synchronization at the bit level.
• Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the
number of bits sent per second.
• Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes
are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or mesh topology.
• Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between
the two connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are
Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
Note:
1. Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables are Physical Layer devices.
2. Network Layer, Data Link Layer, and Physical Layer are also known as Lower
Layers or Hardware Layers.

2) Data-Link Layer
 o The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message.
o The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one
node to another, over the physical layer.
o When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it
to the Host using its MAC address.
o It contains two sub-layers: Logical Link Control Layer and Media Access Control Layer

Logical Link Control Layer

o It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the

receiver that is receiving.
o It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.
o It also provides flow control.

Media Access Control Layer

o A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control layer
and the network's physical layer.
o It is used for transferring the packets over the network.

Functions of the Data Link Layer

• Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a
sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be
accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the
frame.
• Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical
addresses (MAC addresses) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each
frame.
• Error control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in
which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
• Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is
the technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the
sides so that no data get corrupted.
• Access control: When two or more devices are connected to the same
communication channel, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to
determine which device has control over the channel at a given time.
Note:
1. Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.
2. Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and device
drivers of host machines.
3. Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.
3) Network Layer: The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to
the other located in different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of
the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender
& receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.

Functions of the Network Layer

• Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from
source to destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.
• Logical Addressing: To identify each device on Internetwork uniquely, the
network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP
addresses are placed in the header by the network layer. Such an address
distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
• Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and
converts them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved
by internet protocol (IP).
Note:
1. Segment in the Network layer is referred to as Packet.
2. Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers and
switches.

4) Transport Layer: The transport layer is called as Heart of the OSI model. The transport
layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the network layer.
The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the end-to-
end delivery of the complete message. The transport layer also provides the
acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is
found.

At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper
layers, performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow and error control to ensure
proper data transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port numbers in its header
and forwards the segmented data to the Network Layer.
At the receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards
the Data which it has received to the respective application. It also performs sequencing and
reassembling of the segmented data.

The two protocols used in this layer are:

Transmission Control Protocol

o It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the internet.
o It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.

User Datagram Protocol

 o User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
o It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any
acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender does not wait for any
acknowledgment.

Functions of the Transport Layer

• Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the
(session) layer, and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the
segments produced has a header associated with it. The transport layer at the
destination station reassembles the message.
• Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the
transport layer header includes a type of address called service point address
or port address. Thus by specifying this address, the transport layer makes sure
that the message is delivered to the correct process.
Other functions include: flow control, error control. Both of them is performed end-to-end
rather than across a single link.
Services Provided by Transport Layer
1. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes
• Connection Establishment
• Data Transfer
• Termination/disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment, back to the
source after a packet or group of packets is received. This type of transmission is reliable
and secure.
2. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this
type of transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This
approach allows for much faster communication between devices. Connection-oriented
service is more reliable than connectionless Service.

5) Session Layer: This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection,

maintenance of sessions, and authentication, and also ensures security.

Functions of the Session Layer

• Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows the
two processes to establish, use, and terminate a connection.
• Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are
considered synchronization points in the data. These synchronization points
help to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends
of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.
• Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication
with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
6) Presentation Layer: The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer/ the syntax
layer. The data from the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the
required format to transmit over the network.

Functions of the Presentation Layer

• Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
• Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form
or code. The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext and the decrypted data
is known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting
data.
• Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the
network.

7) Application Layer: At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the
Application layer which is implemented by the network applications. These applications
produce the data, which has to be transferred over the network. It serves as a window for
users and application processes to access network service. It handles issues such as network
transparency, resource allocation, etc. The application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.

Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.

Functions of Application layer:

o File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user to
access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to
manage the files in a remote computer.
o Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and
storage.
o Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources and is
used to provide that global information about various objects.

TCP/IP model: TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) in
the 1960s and is based on standard protocols. It stands for Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol.
The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport layer, network layer,
data link layer and physical layer.

The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from one device to another.
The main condition of this process is to make data reliable and accurate so that the receiver
will receive the same information which is sent by the sender. To ensure that, each message
reaches its final destination accurately, the TCP/IP model divides its data into packets and
combines them at the other end, which helps in maintaining the accuracy of the data while
transferring from one end to another end.

Layers of TCP/IP Model

Network Access Layer /Link Layer
o A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
o A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined in
the OSI reference model.
o It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
o This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices
on the same network.
o The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into frames
transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical addresses.
o The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.

Internet Layer:

o An internet layer is also known as the network layer.

o The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network,
and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.

Following are the protocols used in this layer are:

• IP: IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets
from the source host to the destination host by looking at the IP addresses
in the packet headers. IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that
most websites are using currently. But IPv6 is growing as the number of
IPv4 addresses is limited in number when compared to the number of users.
• ICMP: ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated
within IP datagrams and is responsible for providing hosts with information
about network problems.
• ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the
hardware address of a host from a known IP address. ARP has several types:
Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP, and Inverse ARP.

Transport Layer: It is also known as host-to-host layer. The TCP/IP transport layer protocols
exchange data receipt acknowledgments and retransmit missing packets to ensure that
packets arrive in order and without error. End-to-end communication is referred to as such.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol are transport layer
protocols at this level (UDP).
 • TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as though they were
physically connected by a circuit. TCP transmits data in a way that resembles
character-by-character transmission rather than separate packets. A starting
point that establishes the connection, the whole transmission in byte order,
and an ending point that closes the connection make up this transmission.
• UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP, the other transport
layer protocol. Connections between receiving and sending hosts are not
verified by UDP. Applications that transport little amounts of data use UDP
rather than TCP because it eliminates the processes of establishing and
validating connections.

Application Layer: An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model. It is
responsible for end-to-end communication and error-free delivery of data. It shields the
upper-layer applications from the complexities of data. The three main protocols present in
this layer are:

HTTP and HTTPS: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the World Wide
Web to manage communications between web browsers and servers. HTTPS stands for
HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is efficient in
cases where the browser needs to fill out forms, sign in, authenticate, and carry out bank
transactions.

SSH: SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software similar to Telnet. The
reason SSH is preferred is because of its ability to maintain the encrypted connection. It
sets up a secure session over a TCP/IP connection.

NTP: NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks on our
computer to one standard time source. It is very useful in situations like bank transactions.
Assume the following situation without the presence of NTP. Suppose you carry out a
transaction, where your computer reads the time at 2:30 PM while the server records it at
2:28 PM. The server can crash very badly if it’s out of sync.
 TCP/IP OSI

TCP refers to Transmission Control OSI refers to Open Systems

Protocol. Interconnection.

TCP/IP uses both the session and

OSI uses different session and
presentation layer in the application layer
presentation layers.
itself.

TCP/IP follows connectionless a horizontal

OSI follows a vertical approach.
approach.

The Transport layer in TCP/IP does not In the OSI model, the transport layer
provide assurance delivery of packets. provides assurance delivery of packets.

While in the OSI model, Protocols are

Protocols cannot be replaced easily in
better covered and are easy to replace
TCP/IP model.
with the technology change.

TCP/IP model network layer only provides Connectionless and connection-oriented

connectionless (IP) services. The transport services are provided by the network
layer (TCP) provides connections. layer in the OSI model.

Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model

Q) Which IP Addresses Do TCP/IP Work With?
Ans: TCP/IP generally works with both the IP that is, IPv4 and IPv6. If you are using IPv4 or
IPv6, it seems that you are already working on TCP/IP Model.

What is Transmission media?

o It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data communication i.e. it is
the channel through which data is sent from one place to another.
o The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the information in the
form of bits through LAN(Local Area Network).
o The transmission media is available in the lowest layer of the OSI reference model,
i.e., Physical layer.

Some factors need to be considered for designing the transmission media:

o Bandwidth: All the factors are remaining constant, the greater the bandwidth of a
medium, the higher the data transmission rate of a signal.
o Transmission impairment: When the received signal is not identical to the
transmitted one due to the transmission impairment. The quality of the signals will
get destroyed due to transmission impairment.
 o Interference: An interference is defined as the process of disrupting a signal when it
travels over a communication medium on the addition of some unwanted signal.

Causes Of Transmission Impairment:

o Attenuation: Attenuation means the loss of energy, i.e., the strength of the signal
decreases with increasing the distance which causes the loss of energy.
o Distortion: Distortion occurs when there is a change in the shape of the signal. This
type of distortion is examined from different signals having different frequencies. Each
frequency component has its own propagation speed, so they reach at a different time
which leads to the delay distortion.
o Noise: When data is travelled over a transmission medium, some unwanted signal is
added to it which creates the noise.

Classification Of Transmission Media:

1. Guided Media: It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals

being transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.
Features:
• High Speed
• Secure
• Used for comparatively shorter distances

There are 3 major types of Guided Media:

(i) Twisted Pair Cable –

It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other. Generally,
several such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are the most widely
used Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted
around one another. This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not
depend on a physical shield for this purpose.

Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:

o It is cheap.
o Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
o It can be used for high-speed LAN.

Disadvantages:
o ⇢ Susceptible to external interference

o ⇢ Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP

 o ⇢ Short distance transmission due to attenuation
Applications:
o Used in telephone connections and LAN networks

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):

This type of cable consists of a special jacket (a copper braid covering or a foil shield) to
block external interference. It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data
channels of telephone lines.
Advantages:
⇢ Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
⇢ Eliminates crosstalk
⇢ Comparatively faster
Disadvantages:
⇢ Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
⇢ More expensive
⇢ Bulky
(ii) Coaxial Cable – It has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of
PVC or Teflon and 2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover.
It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable. The inner conductor of the
coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer conductor is made up of copper mesh. The
middle core is made up of non-conductive cover that separates the inner conductor from the
outer conductor. The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper
mesh prevents from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference). The coaxial cable transmits
information in two modes:

Baseband mode: In this mode, digital signals are directly transmitted without modulation.
It's commonly used for transmitting data over short distances, such as within a local area
network (LAN).
Broadband mode: In this mode, analog signals are modulated onto a high-frequency carrier
wave. This mode is often used for transmitting television signals, internet access via cable
modems, and other long-distance communication applications.

Advantages Of Coaxial cable:

o The data can be transmitted at high speed.

o It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
o It provides higher bandwidth.

Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:

o It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.

 o If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.

(iii) Optical Fiber Cable – Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for
communication. It uses the concept of refraction of light through a core made up of glass or
plastic. The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding.
It is used for the transmission of large volumes of data.

The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division

Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely unidirectional and bidirectional mode.

Basic elements of Fibre optic cable:

Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a core.

Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main functionality of the
cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at the core interface.

Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The main purpose of
a jacket is to preserve the fibre strength, absorb shock and extra fibre protection.

Following are the advantages of fibre optic cable over copper:

o Greater Bandwidth: The fibre optic cable provides more bandwidth as compared
copper.
o Faster speed: Fibre optic cable carries the data in the form of light. This allows the
fibre optic cable to carry the signals at a higher speed.
o Longer distances: The fibre optic cable carries the data at a longer distance as
compared to copper cable.
o Better reliability: The fibre optic cable is more reliable than the copper cable as it is
immune to any temperature changes while it can cause obstruct in the connectivity of
copper cable.
o Thinner and Sturdier: Fibre optic cable is thinner and lighter in weight so it can
withstand more pull pressure than copper cable.

Disadvantages:
• Difficult to install and maintain
• High cost
• Fragile
Applications:
• Medical Purpose: Used in several types of medical instruments.
• Defence Purpose: Used in transmission of data in aerospace.
• For Communication: This is largely used in formation of internet cables.
• Industrial Purpose: Used for lighting purposes and safety measures in designing
the interior and exterior of automobiles.
2. Unguided Media:
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. No physical medium is
required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features:
• The signal is broadcasted through air
• Less Secure
• Used for larger distances
There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:

(i) Radio waves –

These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and
receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios
and cordless phones use Radio waves for transmission.
(ii) Microwaves –
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be
properly aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly
proportional to the height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These are
majorly used for mobile phone communication and television distribution.

Microwaves are of two types:

o Terrestrial microwave: is a technology that transmits the focused beam of a radio

signal from one ground-based microwave transmission antenna to another.

o Satellite microwave communication: Satellite communication is more reliable

nowadays as it offers more flexibility than cable and fibre optic systems. A satellite is
a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known height.

(iii) Infrared –
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate
through obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency Range:300GHz
– 400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc. We can
communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite communication.