SQL functions are built-in functions provided by SQL databases to perform operations on data.

These
functions can be categorized into several types, including aggregate functions, scalar functions, and
window functions. Here's a detailed look at these SQL functions:

### 1. Aggregate Functions

Aggregate functions perform a calculation on a set of values and return a single value. They are
commonly used with the `GROUP BY` clause.

- **AVG()**: Returns the average value of a numeric column.

```sql

SELECT AVG(salary) FROM employees;

```

- **COUNT()**: Returns the number of rows that match a specified condition.

```sql

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM employees;

```

- **MAX()**: Returns the maximum value in a set of values.

```sql

SELECT MAX(salary) FROM employees;

```

- **MIN()**: Returns the minimum value in a set of values.

```sql

SELECT MIN(salary) FROM employees;

```

- **SUM()**: Returns the sum of a numeric column.

```sql

SELECT SUM(salary) FROM employees;

### 2. Scalar Functions

Scalar functions operate on individual values and return a single value.

- **UCASE()/UPPER()**: Converts a string to upper-case.

```sql

SELECT UCASE(name) FROM employees;

```

- **LCASE()/LOWER()**: Converts a string to lower-case.

```sql

SELECT LCASE(name) FROM employees;

```

- **LENGTH()**: Returns the length of a string.

```sql

SELECT LENGTH(name) FROM employees;

```

- **SUBSTRING()/SUBSTR()**: Extracts a substring from a string.

```sql

SELECT SUBSTRING(name, 1, 3) FROM employees;

```

- **REPLACE()**: Replaces occurrences of a specified substring.

```sql

SELECT REPLACE(name, 'John', 'Jon') FROM employees;

```
- **ROUND()**: Rounds a numeric value to the nearest integer or to a specified number of decimal
places.

```sql

SELECT ROUND(salary, 2) FROM employees;

```

- **NOW()**: Returns the current date and time.

```sql

SELECT NOW();

```

- **DATEDIFF()**: Returns the difference in days between two dates.

```sql

SELECT DATEDIFF('2024-06-15', '2024-06-10') AS DiffDate;

```

- **CONCAT()**: Concatenates two or more strings.

```sql

SELECT CONCAT(first_name, ' ', last_name) AS full_name FROM employees;

```

### 3. Window Functions

Window functions perform calculations across a set of table rows related to the current row. They
are used with the `OVER` clause.

- **ROW_NUMBER()**: Assigns a unique sequential integer to rows within a partition.

```sql

SELECT name, salary, ROW_NUMBER() OVER (ORDER BY salary DESC) AS row_num FROM
employees;

```
- **RANK()**: Assigns a rank to rows within a partition, with gaps in rank values when there are ties.

```sql

SELECT name, salary, RANK() OVER (ORDER BY salary DESC) AS rank FROM employees;

```

- **DENSE_RANK()**: Assigns a rank to rows within a partition, without gaps in rank values when
there are ties.

```sql

SELECT name, salary, DENSE_RANK() OVER (ORDER BY salary DESC) AS dense_rank FROM
employees;

```

- **NTILE()**: Distributes rows of an ordered partition into a specified number of groups.

```sql

SELECT name, salary, NTILE(4) OVER (ORDER BY salary DESC) AS ntile FROM employees;

```

- **LEAD()**: Provides access to a row at a specified physical offset following the current row.

```sql

SELECT name, salary, LEAD(salary, 1) OVER (ORDER BY salary DESC) AS next_salary FROM
employees;

```

- **LAG()**: Provides access to a row at a specified physical offset preceding the current row.

```sql

SELECT name, salary, LAG(salary, 1) OVER (ORDER BY salary DESC) AS previous_salary FROM
employees;

```

- **FIRST_VALUE()**: Returns the first value in an ordered set of values.

```sql

SELECT name, salary, FIRST_VALUE(salary) OVER (ORDER BY salary DESC) AS highest_salary FROM
employees;
 ```

- **LAST_VALUE()**: Returns the last value in an ordered set of values.

```sql

SELECT name, salary, LAST_VALUE(salary) OVER (ORDER BY salary DESC) AS lowest_salary FROM
employees;

```

### Examples

**Using Aggregate Functions:**

```sql

SELECT department, COUNT(*) AS num_employees, AVG(salary) AS avg_salary

FROM employees

GROUP BY department;

```

**Using Scalar Functions:**

```sql

SELECT name, UPPER(name) AS uppercase_name, LENGTH(name) AS name_length

FROM employees;

```

**Using Window Functions:**

```sql

SELECT name, department, salary,

RANK() OVER (PARTITION BY department ORDER BY salary DESC) AS department_rank

FROM employees;

```
These functions enhance the capabilities of SQL by allowing you to perform complex calculations and
data transformations directly within your queries. Understanding and using these functions
effectively can significantly improve your ability to manipulate and analyze data in SQL.