LECTURE NOTE

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SYSTEM (COM 111)

ND I COMPUTER SCIENCE (100 LEVEL)
PREPARED BY MURTALA M. CHAFE

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
In the past Computer Technology and Communication Technology developed
independently, like rails in a rail road track that never Marge.
However, it is an umbrella that supports the creating, processing (manipulating),
communication and distribution of information together with the related technology in
order to achieve a new Information communication Technology environment.

DIFINATION OF A COMPUTER
A computer can be define as an electronic device which under the control of stored
programs accept data as an input and process it into a useful and meaningful information
as an output for decision making. And this information can be display as a soft copy via
visual display unit (VDU) or print it as a hard copy via printer or store it in the computer
memory for future use in order to speed up problem solving and increase productivity.

THE BASIC FUNCTION OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

PROCESS
INPUT
DATA INFORMATION OUTPUT

STORAGE
a. Input: The computer accepts data from outside for processing within.
b. Processing: The computer performs operations on the data it hold within.
c. Storage: The computer holds data internally before, during and after processing
d. Output: The computer produces data from within for external use.
This is summarized in the diagram above.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers can be classified based on the following parameters:
1. Type of data processed
2. The size
3. The Purpose or scope
4. The age of technology
 1. CLASSIFICATION BY TYPE OF DATA PROCESSED
In this category, we have
a. Digital computers
b. Analog computers
c. Hybrid computers

a. DIGITAL COMPUTERS
These are computers that operate on discrete values. That is, values that occur at a
point in time. E.g. 0,1,2,3… The output from digital computers is usually in the form
of discrete values. This class of computers is commonly found in the business
environments, and they include Desk Calculators, Adding machines, and most of the
computers we have around, that is, the personal computers.

b. ANALOG COMPUTERS

An analog computer is a form of computer that uses continuous physical phenomena

such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being
solved. The output of analog computers is usually represented in the form of smooth
curves or graphs from which information can be read.

c. HYBRID COMPUTERS
Hybrid computers are computers that comprise features of analog computers and
digital computers. The digital component normally serves as the controller and
provides logical operations, while the analog component normally serves as a solver of
differential equations.

2. CLASSIFICATION BY PURPOSE OR SCOPE

Using scope as a criterion, computers can be classified into two broad categories:
(a) DEDICATED OR SPECIAL PURPOSE COMPUTERS: These are computers that are
designed to carry out only specified task. The series of instructions that these types of
computer follow to carry out its operation is in-built and cannot be modified. E.g. word
processor, robots used in car manufacturing plants.

(b) GENERAL PURPOSE COMPUTERS: These are computers designed to perform a

wide variety of operations. They can be programmed to carry out scientific oriented
applications or business oriented ones just by changing the series of instructions in its
memory.

3. CLASSIFICATION BY SIZE
Using physical size as a factor, the following types of computers can be identified:
(a)MICRO-COMPUTERS: These are computers that are small in size which can be
placed on the desk or lap or palm.
 (b) MINI COMPUTERS: These are large computers that support multi users. Their
speed of operations is high compared to micros.
(c)MAINFRAME / SUPER COMPUTERS: These are very large computers that
support multi users. Their speed of operations and memory capacity is larger than
that of a mini and micro computers.
4. CLASSIFICATION BY AGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological development
that fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly
smaller, cheaper, more powerful and more efficient and reliable devices. Read about
each generation and the developments that led to the current devices that we use
today.

1. First Generation - 1940-1956: Vacuum Tubes

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory.
Their characteristics are:

I. Very big, taking up entire rooms

II. Very expensive to operate
III. Using a great deal of electricity
IV. Generated a lot of heat
V. Often malfunctions
VI. Relied on machine language to perform operations
VII. Able to solve only one problem at a time.

Their input was based on punched cards and paper tape. The Output was displayed
on printouts. The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation
computing devices.

2. Second Generation - 1956-1963: Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of

computers. Their characteristics are:

I. The computers become smaller

II. They are faster, cheaper and are more energy-efficient
III. They are more reliable than the first-generation computers.
IV. They used assembly language to perform operations
V. Generated lesser heat

Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for
output.

These were the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which
moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.
 The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.

3. Third Generation - 1964-1971: Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of
computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called
semiconductors.

Characteristics of computers in this generation are:

I. They were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

II. Drastical increase in speed
III. The computers are highly efficient
IV. Keyboard is used as input device
V. Monitor and printouts are used for output

Users interacted with the third generation computers through an operating system,
which allowed the device to run many different applications at one time with a central
program that monitored the memory. Computers for the first time became accessible
to a mass audience because.

4. Fourth Generation - 1971-Present: Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of

integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip.

I. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the
hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the
computer - from the central processing unit and memory to input/output controls - on
a single chip.
II. In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple
introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop
computers and into many areas of life as more and more everyday products began to
use microprocessors.
III. As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to
form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth
generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld
devices.

5. Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices are based on artificial intelligence. They are still in
development. Applications that have been developed so far in this generation are:
I. Voice recognition that is being used today.
 II. Parallel processing and superconductors which is helping to make artificial intelligence
a reality.
III. Quantum computation, molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of
computers in years to come.
The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural
language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS
Computers have certain definite characteristics that make them unique. These
characteristics include:
1. Electronic in nature: The basic components of computer are electronics,
such as integrated circuits, data input into the computer are represented in form of
electronic pluses, operations performs by computer are electronic.
2. High Speed:
The computers have the ability to execute or carry out instructions at very great speed.
3. Accuracy:
Computers per se do not make errors i.e. there is accuracy of work. Any error is usually
caused by the human elements.
4. Storage:
Computers can store large volume of data/information on secondary storage, which can
be retrieved at a latter time.
5. Consistency:
Computers have the ability to consistently follow instructions without getting tired.
6. Repetitiveness:
Computers have the ability to continue processing over an extended period.
7. Complexity:
Computers have the ability to carry out very complex operations that beats the best
human ability.
8. Volume: Computers are very suitable for handling large amount of data.
9. Automatic:
Once initiated, computer can carry out its operations without human intervention
under the control of stored sequence of instructions called program.
10. Versatility:
Computer has ability to perform different operations such as scientific research,
accounting operations, wheather forecasting, medical analysis e.t.c.

CHAPTER TWO
BASIC COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM
A computer system consist of two (2) main components, namely
1. Hardware
2. Software
 1. HARDWARE: Is the general term used to describe all the physical parts of the
computer which we see and operate on. The hardware includes among other devices,
Keyboard, Monitor, Mouse Central Processing Device (CPU) etc. The hardware is
categorized into two (2) parts namely
(i) The Central Processing Unit (ii) The peripherals.

THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU) DIAGRAM

CONTROL UNIT

INPUT UNIT ARITHEMATIC OUT PUT UNIT

LOGIC UNIT

MAIN MEMORY

SECONDARY
STORAGE UNIT

THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU):

The central processing unit (CPU) is responsible for all the processing that take place
within the computer. The central processing unit is the nucleus of the computer system.
It performs it’s operations at an incredible speed that can be compared to that of light
which makes it possible for the CPU to process large volume of work within a very short
time. Although the CPU is practically a hardware device, it is absolutely controlled by
program in whatever it does.

The CPU otherwise called PROCESSOR is made of the following:

a. The Control Unit (CU)
b. The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
c. The Main Memory
A. THE CONTROL UNIT (CU):
The control unit monitors and supervises the functions performed by all other
hardware. It governs the operation of all hardware, including input and output devices
and the CPU. It does this by fetching, interpreting and executing each instruction in
turn, in an automatically controlled cycle. For example, when an instruction to accept
data through the keyboard is to be executed, the control unit sends the appropriate
signals to the keyboard device. Instructions which involve arithmetic computation are
signaled to the ALU, which carries out such functions.
B. THE ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC UNIT (ALU):
The arithmetic and logic unit carries out arithmetic and logical manipulations on
stored data. It contains an electronic circuit that takes care of all Arithmetic
operations such as +, -, x, and /. It can also make logical comparisons between two
items of data. For example =, < or >.
C. THE MAIN MEMORY:
The main memory is responsible for the storage of Information (Data and
Instructions). It is also referred to as Internal Memory, and Primary storage unit. All
the instructions and data required for processing must be loaded in this area either
from input devices or backing storage before the computer can process them.
The Main Memory is divided into:
(i) ROM (Read Only Memory)
(ii) RAM (Random Access Memory)

(i) ROM (Read Only Memory):

ROM (Read Only Memory) can otherwise be called static memory. ROM is an
acronym for Read Only Memory. This is the part of the memory that is provided
for the storage of system program, which a user’s task need. The contents of ROM
cannot be change or modified. The contents of ROM is permanently resides in the
memory of the computer whether the power is ON or OFF, hence it is referred to
as a non-volatile memory.
Features of ROM (Read Only Memory):
a. It is non-volatile i.e. the content is retained even after failure
b. It is read only
c. It occupies a very small space of the main memory
d. The memory is permanent
(ii) RAM (Random Access Memory):
This is otherwise called dynamic memory. RAM is an acronym for Random Access
Memory. It is the portion of main memory where the user’s program and data are
stored for immediate processing. The RAM contains programs, which are currently
being executed. RAM is used to store data and instructions (programs), intermediate
and final results of processing. The contents of RAM is lost when power is switched
OFF, hence it is called volatile memory.
Features of RAM (Random Access Memory):
a. It is volatile i.e. the content is erased at any time power failure.
b. It can be erased at random i.e. Reading and Writing takes place in.
c. It occupies a large portion of the memory.
d. It is a temporary storage.
(II) THE PERIPHERALS.
The peripherals devices are external elements of the computer system which provide
means of communication between the CPU and its human operators. Peripherals
devices can be grouped according to their general functions as follows (i) Input (ii)
Output (iii) Backing storage (iv) Communication devices.

COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Computer software is basically a program, which allows the hardware components to
operate effectively as well as provide very many useful services. Computer manufacturers
and certain software specialist usually write software. Programs are sequences of
instructions given to a computer to enable it solve a particular problem or accomplish a
given assignment.
Some of these programs are permanently stored in the computer. They automatically
start up the computer when it is switched on. On completion of the initial process of
start-up, they will transfer control to the operating system, which is the manager of the
computer resources. The rest of these programs that are for the external use are loaded
to the memory of the system from the secondary storage medium like hard/floppy disk
after the system boot-up. The loading of the operating system is automatic, hence if It is
not loaded, the system cannot boot or prompt for a command.

Categories of software

Software

User Application
System Software
Software

Commercial
Operating
System Service GUIs User Programs Application
System
Packages

Language
Utility Programs Special Purpose
Processor

General Purpose

The tree diagram above illustrates the different categories of software and, to some
extent, their relationships to each other. This section examines the distinction between
systems software and applications software.

System Software
The term systems software covers the collection of programs usually supplied by the
manufacturer of the computer. These programs protect the user from the enormous
complexity of the computer system, and enable the computer to be used to maximum
 effect by a wide variety of people, many of whom will know very little about the inner
workings of computers. Without systems software a modern digital computer would
be virtually impossible to use
Broadly speaking, systems software consists of three elements:
1. Those programs concerned with the internal control and co-
ordination of all aspects of the computer system, namely the operating system;
2. A number of other programs providing various services to users.
These services include translators for any languages supported by the system
and utility programs such as programs editors and other aids to programming;
3. Graphical user interfaces (GUls) providing intuitive, easily learned
methods for using microcomputer systems.

Operating systems
If a computer system is viewed as a set of resources, comprising elements of both
hardware and software, then it is the job of the collection of programs known as the
operating system to manage these resources as efficiently as possible. In so doing,
the operating system acts as a buffer between the user and the complexities of the
computer itself. One way of regarding the operating system is to think of it as a
program which allows the user to deal with a simplified computer, but without losing
any of the computational power of the machine. In this way the computer system
becomes a virtual system, its enormous complexity hidden and controlled by the
operating system and through which the user communicates with the real system.
The main functions of operating systems
Earlier it was stated that the function of an operating system is to manage the
resources of the computer system. Generally these resources managed by Operating
System are CPU, Memory, Input/output Devices, Backing Store and Files.
The above is by no means a full list of the functions of an operating system. Other
functions include:
1. interpretation of the command language by which operators can
communicate with the operating system;
2. error handling. For example, detecting and reporting inoperative or
malfunctioning peripherals;
3. protection of data files and programs from corruption by other users;
4. Security: protection of data files and programs from unauthorized use;
5. Accounting: accounting and logging of the use of the computer resources.
6. Program Loading to the main memory for processing
7. Multiprogramming
8. Interrupt handling
9. Job Sequencing
10. File Management
11. Job Scheduling
12. Peripheral Control
13. Recovery from System Failure
 Some current operating systems are OS/2, Windows 95, 98, ME, UNIX, MS-DOS,
Windows NT etc.

Types of Operating System

i. Single Program OS: allow one user’s program at a time
ii. Simple Batch Systems: Provides multiprogramming of batch programs but have
few facilities for multi-access
iii. Multi-access and Time-sharing: Allows multiple access to system resources
and therefore share processors time to cope with numerous users
iv. Real-time system: Used in any real time data processing technique

System Services
Often a manufacturer will provide a number of programs designed specifically for
program or application development. Some examples of such aids are as follows.

Language Translators (Processors)

These are computer programs designed to convert high-level language programs into
machine code, that is, into a form directly usable by a computer. Common types of
language processors are Assembler, Compilers and Interpreters.
1. Assembler: This is a translator that convert program written in Assembly language to
machine code and vice-versa.
2. Compiler: This is a translator that convert program written in High Level Language
to machine code and vice-versa, and the translation in done all at once. Languages
translated by Compiler are COBOL, FORTRAN, C++ etc.
3. Interpreter: This is a translator that convert program written in High Level language
to machine code and vice-versa, but the translator is done line by line. Example of
language translated by Interpreter is BASIC.

Utility Programs
As part of the systems software provided with a computer system there are a number of
utility programs specifically designed to aid program development and testing. These
include the following.
1. Editors: These permit the creation and modification of source programs and data files.
2. Debugging Aids : Debugging aids help programmers to isolate and identify the
cause of bugs.
3. File managers: These simplify and facilitate a number of operations connected with
program development and maintenance such as keeping backup copies of important files;
deleting, creating, merging, sorting files etc.
Without the help of such dedicated programs, operations such as these could be -
consuming and consequently expensive.
 Graphical User Interfaces (GUls)
The vast majority of microcomputer users are interested merely in using a computer as a
tool, without any real interest in the technical details of its operation. A typical user will
probably want to run one or more common general-purpose applications, organize files
into directories, delete files and format disks. Though the operating system will provide
these services, the user needs to have a certain amount of technical knowledge to
perform these tasks, Graphical user interfaces (or GUI, pronounced Gooey) provide a
more intuitive means of performing common tasks. They usually make use of a pointing
device, typically a mouse, by means of which a pointer is moved around the monitor
screen on which small pictures (or icons) are displayed. These icons represent, among
other things, programs which can be run by moving the mouse pointer over the icon and
then clicking one of the buttons on the mouse. Applications run in their own self-
contained areas called windows. In addition, it is usually possible to activate pull-down
menus which provide access to standard functions. When a GUI uses Windows, Icons,
Mouse, Pointers and Pull-down menus, it is referred to as a WIMP environment.

USER APPLICATIONS SOFTWARE

Applications software refers to programs that have some direct value to an organization,
and will normally include those programs for which the computer system was specifically
purchased. Application Software are grouped into User Program and Commercially
produced applications software.

USER PROGRAMS: Are written by people within the organization for specific needs,
which cannot be satisfied by other sources of software. These program writers may be
professional programmers employed by the organization, or other casual users with
programming expertise.

COMMERCIAL PACKAGES:
These are the kind of application packages that are produced by software professionals
and be sold for a wide variety of users. This falls into two main categories:

A) SPECIAL-PURPOSE PACKAGES: Though commercial, it is designed for a specific

purpose like a department or a section of an organization. Examples are
I. Airline Seat Reservation,
II. Theatre Seat Reservation
III. Hotel Room Reservation .
IV. Point of Sales Software
V. A Payroll Program
Program for each of these areas are of use only in their specific area of application and
their use will be confined to a specific department of the business. A Payroll Program for
example, can only be used for Payroll and will be used by Payroll staff only.
B) GENERAL PURPOSE: These provide facilities which might be used in a wide variety
of business situation and which might therefore be used across many department of
business e.g.
1. Word-processing: These programs that, more or less, turn a computer system into
a powerful typewriting tool and more. It helps us to produce letters, reports,
magazines, memos, etc. Example of Word-processing programs are: .WordStar,
WordPerfect, PC Write, MultiMate, Ten Best and WordStar 2000.
2. Database Management: They store and retrieve information such as customer lists,
inventories and notes. These programs help us to record and maintain information
about people, places, things and management reports of all types. Examples are
Dbase III & IV, FoxBASE, Oracle, FoxPro and Clipper, MICROSOFT ACCESS, Paradox,
3. Spreadsheet: Spreadsheets are software packages that, more or less, turn a
computer system into a sophisticated electronic calculator. Many Spreadsheet
packages also have presentation graphics generators, which take data and painlessly
convert them into bar charts, line charts, and the like. These programs help us to
produce financial reports and other mathematical computations. Examples are Lotus
1-2-3, QuatoPro, SuperCalc, Multiplan, VP Planner, Planning Assistant and Microsoft
Excel.
4. Desktop Publishing & Graphics Programs: Graphics programs create graphs and
drawings that can be used in newsletters, posters, advertisements and other
documents. Some allow users to import photographs into documents or create
animated pictures for use in "multimedia" presentations. Popular graphics programs
include PC Paintbrush, Illustrator, Persuasion, Cricket Draw, Corel Draw, Print Master,
Print Shop, Microsoft PowerPoint, and Harvard Graphics.
5. Communication Software: This allows communications and networking. Examples
are Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator

ADVANTAGES OF CUSTOM APPLICATION SOFTWARE (USER PROGRAMS)

1. The needs of the organization are precisely met
2. The method of inputting/outputting data may be designed to suit user’s taste.
3. It may require less memory and less disk space.
4. Program may execute faster
5. Programs can be changed to meet changing conditions.

DISADVANTAGES.
1. Development time may be lengthy
2. Human resources needed for development may not be available
3. High cost of development (since it is designed for only one organization).
4. Cost of maintenance / upgrading may be high.

ADVANTAGES OF GENERIC APPLICATION SOFTWARE (COMMERCIAL

APPLICATION PACKAGES)
1. Availability is immediate as only installation process is necessary before it can start
being productive.
2. Cost is less as it is spread among a number of users who purchase the product.
3. Reliability may be greater as it is thoroughly tested before it is marketed.

DISADVANTAGES.
1. It may not be an exact match for needs
2. It may require more system resources. Programs are frequently longer, thereby,
requiring more memory and disk space
3. It is not adapted to changing needs
4. It may execute more slowly.

GUIDELINE FOR ACQUISITION OF APPLICATION SOFTWARE

1. The software to be acquired must be one whose use will improve the particular
operating function of that business.
2. It must be of high performance
3. The software to be acquired must be one with enough ease in learning.
4. The software to be acquired must be available when needed
5. If a software package is complex then training is required
6. Good documentation: The package to be used must be properly documented. This
should include how the package is to be installed how to use the package and other
necessary technical details.
7. Users friendliness: The package must be easy to use even by non- computer
specialists.
8. Compatibility of the package: Before a package program can be adopted, it
must be compatible with the user system requirements as well as with the user’s
hardware.
 CHAPTER THREE
THE CONCEPT OF FILES
CHARACTER: Consists of Alphabets A-Z, Numbers 0-9, or special symbols such as
$,#, etc.
FIELD: Is a collection of related characters.e.g Name, Age, Sex, Reg-No,
Address etc.
RECORD: Is a collection of related field. e.g. Student’s records, Employee’s records
etc.
FILE: Is a collection of related records e.g. Student file, Employee file, Stock
file etc.
TYPES OF FILES
Master file (b) Transaction file (c) Reference file (d) Archival File (e) Backup File
(a) MASTER FILE: The master file is a comprehensive file that contains details of
the organization transaction. It is a file that fairly permanent in nature, and
it is updated regularly whenever there is a change in the transaction files.
(b) TRANSACTION FILE: The transaction file is a file that contains the daily
business operations of an organization. It is used to update the master file at
the end of the day’s business. It is permanent and comprehensive as the
master file.
(c) REFERENCE FILE: Reference files are used to store information that does not
require regular updating. It contains information that is needed to support the
processing of storage file, e.g price list file, tax rate file etc.
(d) ARCHIVAL FILE: Archival files are files that contain historical information that
is not needed on regular basis, it reflects business transaction that have
transpired over the course of several years, e.g. tax report files. Whish are
referenced during tax audit by the internal revenue.
(e) BACKUP FILES: A backup file is a duplicate of an original file. It provides the
means of reconstituting the master file in case of any accident.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF FILES
Hit rate: This is the frequency with which active records in the file are accessed.
File records that are accessed more often are said to have high hit rate.
Volatility: This is the frequency with which records are added to or deleted from a
file.
Size: The amount of data stored in the file determines its size.
Growth: As records are being added to a file, it continues to grow.

FILE PROCESSING ACTIVITIES

The following are the various activities or operations that can be performed on files.
1. CREATE: This is the process of making a file a exist. Usually, the raw data required
for processing occurs in the source documents, which are not appropriate for storage
until they are typed into the computer and subsequently stored on a storage media,
e.g magnetic tape, magnetic disk with a file name.
This is referred to as a creation

2. FILE STORAGE: After a file is created, it is stored in the appropriate medium e.g.
magnetic disk for feature use
3. FILE RETRIEVE: This is the process of bringing or loading from auxiliary storage
back to main memory for display, update, or printing.
4. FILE DISPLAY: The content of computer file can be displayed on the VDU or printed
through the printer. Report file is most common example of a file to be displayed.
5. FILE UPDATING: This means the processing of data in order to change the existing
information. That users. E.g. updating minute, hour by hour, week by week etc.
6. FILE SEARCH: This entails looking for records with certain key values and or holding
certain data in some way taking a note of these. For search operation to take place.
The user may not be sure in advance whether the record exists or not.
7. SELECTING: This is the picking or records that satisfy certain condition from a file.
These records are sure to exist in the file
8. SORTING: This process involves placing the records in logical file into some
sequence as determined by a key in the records of the file.
9. MERGE: This is the combining of two or more files into one set.
10. REPORT: This is the preparation and arrangement of vital and required information
from the file for management decision-making.
11. MAINTENANCE: This is the term given to task a adding, deleting, or amending or
records in a master file. That is it may be necessary to add a new record, change an
existing record, or delete an obsolete one from the master file.
12. FILE ENQUIRY OR INTERROGATION: This is the process of looking up a record
as part of some decision-making process, e.g an enquiry can be made to customer file
to determine his credit balancein order to determine further transaction with him.

FILE ORGANIZATION METHODS

1. Serial organization method: This is a method of organizing files in such a way that
there is no sequence or order for the records in the file. Punched cards, paper tape,
or magnetic tape can be used to implement this type of organization.
2. Sequential Organization method: This is method of organizing a file in order
sequence (either ascending or descending order), using a key field. The key field must
be a field in the record that uniquely identifies the record. This organization method
can be implemented in a magnetic tape or magnetic disk.
3. Indexed sequential organization method: This is the organization method entails
the arrangement of records in accordance with defined record keys (unique fields)
and also with the provision of index to enable file. This organization method can be
implemented in a magnetic disk medium.
4. Random Organization method: this organization method entails writing the
records into the file in what appear to be in a random maner, wioth no obvious
relationship between the records and their keys. In this arrangement a mathematical
formula is provided which operate on every record key to generate an address at
which the record is to be placed onto the file. This organization method is also
implemented in a magnetic disk medium.

FILE ACCESS METHODS

1. Serial Access Method: This is the method of accessing in an unsorted file. The term
refers to the ability of accessing each in a file by a serial searching process, i.e from
the first record to the last, one after another. It is a time consuming accessing
method.
2. Sequence Access method: This is a much more useful method of a
straightforward serial access, where each record in sequenced in some order, hence
the terms sequential access method. It can also be said to be a method in which
records in a sequential file are accessed serially.
3. Index sequential access method: This is the method for sequentially organized
file whose records are indexed, with their corresponding addresses.
4. Random access method: randomly organized files are accessed in a random
manner. In this method, the random key is used to generate an address of where the
record is stored in the disk and therefore also called “direct access method” and it is
possible with magnetic disk medium.
 FILE SECURITY
File security can be defined as the measure incorporated in an electronic data
processing system to prevent data from being lost, unauthorized access, corruption
(unauthorized alteration), physical damage (of the storage media) as well as to
provide privacy for data of individuals.
THE REASONS FOR FILE SECURITY
The main aim of file security is to provide the basis for reconstituting master file
containing important information if accident occurs, e.g. overwriting the file or
earthquake. For this type of accident, it is suggested that the duplicate copies of the
file be stored outside the computer building, so as to avoid losing the two at the same
time. The three main modern storage media for storing are disk, tape and CD-ROM.
FILE SECURITY TECHNIQUES
There are various techniques that can be employed to ensure that files are saved
from either damage, unintentional overwriting or unauthorized access. These measure
are;
1. THE GENERATION TECHNIQUE: The generation technique is applied to master
files held on a magnetic tape; in involves training files relating to two previous
periods in addition to the current updates file. The two previous file and the current
updates one constitute three generations commonly referred to as overwritten to still
maintain the three generations, as the great-grandfather can now be reused and
overwritten to still maintain the three generations, as the great-grandfather is not
allowed. This is because if accident should befall the third generation, it can recreated
from the second generation and vice versa.
2. THE DUMPING TECHNIQUE: This file security technique is used mainly for files
held on magnetic disks. During magnetic file updating, the existing records are
overwritten after updating and a result the previous records are destroyed. Duping
involves copying the updated records from one disk to another or to a magnetic tape.
The file is retrieved from the storage for reconstituting the master file in the case of
losses of data
3. PHYSICAL TECHNIQUE:
This technique provides physical security measures to ensure file safety. Some of
physical security measures include:
The use of write-protect notch on the disk to prevent overwriting of information on the
disk. When the notch is covered, the disk can not written on, but can only be read
from.
Prevention of authorized access to the computer room: this can be implemented by
employing a security guard to stop unauthorized person from going into the computer
to avoid any intentional damage or stealing of files etc.
4. SOFTWARE TECHNIQUE:
 This is the use of computer programs to implement security to the files. This can be
accomplished by installing a password into the system. The password will help stop
any unauthorized users from accessing the computer. Usually the computer will
demand for a password from an intending user, if the user is authorized, he will
supply the password to the computer just as it is given to him, but if he is an
unauthorized user he cannot supply the password and therefore will be denied access
to the computer.
DATABASE
The term debates is often used to describe any large collection of related data.
Precisely, a database is a collection of data. Generally related to some subject or topic
are structured so as to allow relationship to be established between separate data
items according to the various needs of users. It can as well be defined briefly as an
organized collection of related called Database Management System. Therefore a
Database management system (DBMS)is a user program which create manipulate and
manage the database. It provide interface between the user and the data in a base.
So that each application program may only access the data which it needs for
processing or retrieval. A suite of programs referred to as the DBMS controls the
database and prevent accidental or deliberate corruption of data by other application
programs. Example of DBMS are MS-Access, Paradox, FoxPro, Oracle and Dbase4
FUNCTION OF DBMS
A DBMS has the following functions.
It connects application programs with the database
It facilitates the use and organization of a database and protects the database from
accidental or deliberate corruption
It restricts a programmer’s logical view of the database to the data items needed by the
program he or she is writing.

COMPONENT OF DATABASE
1. Fields: this is defined as collection of related character. An item of data within a
record is called a field it is made up of a number of characters e.g name, a date, or an
amount.
2. Records: these are collection of related field or the collection of all information
about and item or event. E.g. student-record. Medical records, exam record.
3. File: file is a combination or related records.
4. Primary key: these are fields that uniquely identify a record in a database. Such
fields are the most important and does not normally allow duplication. E.g.
registration number of a student is the fields that differentiate every student from the
other.
5. Composite key: when primary key is made from combination of two field. It is called
composite key or compound key.
6. Secondary key: Any other key that can identify a record that is not necessary
unique are called the secondary key.

COMPUTER VIRUSES
 VIRUS DEFINED
Virus is defined as a program or piece of code that is loaded onto your computer
without your knowledge and runs against your wishes. Viruses can also replicate
themselves. All computer, viruses are manmade. A simple Virus that can make a copy
of itself over and over again is relatively easy to produce. Even such a simple virus is
dangerous because it will quickly use all available memory and bring the system to a
bypassing security systems.
A computer virus is a program code designed to create nuisance for users, or more
seriously, to effect varying degree of damage to files stores on magnetic media,
generally, the code;
Is introduced via a portable media, such as floppy disks, particularly those “pirated’ or
shareware programs;
Transfers itself from the infected medium into the computer’s main memory as soon
as the medium is accessed;
Transfers from memory onto any integral storage device, such as hard disk and
commonly conceals itself in the boot sector, from where it can readily infect any other
media placed on line in the computer system, whether it be stand-alone or
networked.
Some virus codes are merely nuisance, whilst others are developed specifically to
destroy, or to make inaccessible, whole filling systems. They pose a serious threat to
any computer-based information system, but a number of measures can be taken to
minimize the risk;
1. Only use proprietary software from a reliable source
2. Write-protect disks being used for reading purpose only
3. Use virus detection software, although this is only effective in respect of viruses
4. Using known storage and proliferation techniques
5. Use diskless workstations on networks

CHAPTER FOUR
THE CONCEPT OF DATA AND INFORMATION
DATA:
Data can be defined as a piece or collection of raw facts representing people, objects,
events, etc. which are unprocessed and do not allow decision making. Example: Nura,
2018/212, 100, 20, 3.5,
INFORMATION
Information is a summarized data or otherwise manipulated data that is useful for
decision making. Thus a piece of information from above data could be something like:
Name: Nura
Reg no.: 2018/212
Level: 100
Age: 20
 G.P.: 3.5
The meaning of which is now clear.
Annual report accounts, research reports, even a listed total of outstanding debtors of a
bank could be a good examples of information.
Consequently, one person’s information may be another person’s data. The information
of a Student may be come a Data that goes into Department.
TYPES OF DATA
Data about any business may be categorized as follows
1. External/Environment Data: This includes matters relating to social, political and
economic factors
2. Competitive Data: This type of data embraces details with regard to the past
performance of main competitors, their present activities and future plans
3. Qualitative and Quantitative Data: This type of data relates to quality control, levels
of performance, costs, overheads profits and losses, financial strengths and
weaknesses relating to cash flows and lines of credits.
4. Organizational/Internal Data: This type of data relate to manpower levels, structure
of the department, duties of personnel etc.

DATA PROCESSING METHODS

Data processing is the term given to the process of collecting all items of data together to
produce meaningful information. The methods that could be used for data processing
are:
1. Manual method
2. Mechanical method
3. Electronic method

1. MANUAL METHOD:
This involves labour-intensive operations that are normally done with the aid of pen
and paper. This takes place in a situation where the volume of job to be processed
can be handled successfully by personnel involved with the given time frame.

2. MECHANICAL METHOD:
This involves the application of mechanical machines like the Typewriter, Adding
machine etc to aid personnel. In this kind of operations job are not easily handled
within the specified time frame manually.
3. ELECTRONIC METHOD:
This involves the use of a computer system. It is like a mechanical but a more
sophisticated electronic machine with attached gadgets is used.

DATA PROCESSING OPERATIONS

This involves the operations that can be performed on data to make it information. It
depends on what an individual want to achieve; one or combination of some or all of
the following operations will result in data being transformed to information.
1. Data capturing: This is the collection of data at the source point. It is the process of
gathering raw data or recording raw data from event.
2. Verification: This involve checking of captured data to be sure that the source is
genuine and that the data is recorded correctly.
3. Arranging: This involves placing of data in a logical sequence or order. It can either
be in ascending or descending order.
4. Grouping: This is the classification of data elements in certain category such as unit,
type. Size. Etc
5. Calculation: This involve s all the mathematical and logical manipulations performed
on data. It may be summing up of sales to get total or any form of decision making
based on data element.
6. Storage/retrieval: Storage is the process of keeping data onto a storage media for
future use while retrieval is the recovery of specific data from a stored medium.
7. Reproducing: This is the replication of data on more than one storage area e.g
copying a processed data in a diskette while the master copy remains in the Hard
disk.
8. Communication: This involves transfer of processed data to the end-user. It can be
a more output displayed on the screen or in a form of report printed for the user or to
be distributed for external users of such information.

DATA PROCESSING TECHNIQUE

Data processing systems make use of one or more processing techniques, depending
on the requirements of the application. The methods can be categorized according to
the ways in which data is controlled Stored and passed through the system; the major
categories are; on-line processing which includes real-time and time-sharing ;
distributed and centralized processing.
1. Batch processing: The batch processing method process batches of data at regular
interval. It closely resembles manual methods of data handling, in that transactions
are collected together into batches, sent to the computer centre, sorted into the order
of the master file and processed. Such systems are known as traditional data
processing systems. It has advantage of providing many opportunities for controlling
the accuracy of data and concisely, the disadvantage of providing many opportunities
of controlling the accuracy of data and conversely, the disadvantage is the delay
between the time of collecting transaction and that of receiving the result of
processing.
2. On-line processing system: On-line processing system are those where all
peripherals in use are connected to the CPU of the main computer. Transactions can
be keyed in directly. The main advantage of an on-line system is the reduction in time
between the collection and processing of data. The two main methods of on-line
processing are real time and time-sharing processing.
a. Real-time processing: This refers to situation where event is monitored and
controlled by a computer. For example a car’s engine performance can be monitored
and controlled by sensing and immediately responding to changes in such factors like
 the air temperature, ignition timing or engine load. Microprocessors dedicated to
particular functions are known as embedded system.
b. Time sharing: This refers to the activity of the computer’s processor in allocating
time-slices to a aim of the system is to give each user a good response time. The
processor time-slice is allocated and controlled by time-sharing operating system.
3. Distributed processing:
As the term suggests, a distributed processing system is one which spreads the
processing tasks of an organization across several computer system; frequently, these
systems are connected and share resources (this may relate to common access to
files or programs) through a data communication system. Each computer system in
the network should be able to process independently.
4. Centralized system
With this type of system, all processing is carried out centrally, generally by a
mainframe computer. This is achieved through computer networks. There are several
networks that is linked with the central computer where processing takes places.

USERS OF AN ORGANIZATIONAL INFORMATION

The information generated by an organization can be valuable to many different
people. User’s of an organization information can be
1 Internal Source. 2. External Source.
INTERNAL USERS OF ORGANIZATIONAL INFORMATION
a) The board of the company or Public sector equivalent
b) Directors with functional responsibilities
c.) Divisional general managers, reporting to these directors.
d.) Division Heads
e) Department Heads
f) Section Heads.

EXTERNAL USERS OF ORGANISATIONAL INFORMATION

Organizational information may relevant to people outside the organization as well as
its internal management and employees. In fact, outsiders can take decisions relating
to organization. An example of external users of organizational information includes:-
i) The organization’s Bankers take decision affecting the amount of money they are
prepared to lend.
ii) The Public might have interest in information relating to an organization’s products
or services.
iii) The Media (e.g. Press, Television, etc) use information generated by organizations in
News, Stories, etc and such information can be adversely or favorably affect an
organizational relationship to the environment.
iv) The Government (e.g. Department of trade and investment) regularly requires
organizational information.
v) The Inland Revenue and Custom and authorities require information for Taxation and
VAT assessment.
vi) An organization’s customers or suppliers take decisions whether or not to trade with
the organization.
CATEGORIES OF INFORMATION
There are three main categories of information and these are related to the purpose
for which the information is utilized. The three categories if information are:
(1) Strategic (2) Tactical (3) Operational

1. STRATEGIC INFORMATION (HIGHER): This is the type of information that is

required by senior mangers to plan the objectives of their organization and to
determine if the objectives are met.
PROPERTIES OF STRATEGIC INFORMATION (HIGHER):
i) Derived from both internal and external sources
ii) Summarized.
iii) Relevant to the long term,
iv) Deals with the whole organization
v) It is both quantitative and qualitative (e.g. overall a profitable, future market
prospect, total cash needs capital equipment needs).
2. TACTICAL INFORMATION (MIDDLE): This is used by middle management level to
decide on how the resources of the business should be employed and to monitor how
they are being employed.
PROPERTIES OF TACTICAL INFORMATION (MIDDLE):
i) It is relevant to short and medium term.
ii) It is prepared regularly
iii) It Describes or Analyses activities of departments
iv) It is based on quantitative measures (cash flow forecasts, budgetary control or
variance analysis reports and short–term purchasing requirement)
3. OPERATIONAL INFORMATION (LOWER): This is used at the lower management
level for daily or hourly running of their section. Users of operational informational
include foremen, sectional heads etc, to ensure that specific task are planed and
carried out properly within the factory or office.
PROPERTIES OPERATIONAL INFORMATION (LOWER):
I) Derived almost entirely from internal sources
ii) Is highly detailed
iii) Relates to the immediate term
iv) Is task specific
v) Is prepared constantly or very frequently
vi) Is largely quantitative.

CLASSIFICATION OF INFORMATION:
Organizational information can be classify into three parts:
(1) Present information (2) past information (3) future information
1. Present information: This is the information that concerns the present so that
decision can be taken on what is to be done. Present information is basically all about
control information, which is the feedback in a management information system.
2. Past information: This is the storing of information about what has been done or
has happened in the past. This historic information will subsequently be used again at
some time in the future. Most past information is information about a transaction that
had take place.
3. Future information: This is forecasting information about what is to happen in the
future. It is usually associated with planning decisions, possibly for a budget, and also
for long-term strategic information.
QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE INFORMATION:
A piece of organizational information may be quantitative or qualitative
(i) Quantitative-information: This type of information is measured in numerical
terms, such as money or physical quantities e.g. Labour-hours, weight of material.
(ii) Qualitative information: This type of information is difficult to measure in
quantitative terms. Examples of qualitative information can be employee moral,
motivation, customer patronage, and attitude of general public.
CHARACTERISTICS OF INFORMATION
1. Accessibility: The access time must be very minimal. That it must be already
available for consumption or use,
2. Comprehensiveness: A good information must be complete
3. Accuracy: A good information must be devoid of any error.
4. Appropriateness: This deals with how well information relates to user’s request.
5. Timeliness: the processing time of any good information must be very short
6. Flexibility: It must be able to serve more than one user.
7. Cost-effectiveness: The benefit of such information should be higher than it cost of
acquisition.

COST OF INFORMATION
Obviously, information processing involves some cost which if given as:
(a) Cost of equipment
(b) Cost of stationeries
(c) Cost of consumable materials
(d) Cost of training
(e) Cost of accommodation
(f) Cost of maintenance
(g) Cost of staff
(h) Cost of security

REASONS FOR THE USE OF INFORMATION

 Some of the reasons for the use of information are as follows:
1. To assist management in its planning, decision making, supervising, trading and
controlling tasks
2. To satisfy legal documents
3. To standardize data collection procedures
4. To permit occasional review of the organizational methods and procedures by those
concerned
5. To produce necessary working papers at low cost while maintaining high standards of
accuracy.

CHAPTER FIVE
DATA COMMUNICATION / NETWORKS
Communication means an exchange of information between two or more parties and
it can be exchange in a variety of way, that might be in the form of word, letter
massagers, drawing, body movement or any other symbols that represents the idea
which make to other understandable. Data communication entails electronically
exchanging data or information. It is the movement of computer information from one
point to another by means of electrical or optical transmission system. This system
often is called Data communication networks.
Data communication system: can therefore be defined as the combinations of
facilities including software to aid data movement from one location to the other
electronically;
In today’s computing world, data refers to facts, statistics, pictures, voice and other
information that is digitally coded and intelligible to electronic machine. The key
technology of the information age is computer communication. The value if high-
speed data communication network is that it brings the message sender and receiver
closer together in time. Data communication networking is a truly global area of
study. It facilitates more efficient use of computers and improves the day to day
control of business by providing faster information flow. The information society
where information and intelligence are the key drivers of personal, business, and
national success has arrived. Data communication is the principle enabler of the rapid
information exchange and will become more important than the use of computer
themselves in the future. To be more familiar that what is data communication and
its capabilities along with its limitation, we have to be familiar with the data
communication media, components of data communication.

Communication Media:
It is necessary to have pathway or the media to transmit data from one point to
another. The term media means the device that transmits the voice or the data from
one point to another. Many different types of transmission media are in use today for
example: copper wire, glass or plastic cables, which are called fiber optic cables or air
transmission (radio, infrared, microwave, or satellite). There are two types of media;
one is guided media and another is radiated media.
In guided media the message flow through the physical media like twisted pair-wire,
coaxial cable, fiber optic cables, the media guided is the signal.
In radiated media message is broadcast through the air such as infrared,
microwaves, or satellite.
Data Transmission and Communication Device
Data is the specific individual facts or the facts from which decision can be made; it is
the raw facts that can be processed into accurate and relevant information. Digital
and analog are the two types of fundamental data; digital and analog
transmissions have the following features;
Computers produce the digital data where as telephone produces analog data.
Digital data are binary either on or off the analog data is the sound wave.
Analog signals are continuous wave that carry information by the characteristics of
the waves. Analog transmission is the transmission of a continuously variable signal as
opposed to a direct on/off signal.
The traditional way of transmits telephone signal is an example of analog
transmission. Digital signal is a discontinuous signal whose various states are
discrete intervals apart, such as +15volt and -15volts. Most computers transmit the
data in a digital form over the digital circuit to the attached device for example to the
‘printer’ same as analog voice data also can transmit to the analog form through the
telephone networks.
Data can be transmitted from one specific form to another. For example; as we know
most of computer produces the digital data; we can convert digital data to analog
 voice data by using the computer produces the digital data; we can convert digital
data to analog voice data by using the special device called MODEM through the
analog telephone circuit.
Data transmission may be either asynchronous or synchronous.
Asynchronous transmit only one character at a time and during transmission the
character begins and ends. Asynchronous transmission is inherently inefficient due to
the additional overhead required for start and stop bits, and the idle time between
transmission. It is therefore generally used for only low speed data transmission.
Synchronous transmission is a form of transmission in which data is sent as a
block using frames or packets. In synchronous transmission a group of character is
sent to communication link in a continuous bit stream while data transferis controlled
by a timing signals initialed by the sending device. Used for high speed transmission
ON-LINE DATA TRANSMISSION
This means that communication lines are directly connected to the computer either by
means of a multiplex or (transmission controller) or by mean of interface unit. The
interface unit scans the ready to transfer data, the scanning ceases and the channel
number of the line is signaled to the CPU if the processor is in a position to accept
data, then transmission begins.
OFF-LINE DATA COMMUNICATION
This type of data transmission indicates that the communication lines are not
connected directly to the computer. Key-to disk are often for off-line preparation and
transmission of data in remote job-entry-system.

ELEMENTS OF DATA COMMUNICATION

(a) Information source
(b) Message
(c) Transmitter
(d) Signal
(e) Receiver
(f) Information destination
(a) Information source: Originator of message wishing to convey information to
another person.
(b) Message: This is the idea/information that the sender wants to pass across to
the receiver at a particular destination.
(c) Transmitter: Wireless operator transmitting messages by means of a mouse
key connected to transmitting set
(d) Signal: The signal produced by the transmitting set when the mouse key is
depressed.
(e) Receiver: Wireless operator receiving message by means of a receiving set.
Information
(f) Destination: Receipt of message by addressee.

EQUIPMENT/COMPONENTS REQUIRED FOR DATA TRANSMISSION

 (a) MODEM (b) front-End-Processor (c) Multiplexor
(a) MODEM: Modem Stands for MODulator DEMmofulator is used to convert
analogue signal to digital and vice versa. A modem is a device that modulates
the signals. Modulation means the conversions of data from digital signal to
analog signal and documents means the conversion of data signal from analog
to digital signals for transmission through the analog circuit at the receiving
end, another modem converts analog to digital for the receiving computer.
Modem transmission rate is end. Another modem converts analog to digital for
the receiving computer. Modem transmission rate is measured in bits-per-
second and it usually expresses bps. The amount of data actually transferred
for one system to another is depends upon the speed of the modem.
(b) Front-end processor (FEP): A front-end processor is the special purpose
device: this specialized computer manages all routing communication with
peripheral devices. For large mainframe.
(c) Multiplexors: Multiplexors is an electronic device that allow a single
communication channel to carry data transmission simultaneously from many
sources. Multiplexing a data communication means that two or more
information is sent simultaneously via the communication circuit. Multiplexors is
transparent, when the circuits are multiplexed at one end and demultiplexed at
the other, each user’s terminal or microcomputer thinks it has its own separate
connection to the host computer. The objective of multiplexor is to reduce
communication costs by allowing the more efficient used of circuits through
sharing.

TYPES OF TRANSMISSION
1. SIMPLEX CHANNEL: in this type of communication transmission takes place in one
direction. The system known as Teletex, the sending of data alongside a television
signal, is a good example of a simplex channel. Here the recipient has no formal
means of communicating with the originator to ask for a repeat if there is an error
2. HALF-DUPLEX: This communications is bi-directional, but transmission moves in one
direction at a time the example is in radio telephone conservation. A protocol using
the word “over” to allow the direction of data flow to change is used.
3. FULL-DUPLEX: this allows bi-directional communication simultaneously. This is used
for normal telephone conservation where both the initiator and the receiver can talk
at the same time.
 NETWORKS
An interconnected set of two or more computers may be called a “computer
Network”. A computer that is not connected to other computers is a “stand-alone
system”.
Basic advantages of using Networks
There are many possible advantages in using networks. The basic ones are:
a. The sharing of resources (e.g computers and staff) and information.
b. The provision of local facilities without the loss of central control
c. The even distribution of work
d. Improved communication facilities
CATEGORIES OF NETWORKS
Networks can be grouped into three. They are; Local Area Network, Metropolitan Area
Network and Wide Area Network
1. Local area network (LAN): This is the network of computer that provide, coverage
within a building computers within an office or building are interconnected to share
information. Here no public regulatory body’s permission is required for the
connection.
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): These are network that cover a city. It can be
seen as various LAN connected within a city to share information. Here public
regulatory body’s permission is required.
3. WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN): These are networks that cover nation and
international.

COMPONENTS OF NETWORK
There are three basic hardware components for a data communication network;
1. SERVER OR HOST COMPUTER: A server is a machine that provides clients with
service. Servers share a specific resource with other computer. Examples of the
servers are the database server, that provides the large database and the
communication server that provides connection to another network, to commercial
database, or to a powerful processor. There are file, database, network, access,
modem, facsimile, printer and gateway server. Servers are usually microcomputer
(often more powerful than the other microcomputers on the network), but they may
be minicomputers or mainframes.
2. CLIENT: A client is a computer such as a PC or a workstation attached to the
network, which is used to access shared network resources. Client computer uses the
 resources shared by server computer. There are three major categories of clients:
terminals; minicomputer/workstation, and special purpose terminals.
3. CIRCUIT: The circuit is the pathway through which the message passes. Circuits can
be twisted pair cable, coaxial cable, fibre optic cable, microwave transmission, and so
forth. There are many devices in the circuit that perform special functions, such as
hubs, switches, routers and gateways.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
Computer networks can be categorized according to their physical shape or topology.
Each terminal in a network in known as a node. If a central computer controls the
network it is known as the host computer. The topology of a network is the
arrangement of the nodes and the ways they are interconnected. The communication
system within a network in known as the subnet. The various network topologies are;
1. STAR TOPOLOGY: This means that each node is connected; by separate
connections to a computer a the centre. The star is a popular topology for WAN.

STAR TOPOLOGY

Nodes
Nodes

Host

Nodes Nodes

2. RING TOPOLOGY: This is specifically designed to use with LAN. Here all the nodes
are connected in a ring form as illustrated below. Messages in ring network flow in
one direction, front mode to node in anticlockwise, the ring consists of repeaters,
which are joined by the physical transmission medium.

They have no host and none of the nodes need overall control of access to the
network.

Node

Node
Node
 3. BUS TOPOGRAPHY: with bus topography, the workstations are connected to main
cable (known as the bus or trunk), along which data travels. The ends of a bus are
not connected, so that data has to travel in both direction to reach the various nodes
on the network. The main bus standard is known as Ethernet. The term station tends
to be used rather than node for this type of network.

CHAPTER SIX
INTERNET
It is an international network of networks of computers linking different types of users:
academic, Industries, Government, Health Institutions, military, individuals, etc for the
purpose of sharing information. As a communication network among computer, the internet
allows you to locate and retrieve information on other computers linked to the internet as
well as send message electrically to and from another people elsewhere on the internet.
Whenever internet software application is used , the client software will either be on your
personal computer , the computer you log onto for access to the internet (your host), or yet
another computer to which you connect in other to use client software you may not have on
your computer. As you navigate through the internet, you will find yourself logged onto
different host computers, sometimes gaining access to different client programs and also
accessing different services; it can be complicated. Fortunately, the purpose of advanced
internet software is to hide these complexities from users so as to achieve success.
The internet has six application protocols;
1. Electronic mail (E-mail)
2. World wide web
3. Hypertext transfer Protocol or (HTTP)
4. Gopher
5. Telnet
6. File Transfer protocol (FTP)
Each of these application protocol has special client software, and many web
browser, such as Netscape from communication and internet Explorer from
Microsoft, which are capable of reading and displaying data from all the applications.

USES OF THE INTERNETS

The various uses of the internet are:
1. Electronic mail (E-mail): E-mail is a method of sending messages back and forth
among people with internet addresses as well as on other network with mail addresses or
connections to the internet. The main common feature are that the massage are converted
to electrical signals for the purpose of transmission. It is primarily an alternative to the
conventional postal service.
Electronic mail is one of the most useful features of the internet and it is often the
application with which people begin. As a means of sending messages back and forth among
people with internet address as well as people on other network with mail connections to
the internet, the E-mail support both person to person communications (that is delivered to
the electronic address of the intended recipient ) and one to many transmission in which
information automatically sent to a list of people.
2. World wide web (WWW): world wide Web is the most, exciting new tool for the
Internet. It is based on the technology called hypermedia. With hypermedia information in
one document can be linked to another related information can consist of not only text but
graphics, audio and video information as well. WWW. Is an ambitious, exciting and powerful
attempt to link connected information wherever it may be located on the internet, allowing
the user to easily access and retriever related files
3. Telnet: telnet allows you to log on to another computer on the net. The computer
onto which you are logging is known as remote computer. Once you are logged onto a
remote computer, it becomes as if your keyboard was attached to that computer, which
then serve as your host. You can do whatever the people are regularly attached to the
computer can do. It is also possible that the computer you currently using to access the
internet that does not have the client software with which you want to work you can use
Telnet to log onto another computer on the internet that does not have the right tools.
4. FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL (FTP): File transfer protocol has the facilities that can
be used for moving files from one computer to another. It is the common language for
sharing data. Unlike Talent in which you must often know a specific password to successful
log onto the remote computer anonymous FTP has become a common place. With
anonymous FTP, anyone on the internet may transfer files from and sometimes to a remote
system using the word anonymous as the user identification.
5. USENET:
Usenet is a network of several thousand online bulletin organized in to topic-oriented “new
group”. Within these news groups, people read and posted related massages. These are
already more than 10,000 news groups with participant ranging from computer enthusiasts
to music composers. Usenet is one of the many networks connect to and accessible through
the internet.
6. GOPHER
Gopher was the first program to investigate the information search and retrieval process on
the internet. Like other internet applications, Gopher consist of servers and client software.
More than 2.000 gopher servers have been linked. When you find something that you want,
the client software retrieves it for you through menu-based commands. With Gopher, it does
not matter where exactly the information you want is located. It does not matter, what kind
of information you want to retrieve. Not does it matter what tool you need to use to retrieve
that information. You use tool from the menu to perform each operation.

BENEFITS OF INTERNET APPLICATION

(a) Downloading of information
(b) Advertisement
(c) Accessing newspapers, magazines and academic journals
(d) On-line banking
(e) Accessing international media (CNN, BBC, VOA)

Comparison between E-mail and postal mail

E-MAIL POSTAL MAIL
a. Faster slow
b. Efficient Inefficient
c. Uses telephone line message travels through air or
sea
d. Medium of message is electronic medium of message is paper