Expanding brackets

and simplifying expressions

A LEVEL LINKS
Scheme of work: 1a. Algebraic expressions – basic algebraic manipulation, indices and surds

Key points
• When you expand one set of brackets you must multiply everything inside the bracket by
what is outside.
• When you expand two linear expressions, each with two terms of the form ax + b, where
a ≠ 0 and b ≠ 0, you create four terms. Two of these can usually be simplified by collecting
like terms.

Examples
Example 1 Expand 4(3x − 2)

4(3x − 2) = 12x − 8 Multiply everything inside the bracket

by the 4 outside the bracket

Example 2 Expand and simplify 3(x + 5) − 4(2x + 3)

3(x + 5) − 4(2x + 3) 1 Expand each set of brackets

= 3x + 15 − 8x – 12 separately by multiplying (x + 5) by
3 and (2x + 3) by −4
= 3 − 5x 2 Simplify by collecting like terms:
3x − 8x = −5x and 15 − 12 = 3

Example 3 Expand and simplify (x + 3)(x + 2)

(x + 3)(x + 2) 1 Expand the brackets by multiplying

= x(x + 2) + 3(x + 2) (x + 2) by x and (x + 2) by 3
= x2 + 2x + 3x + 6
= x2 + 5x + 6 2 Simplify by collecting like terms:
2x + 3x = 5x

Example 4 Expand and simplify (x − 5)(2x + 3)

(x − 5)(2x + 3) 1 Expand the brackets by multiplying

= x(2x + 3) − 5(2x + 3) (2x + 3) by x and (2x + 3) by −5
= 2x2 + 3x − 10x − 15
= 2x2 − 7x − 15 2 Simplify by collecting like terms:
3x − 10x = −7x

Surds and rationalising the denominator

 A LEVEL LINKS
Scheme of work: 1a. Algebraic expressions – basic algebraic manipulation, indices and surds

Key points
• A surd is the square root of a number that is not a square number,
for example 2, 3, 5, etc.
• Surds can be used to give the exact value for an answer.
• ab
= a× b
a a
• =
b b
• To rationalise the denominator means to remove the surd from the denominator of a fraction.
a
• To rationalise you multiply the numerator and denominator by the surd b
b
a
• To rationalise you multiply the numerator and denominator by b − c
b+ c

Examples
Example 1 Simplify 50

=
50 25 × 2 1 Choose two numbers that are
factors of 50. One of the factors
must be a square number
= 25 × 2 2 Use the rule =
ab a× b
= 5× 2 3 Use 25 = 5
=5 2

Example 2 Simplify 147 − 2 12

147 − 2 12 1 Simplify 147 and 2 12 . Choose

two numbers that are factors of 147
= 49 × 3 − 2 4 × 3
and two numbers that are factors of
12. One of each pair of factors must
be a square number

= 49 × 3 − 2 4 × 3 2 Use the rule =

ab a× b
= 7× 3 − 2× 2× 3 3 Use 49 = 7 and 4 =2
= 7 3−4 3
=3 3 4 Collect like terms
Example 3 Simplify ( 7+ 2 )( 7− 2 )
( 7+ 2 )( 7− 2 ) 1 Expand the brackets. A common
( 7)
2
mistake here is to write = 49
= 49 − 7 2 + 2 7 − 4

=7–2 2 Collect like terms:

=5 − 7 2+ 2 7
=
− 7 2+ 7 2=
0

1
Example 4 Rationalise
3

1 1 3 1 Multiply the numerator and

= ×
3 3 3 denominator by 3

1× 3
= 2 Use 9 =3
9

3
=
3

2
Example 5 Rationalise and simplify
12

2 2 12 1 Multiply the numerator and

= ×
12 12 12 denominator by 12

2 × 4×3 2 Simplify 12 in the numerator.

=
12 Choose two numbers that are factors
of 12. One of the factors must be a
square number

3 Use the rule =

ab a× b
=
2 2 3 4 Use 4 =2
12
5 Simplify the fraction:
2 3 2 1
= simplifies to
6 12 6
 3
Example 6 Rationalise and simplify
2+ 5

3 3 2− 5 1 Multiply the numerator and

= ×
2+ 5 2+ 5 2− 5 denominator by 2 − 5

(
3 2− 5 )
( 2 + 5 )( 2 − 5 )
=
2 Expand the brackets

6−3 5
= 3 Simplify the fraction
4+ 2 5 −2 5 −5

6−3 5
= 4 Divide the numerator by −1
−1
Remember to change the sign of all
terms when dividing by −1
= 3 5 −6

Rules of indices
A LEVEL LINKS
Scheme of work: 1a. Algebraic expressions – basic algebraic manipulation, indices and surds

Key points
• am × an = am + n
am
• n
= a m−n
a
• (am)n = amn
• a0 = 1
1
• a n = n a i.e. the nth root of a

( a)
m
m
• =
an n
=
am n

1
• a−m =
am
• The square root of a number produces two solutions, e.g. 16 = ±4 .

Examples
Example 1 Evaluate 100

100 = 1 Any value raised to the power of zero is

equal to 1
 1
Example 2 Evaluate 9 2

1 1
92 = 9 Use the rule a n = n a
=3

2
Example 3 Evaluate 27 3

( ) ( a)
2 m
2 m
27 3 = 3
27 1 Use the rule a n = n

= 32 2 Use 3
27 = 3
=9

Example 4 Evaluate 4−2

1 1
4−2 = 1 Use the rule a
−m
=
42 am
1 2 Use 42 = 16
=
16

6 x5
Example 5 Simplify
2 x2

6 x5 am
= 3x3 6 ÷ 2 = 3 and use the rule = a m − n to
2x2 an
x5 5 −2
give = x= x3
x2

x3 × x5
Example 6 Simplify
x4

x 3 × x 5 x 3+ 5 x 8 a m+n
1 Use the rule a m × a n =
= =
x4 x4 x4
am
= x8 − 4 = x4 2 Use the rule = a m−n
an

1
Example 7 Write as a single power of x
3x

1 1 −1 1
= x Use the rule m
= a − m , note that the
3x 3 a
1
fraction remains unchanged
3
 4
Example 8 Write as a single power of x
x

4 4 1
= 1 1 Use the rule an =na
x x 2

−
1 1
= 4x 2 2 Use the rule = a−m
am

Factorising expressions
A LEVEL LINKS
Scheme of work: 1b. Quadratic functions – factorising, solving, graphs and the discriminants

Key points
• Factorising an expression is the opposite of expanding the brackets.
• A quadratic expression is in the form ax2 + bx + c, where a ≠ 0.
• To factorise a quadratic equation find two numbers whose sum is b and whose product is ac.
• An expression in the form x2 – y2 is called the difference of two squares. It factorises to (x –
y)(x + y).

Examples
Example 1 Factorise 15x2y3 + 9x4y

15x2y3 + 9x4y = 3x2y(5y2 + 3x2) The highest common factor is 3x2y.

So take 3x2y outside the brackets and
then divide each term by 3x2y to find
the terms in the brackets

Example 2 Factorise 4x2 – 25y2

4x2 – 25y2 = (2x + 5y)(2x − 5y) This is the difference of two squares as
the two terms can be written as
(2x)2 and (5y)2

Example 3 Factorise x2 + 3x – 10

b = 3, ac = −10 1 Work out the two factors of

ac = −10 which add to give b = 3
(5 and −2)
So x2 + 3x – 10 = x2 + 5x – 2x – 10 2 Rewrite the b term (3x) using these
two factors
= x(x + 5) – 2(x + 5) 3 Factorise the first two terms and the
last two terms
= (x + 5)(x – 2) 4 (x + 5) is a factor of both terms
Example 4 Factorise 6x2 − 11x − 10

b = −11, ac = −60 1 Work out the two factors of

ac = −60 which add to give b = −11
So (−15 and 4)
6x2 − 11x – 10 = 6x2 − 15x + 4x – 10 2 Rewrite the b term (−11x) using
these two factors
= 3x(2x − 5) + 2(2x − 5) 3 Factorise the first two terms and the
last two terms
= (2x – 5)(3x + 2) 4 (2x − 5) is a factor of both terms

x 2 − 4 x − 21
Example 5 Simplify
2x2 + 9x + 9

x 2 − 4 x − 21 1 Factorise the numerator and the

denominator
2 x2 + 9 x + 9

For the numerator: 2 Work out the two factors of

b = −4, ac = −21 ac = −21 which add to give b = −4
(−7 and 3)
So
x2 − 4x – 21 = x2 − 7x + 3x – 21 3 Rewrite the b term (−4x) using these
two factors
= x(x − 7) + 3(x − 7) 4 Factorise the first two terms and the
last two terms
= (x – 7)(x + 3) 5 (x − 7) is a factor of both terms

For the denominator: 6 Work out the two factors of

b = 9, ac = 18 ac = 18 which add to give b = 9
(6 and 3)
So
2x2 + 9x + 9 = 2x2 + 6x + 3x + 9 7 Rewrite the b term (9x) using these
two factors
= 2x(x + 3) + 3(x + 3) 8 Factorise the first two terms and the
last two terms
= (x + 3)(2x + 3) 9 (x + 3) is a factor of both terms
So
x 2 − 4 x − 21 ( x − 7)( x + 3) 10 (x + 3) is a factor of both the
=
2 x 2 + 9 x + 9 ( x + 3)(2 x + 3) numerator and denominator so
x−7 cancels out as a value divided by
= itself is 1
2x + 3
Completing the square
A LEVEL LINKS
Scheme of work: 1b. Quadratic functions – factorising, solving, graphs and the discriminants

Key points
• Completing the square for a quadratic rearranges ax2 + bx + c into the form p(x + q)2 + r
• If a ≠ 1, then factorise using a as a common factor.

Examples
Example 1 Complete the square for the quadratic expression x2 + 6x − 2

x2 + 6x − 2 1 Write x2 + bx + c in the form

2 2
= (x + 3)2 − 9 − 2
 b b
 x +  −  +c
 2 2
= (x + 3)2 − 11 2 Simplify

Example 2 Write 2x2 − 5x + 1 in the form p(x + q)2 + r

2x2 − 5x + 1 1 Before completing the square write

ax2 + bx + c in the form
 b 
a  x2 + x  + c
 a 
 5 
= 2  x2 − x  + 1 2 Now complete the square by writing
 2  5
x 2 − x in the form
2
 5 5 
2 2
2 2
= 2  x −     +1
−  b b
 4   4   x+ 2 − 2
   
2
 5  25
= 2 x − − +1 3 Expand the square brackets – don’t
 4  8 2
5
forget to multiply   by the
4
factor of 2
2
 5  17
= 2 x −  −
 4 8 4 Simplify
Solving quadratic equations by
factorisation
A LEVEL LINKS
Scheme of work: 1b. Quadratic functions – factorising, solving, graphs and the discriminants

Key points
• A quadratic equation is an equation in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a ≠ 0.
• To factorise a quadratic equation find two numbers whose sum is b and whose products is ac.
• When the product of two numbers is 0, then at least one of the numbers must be 0.
• If a quadratic can be solved it will have two solutions (these may be equal).

Examples
Example 1 Solve 5x2 = 15x

5x2 = 15x 1 Rearrange the equation so that all of

the terms are on one side of the
5x2 − 15x = 0 equation and it is equal to zero.
Do not divide both sides by x as this
would lose the solution x = 0.
5x(x − 3) = 0 2 Factorise the quadratic equation.
5x is a common factor.
So 5x = 0 or (x − 3) = 0 3 When two values multiply to make
zero, at least one of the values must
be zero.
Therefore x = 0 or x = 3 4 Solve these two equations.

Example 2 Solve x2 + 7x + 12 = 0

x2 + 7x + 12 = 0 1 Factorise the quadratic equation.

Work out the two factors of ac = 12
b = 7, ac = 12 which add to give you b = 7.
(4 and 3)
x2 + 4x + 3x + 12 = 0 2 Rewrite the b term (7x) using these
two factors.
x(x + 4) + 3(x + 4) = 0 3 Factorise the first two terms and the
last two terms.
(x + 4)(x + 3) = 0 4 (x + 4) is a factor of both terms.
So (x + 4) = 0 or (x + 3) = 0 5 When two values multiply to make
zero, at least one of the values must
be zero.
Therefore x = −4 or x = −3 6 Solve these two equations.
Example 3 Solve 9x2 − 16 = 0

9x2 − 16 = 0 1 Factorise the quadratic equation.

(3x + 4)(3x – 4) = 0 This is the difference of two squares
as the two terms are (3x)2 and (4)2.
So (3x + 4) = 0 or (3x – 4) = 0 2 When two values multiply to make
zero, at least one of the values must
4 4 be zero.
x= − or x = 3 Solve these two equations.
3 3

Example 4 Solve 2x2 − 5x − 12 = 0

b = −5, ac = −24 1 Factorise the quadratic equation.

Work out the two factors of ac = −24
which add to give you b = −5.
(−8 and 3)
So 2x2 − 8x + 3x – 12 = 0 2 Rewrite the b term (−5x) using these
two factors.
2x(x − 4) + 3(x − 4) = 0 3 Factorise the first two terms and the
last two terms.
(x – 4)(2x + 3) = 0 4 (x − 4) is a factor of both terms.
So (x – 4) = 0 or (2x +3) = 0 5 When two values multiply to make
zero, at least one of the values must
3 be zero.
x = 4 or x = − 6 Solve these two equations.
2

Solving quadratic equations by

completing the square
A LEVEL LINKS
Scheme of work: 1b. Quadratic functions – factorising, solving, graphs and the discriminants

Key points
• Completing the square lets you write a quadratic equation in the form p(x + q)2 + r = 0.

Examples
Example 5 Solve x2 + 6x + 4 = 0. Give your solutions in surd form.

x2 + 6x + 4 = 0 1 Write x2 + bx + c = 0 in the form

2 2
 b b
(x + 3) − 9 + 4 = 0 x+ 2 − 2 +c = 0
2
   
(x + 3)2 − 5 = 0 2 Simplify.
(x + 3)2 = 5 3 Rearrange the equation to work out
x. First, add 5 to both sides.
x+3= ± 5 4 Square root both sides.
Remember that the square root of a
value gives two answers.
x = ± 5 −3 5 Subtract 3 from both sides to solve
the equation.
So x = − 5 − 3 or x = 5 −3 6 Write down both solutions.

Example 6 Solve 2x2 − 7x + 4 = 0. Give your solutions in surd form.

2x2 − 7x + 4 = 0 1 Before completing the square write

ax2 + bx + c in the form
 7   b 
2  x2 − x  + 4 = 0 a  x2 + x  + c
 2   a 

 7 7 
2 2 2 Now complete the square by writing
2  x −  −    + 4 = 0 7
 4   4   x 2 − x in the form
2
2 2
 b   b 
 x + 2a  −  2a 
   
2
 7  49
2 x −  − +4 =0 3 Expand the square brackets.
 4 8
2
 7  17
2 x −  − =0 4 Simplify.
 4 8
(continued on next page)
2
 7  17 5 Rearrange the equation to work out
2 x −  =
 4 8 17
x. First, add to both sides.
8
2
 7  17
x− 4 = 6 Divide both sides by 2.
  16

7 17 7 Square root both sides. Remember

x− =±
4 4 that the square root of a value gives
two answers.
17 7 7
x=
± + 8 Add to both sides.
4 4 4
7 17 7 17
So x= − or x= + 9 Write down both the solutions.
4 4 4 4
Solving quadratic equations by using the
formula
A LEVEL LINKS
Scheme of work: 1b. Quadratic functions – factorising, solving, graphs and the discriminants

Key points
• Any quadratic equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 can be solved using the formula
−b ± b 2 − 4ac
x=
2a
• 2
If b – 4ac is negative then the quadratic equation does not have any real solutions.
• It is useful to write down the formula before substituting the values for a, b and c.

Examples
Example 7 Solve x2 + 6x + 4 = 0. Give your solutions in surd form.

a = 1, b = 6, c = 4 1 Identify a, b and c and write down

the formula.
−b ± b − 4ac
2
x= Remember that −b ± b 2 − 4ac is
2a
all over 2a, not just part of it.

2 Substitute a = 1, b = 6, c = 4 into the

−6 ± 62 − 4(1)(4)
x= formula.
2(1)
3 Simplify. The denominator is 2, but
−6 ± 20
x= this is only because a = 1. The
2 denominator will not always be 2.

−6 ± 2 5 4 Simplify 20 .
x=
2 20 = 4×5 = 4× 5= 2 5

x =−3 ± 5 5 Simplify by dividing numerator and

denominator by 2.
6 Write down both the solutions.
So x =−3 − 5 or =
x 5 −3
Example 8 Solve 3x2 − 7x − 2 = 0. Give your solutions in surd form.

a = 3, b = −7, c = −2 1 Identify a, b and c, making sure you

get the signs right and write down
−b ± b − 4ac
2
x= the formula.
2a
Remember that −b ± b 2 − 4ac is
all over 2a, not just part of it.
−(−7) ± (−7) 2 − 4(3)(−2) 2 Substitute a = 3, b = −7, c = −2 into
x=
2(3) the formula.

3 Simplify. The denominator is 6

7 ± 73
x= when a = 3. A common mistake is
6 to always write a denominator of 2.
7 − 73 7 + 73 4 Write down both the solutions.
So x = or x =
6 6

Sketching quadratic graphs

A LEVEL LINKS
Scheme of work: 1b. Quadratic functions – factorising, solving, graphs and the discriminants

Key points
• The graph of the quadratic function
y = ax2 + bx + c, where a ≠ 0, is a curve
called a parabola.
• Parabolas have a line of symmetry and for a > 0 for a < 0
a shape as shown.
• To sketch the graph of a function, find the points where the graph intersects the axes.
• To find where the curve intersects the y-axis substitute x = 0 into the function.
• To find where the curve intersects the x-axis substitute y = 0 into the function.
• At the turning points of a graph the gradient of the curve is 0 and any tangents to the curve at
these points are horizontal.
• To find the coordinates of the maximum or minimum point (turning points) of a quadratic
curve (parabola) you can use the completed square form of the function.

Examples
Example 1 Sketch the graph of y = x2.

The graph of y = x2 is a parabola.

When x = 0, y = 0.

a = 1 which is greater
than zero, so the graph
has the shape:
xample 2 Sketch the graph of y = x2 − x − 6.

When x = 0, y = 02 − 0 − 6 = −6 1 Find where the graph intersects the

So the graph intersects the y-axis at y-axis by substituting x = 0.
(0, −6)
When y = 0, x2 − x − 6 = 0 2 Find where the graph intersects the
x-axis by substituting y = 0.
(x + 2)(x − 3) = 0 3 Solve the equation by factorising.

x = −2 or x = 3 4 Solve (x + 2) = 0 and (x − 3) = 0.

So, 5 a = 1 which is greater

the graph intersects the x-axis at (−2, 0) than zero, so the graph
and (3, 0) has the shape:

(continued on next page)

2
 1 1 6 To find the turning point, complete
x2 − x − 6 =  x −  − − 6
 2 4 the square.
2
 1  25
= x−  −
 2 4
2
 1 1
When  x −  = 0 , x = and 7 The turning point is the minimum
 2 2 value for this expression and occurs
25 when the term in the bracket is
y = − , so the turning point is at the
4 equal to zero.
 1 25 
point  , − 
2 4 
Solving linear simultaneous equations
using the elimination method
A LEVEL LINKS
Scheme of work: 1c. Equations – quadratic/linear simultaneous

Key points
• Two equations are simultaneous when they are both true at the same time.
• Solving simultaneous linear equations in two unknowns involves finding the value of each
unknown which works for both equations.
• Make sure that the coefficient of one of the unknowns is the same in both equations.
• Eliminate this equal unknown by either subtracting or adding the two equations.

Examples
Example 1 Solve the simultaneous equations 3x + y = 5 and x + y = 1

3x + y = 5 1 Subtract the second equation from

– x+y=1 the first equation to eliminate the y
2x =4 term.
So x = 2

Using x + y = 1 2 To find the value of y, substitute

2+y=1 x = 2 into one of the original
So y = −1 equations.

Check: 3 Substitute the values of x and y into

equation 1: 3 × 2 + (−1) = 5 YES both equations to check your
equation 2: 2 + (−1) = 1 YES answers.

Example 2 Solve x + 2y = 13 and 5x − 2y = 5 simultaneously.

x + 2y = 13 1 Add the two equations together to

+ 5x − 2y = 5 eliminate the y term.
6x = 18
So x = 3

Using x + 2y = 13 2 To find the value of y, substitute

3 + 2y = 13 x = 3 into one of the original
So y = 5 equations.

Check: 3 Substitute the values of x and y into

equation 1: 3 + 2 × 5 = 13 YES both equations to check your
equation 2: 5 × 3 − 2 × 5 = 5 YES answers.
Example 3 Solve 2x + 3y = 2 and 5x + 4y = 12 simultaneously.

(2x + 3y = 2) × 4 → 8x + 12y = 8 1 Multiply the first equation by 4 and

(5x + 4y = 12) × 3 → 15x + 12y = 36 the second equation by 3 to make
7x = 28 the coefficient of y the same for
both equations. Then subtract the
So x = 4 first equation from the second
equation to eliminate the y term.

Using 2x + 3y = 2 2 To find the value of y, substitute

2 × 4 + 3y = 2 x = 4 into one of the original
So y = −2 equations.

Check: 3 Substitute the values of x and y into

equation 1: 2 × 4 + 3 × (−2) = 2 YES both equations to check your
equation 2: 5 × 4 + 4 × (−2) = 12 YES answers.

Solving linear simultaneous equations

using the substitution method
A LEVEL LINKS
Scheme of work: 1c. Equations – quadratic/linear simultaneous
Textbook: Pure Year 1, 3.1 Linear simultaneous equations

Key points
• The subsitution method is the method most commonly used for A level. This is because it is
the method used to solve linear and quadratic simultaneous equations.

Examples
Example 4 Solve the simultaneous equations y = 2x + 1 and 5x + 3y = 14

5x + 3(2x + 1) = 14 1 Substitute 2x + 1 for y into the

second equation.
5x + 6x + 3 = 14 2 Expand the brackets and simplify.
11x + 3 = 14
11x = 11 3 Work out the value of x.
So x = 1

Using y = 2x + 1 4 To find the value of y, substitute

y=2×1+1 x = 1 into one of the original
So y = 3 equations.

Check: 5 Substitute the values of x and y into

equation 1: 3 = 2 × 1 + 1 YES both equations to check your
equation 2: 5 × 1 + 3 × 3 = 14 YES answers.
Example 5 Solve 2x − y = 16 and 4x + 3y = −3 simultaneously.

y = 2x − 16 1 Rearrange the first equation.

4x + 3(2x − 16) = −3 2 Substitute 2x − 16 for y into the
second equation.
4x + 6x − 48 = −3 3 Expand the brackets and simplify.
10x − 48 = −3
10x = 45 4 Work out the value of x.
So x = 4 12
Using y = 2x − 16 5 To find the value of y, substitute
y = 2 × 4 12 − 16 x = 4 12 into one of the original
So y = −7 equations.
Check: 6 Substitute the values of x and y into
equation 1: 2 × 4 12 – (–7) = 16 YES both equations to check your
answers.
equation 2: 4 × 4 12 + 3 × (−7) = −3 YES

Solving linear and quadratic simultaneous

equations
A LEVEL LINKS
Scheme of work: 1c. Equations – quadratic/linear simultaneous

Key points
• Make one of the unknowns the subject of the linear equation (rearranging where necessary).
• Use the linear equation to substitute into the quadratic equation.
• There are usually two pairs of solutions.

Examples
Example 1 Solve the simultaneous equations y = x + 1 and x2 + y2 = 13

x2 + (x + 1)2 = 13 1 Substitute x + 1 for y into the second

equation.
x2 + x2 + x + x + 1 = 13 2 Expand the brackets and simplify.
2x2 + 2x + 1 = 13

2x2 + 2x − 12 = 0 3 Factorise the quadratic equation.

(2x − 4)(x + 3) = 0
So x = 2 or x = −3 4 Work out the values of x.

Using y = x + 1 5 To find the value of y, substitute

When x = 2, y = 2 + 1 = 3 both values of x into one of the
When x = −3, y = −3 + 1 = −2 original equations.

So the solutions are

x = 2, y = 3 and x = −3, y = −2
 Check: 6 Substitute both pairs of values of x
equation 1: 3 = 2 + 1 YES and y into both equations to check
and −2 = −3 + 1 YES your answers.
equation 2: 22 + 32 = 13 YES
and (−3)2 + (−2)2 = 13 YES

Example 2 Solve 2x + 3y = 5 and 2y2 + xy = 12 simultaneously.

5 − 3y
x= 1 Rearrange the first equation.
2
 5 − 3y  5 − 3y
2 y2 +   y = 12 2 Substitute for x into the
 2  2
second equation. Notice how it is
5 y − 3y2 easier to substitute for x than for y.
2 y2 + = 12
2 3 Expand the brackets and simplify.
4 y2 + 5 y − 3y2 = 24
y 2 + 5 y − 24 =
0
4 Factorise the quadratic equation.
(y + 8)(y − 3) = 0
So y = −8 or y = 3 5 Work out the values of y.

Using 2x + 3y = 5 6 To find the value of x, substitute

When y = −8, 2x + 3 × (−8) = 5, x = 14.5 both values of y into one of the
When y = 3, 2x + 3 × 3 = 5, x = −2 original equations.

So the solutions are

x = 14.5, y = −8 and x = −2, y = 3

Check: 7 Substitute both pairs of values of x

equation 1: 2 × 14.5 + 3 × (−8) = 5 YES and y into both equations to check
and 2 × (−2) + 3 × 3 = 5 YES your answers.
equation 2: 2×(−8)2 + 14.5×(−8) = 12 YES
and 2 × (3)2 + (−2) × 3 = 12 YES

Solving simultaneous equations

graphically
A LEVEL LINKS
Scheme of work: 1c. Equations – quadratic/linear simultaneous

Key points
• You can solve any pair of simultaneous equations by drawing the graph of both equations and
finding the point/points of intersection.

Examples
Example 1 Solve the simultaneous equations y = 5x + 2 and x + y = 5 graphically.

y=5–x 1 Rearrange the equation x + y = 5 to

make y the subject.
y = 5 – x has gradient –1 and y-intercept 5. 2 Plot both graphs on the same grid
y = 5x + 2 has gradient 5 and y-intercept 2. using the gradients and
y-intercepts.

Lines intersect at 3 The solutions of the simultaneous

x = 0.5, y = 4.5 equations are the point of
intersection.
Check:
First equation y = 5x + 2: 4 Check your solutions by substituting
4.5 = 5 × 0.5 + 2 YES the values into both equations.
Second equation x + y = 5:
0.5 + 4.5 = 5 YES
Example 2 Solve the simultaneous equations y = x − 4 and y = x2 − 4x + 2 graphically.

1 Construct a table of values and

x 0 1 2 3 4
calculate the points for the quadratic
y 2 –1 –2 –1 2 equation.

2 Plot the graph.

3 Plot the linear graph on the same

grid using the gradient and
y-intercept.
y = x – 4 has gradient 1 and
y-intercept –4.

The line and curve intersect at 4 The solutions of the simultaneous

x = 3, y = −1 and x = 2, y = −2 equations are the points of
intersection.
Check:
First equation y = x − 4: 5 Check your solutions by substituting
−1 = 3 − 4 YES the values into both equations.
−2 = 2 − 4 YES
Second equation y = x2 − 4x + 2:
−1 = 32 − 4 × 3 + 2 YES
−2 = 22 − 4 × 2 + 2 YES

Linear inequalities
A LEVEL LINKS
Scheme of work: 1d. Inequalities – linear and quadratic (including graphical solutions)

Key points
• Solving linear inequalities uses similar methods to those for solving linear equations.
• When you multiply or divide an inequality by a negative number you need to reverse the
inequality sign, e.g. < becomes >.

Examples
Example 1 Solve −8 ≤ 4x < 16

−8 ≤ 4x < 16 Divide all three terms by 4.

−2 ≤ x < 4
Example 2 Solve 4 ≤ 5x < 10

4 ≤ 5x < 10 Divide all three terms by 5.

4
≤x<2
5

Example 3 Solve 2x − 5 < 7

2x − 5 < 7 1 Add 5 to both sides.

2x < 12 2 Divide both sides by 2.
x<6

Example 4 Solve 2 − 5x ≥ −8

2 − 5x ≥ −8 1 Subtract 2 from both sides.

−5x ≥ −10 2 Divide both sides by −5.
x≤2 Remember to reverse the inequality
when dividing by a negative
number.

Example 5 Solve 4(x − 2) > 3(9 − x)

4(x − 2) > 3(9 − x) 1 Expand the brackets.

4x − 8 > 27 − 3x 2 Add 3x to both sides.
7x − 8 > 27 3 Add 8 to both sides.
7x > 35 4 Divide both sides by 7.
x>5

Quadratic inequalities
A LEVEL LINKS
Scheme of work: 1d. Inequalities – linear and quadratic (including graphical solutions)

Key points
• First replace the inequality sign by = and solve the quadratic equation.
• Sketch the graph of the quadratic function.
• Use the graph to find the values which satisfy the quadratic inequality.

Examples
Example 1 Find the set of values of x which satisfy x2 + 5x + 6 > 0

x2 + 5x + 6 = 0 1 Solve the quadratic equation by

(x + 3)(x + 2) = 0 factorising.
x = −3 or x = −2

2 Sketch the graph of

y = (x + 3)(x + 2)

3 Identify on the graph where

x2 + 5x + 6 > 0, i.e. where y > 0

x < −3 or x > −2 4 Write down the values which satisfy

the inequality x2 + 5x + 6 > 0

Example 2 Find the set of values of x which satisfy x2 − 5x ≤ 0

x2 − 5x = 0 1 Solve the quadratic equation by

x(x − 5) = 0 factorising.
x = 0 or x = 5
2 Sketch the graph of y = x(x − 5)

3 Identify on the graph where

x2 − 5x ≤ 0, i.e. where y ≤ 0

0≤x≤5 4 Write down the values which satisfy

the inequality x2 − 5x ≤ 0

Example 3 Find the set of values of x which satisfy −x2 − 3x + 10 ≥ 0

−x2 − 3x + 10 = 0 1 Solve the quadratic equation by

(−x + 2)(x + 5) = 0 factorising.
x = 2 or x = −5
y
2 Sketch the graph of
y = (−x + 2)(x + 5) = 0

3 Identify on the graph where

−x2 − 3x + 10 ≥ 0, i.e. where y ≥ 0

–5 O 2 x

−5 ≤ x ≤ 2 3 Write down the values which satisfy

the inequality −x2 − 3x + 10 ≥ 0
Sketching cubic and reciprocal graphs
A LEVEL LINKS
Scheme of work: 1e. Graphs – cubic, quartic and reciprocal

Key points
• The graph of a cubic function,
which can be written in the
form y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d,
where a ≠ 0, has one of the
shapes shown here.

• The graph of a reciprocal

a
function of the form y = has
x
one of the shapes shown here.

• To sketch the graph of a function, find the points where the graph intersects the axes.
• To find where the curve intersects the y-axis substitute x = 0 into the function.
• To find where the curve intersects the x-axis substitute y = 0 into the function.
• Where appropriate, mark and label the asymptotes on the graph.
• Asymptotes are lines (usually horizontal or vertical) which the curve gets closer to but never
touches or crosses. Asymptotes usually occur with reciprocal functions. For example, the
a
asymptotes for the graph of y = are the two axes (the lines y = 0 and x = 0).
x
• At the turning points of a graph the gradient of the curve is 0 and any tangents to the curve at
these points are horizontal.
• A double root is when two of the solutions are equal. For example (x – 3)2(x + 2) has a
double root at x = 3.
• When there is a double root, this is one of the turning points of a cubic function.
Examples
Example 1 Sketch the graph of y = (x − 3)(x − 1)(x + 2)

To sketch a cubic curve find intersects with both axes and use the key points above
for the correct shape.

When x = 0, y = (0 − 3)(0 − 1)(0 + 2) 1 Find where the graph intersects the

= (−3) × (−1) × 2 = 6 axes by substituting x = 0 and y = 0.
The graph intersects the y-axis at (0, 6) Make sure you get the coordinates
the right way around, (x, y).
When y = 0, (x − 3)(x − 1)(x + 2) = 0 2 Solve the equation by solving
So x = 3, x = 1 or x = −2 x − 3 = 0, x − 1 = 0 and x + 2 = 0
The graph intersects the x-axis at
(−2, 0), (1, 0) and (3, 0)

3 Sketch the graph.

a = 1 > 0 so the graph has the shape:

Example 2 Sketch the graph of y = (x + 2)2(x − 1)

To sketch a cubic curve find intersects with both axes and use the key points above
for the correct shape.

When x = 0, y = (0 + 2)2(0 − 1) 1 Find where the graph intersects the

= 22 × (−1) = −4 axes by substituting x = 0 and y = 0.
The graph intersects the y-axis at (0, −4)

When y = 0, (x + 2)2(x − 1) = 0 2 Solve the equation by solving

So x = −2 or x =1 x + 2 = 0 and x − 1 = 0

(−2, 0) is a turning point as x = −2 is a

double root.
The graph crosses the x-axis at (1, 0)

3 a = 1 > 0 so the graph has the shape:

Translating graphs
A LEVEL LINKS
Scheme of work: 1f. Transformations – transforming graphs – f(x) notation

Key points
• The transformation y = f(x) ± a is a
translation of y = f(x) parallel to the y-axis;
it is a vertical translation.

As shown on the graph,

o y = f(x) + a translates y = f(x) up
o y = f(x) – a translates y = f(x) down.

• The transformation y = f(x ± a) is a

translation of y = f(x) parallel to the x-axis;
it is a horizontal translation.

As shown on the graph,

o y = f(x + a) translates y = f(x) to the left
o y = f(x – a) translates y = f(x) to the right.

Examples
Example 1 The graph shows the function y = f(x).
Sketch the graph of y = f(x) + 2.

For the function y = f(x) + 2 translate

the function y = f(x) 2 units up.

Example 2 The graph shows the function y = f(x).

 Sketch the graph of y = f(x − 3).

For the function y = f(x − 3) translate

the function y = f(x) 3 units right.

Stretching graphs
A LEVEL LINKS
Scheme of work: 1f. Transformations – transforming graphs – f(x) notation
Textbook: Pure Year 1, 4.6 Stretching graphs

Key points

• The transformation y = f(ax) is a horizontal

stretch of y = f(x) with scale factor 1
a
parallel to the x-axis.

• The transformation y = f(–ax) is a

horizontal stretch of y = f(x) with scale
factor 1 parallel to the x-axis and then a
a
reflection in the y-axis.

• The transformation y = af(x) is a vertical

stretch of y = f(x) with scale factor a
parallel to the y-axis.
 • The transformation y = –af(x) is a vertical
stretch of y = f(x) with scale factor a
parallel to the y-axis and then a reflection
in the x-axis.

Examples
Example 3 The graph shows the function y = f(x).
Sketch and label the graphs of
y = 2f(x) and y = –f(x).

The function y = 2f(x) is a vertical

stretch of y = f(x) with scale
factor 2 parallel to the y-axis.
The function y = −f(x) is a
reflection of y = f(x) in the
x-axis.

Example 4 The graph shows the function y = f(x).

Sketch and label the graphs of

y = f(2x) and y = f(–x).

The function y = f(2x) is a horizontal

stretch of y = f(x) with scale factor
1
2 parallel to the x-axis.

The function y = f(−x) is a reflection

of y = f(x) in the y-axis.
Straight line graphs
A LEVEL LINKS
Scheme of work: 2a. Straight-line graphs, parallel/perpendicular, length and area problems

Key points
• A straight line has the equation y = mx + c, where m is
the gradient and c is the y-intercept (where x = 0).
• The equation of a straight line can be written in the form
ax + by + c = 0, where a, b and c are integers.
• When given the coordinates (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) of two
points on a line the gradient is calculated using the
y − y1
formula m = 2
x2 − x1

Examples
Example 1 A straight line has gradient − 1 and y-intercept 3.
2
Write the equation of the line in the form ax + by + c = 0.

m = − 1 and c = 3 1 A straight line has equation

2 y = mx + c. Substitute the gradient
So y = − 1 x + 3 and y-intercept given in the question
2
into this equation.
1
x +y–3=0 2 Rearrange the equation so all the
2
terms are on one side and 0 is on
the other side.
x + 2y − 6 = 0 3 Multiply both sides by 2 to
eliminate the denominator.

Example 2 Find the gradient and the y-intercept of the line with the equation 3y − 2x + 4 = 0.

3y − 2x + 4 = 0 1 Make y the subject of the equation.

3y = 2x − 4
2 4 2 Divide all the terms by three to get
=y x− the equation in the form y = …
3 3
2 3 In the form y = mx + c, the gradient
Gradient = m = is m and the y-intercept is c.
3
4
y-intercept = c = −
3
Example 3 Find the equation of the line which passes through the point (5, 13) and has gradient 3.

m=3
1 Substitute the gradient given in the
y = 3x + c
question into the equation of a
straight line y = mx + c.
2 Substitute the coordinates x = 5 and
13 = 3 × 5 + c
y = 13 into the equation.
3 Simplify and solve the equation.
13 = 15 + c
c = −2
y = 3x − 2 4 Substitute c = −2 into the equation
y = 3x + c

Example 4 Find the equation of the line passing through the points with coordinates (2, 4) and (8, 7).

x1 = 2 , x2 = 8 , y1 = 4 and y2 = 7 1 Substitute the coordinates into the

y2 − y1 7 − 4 3 1 y −y
m= = = = equation m = 2 1 to work out
x2 − x1 8 − 2 6 2 x2 − x1
the gradient of the line.
1 2 Substitute the gradient into the
=
y x+c equation of a straight line
2 y = mx + c.
1
4 = ×2+c 3 Substitute the coordinates of either
2 point into the equation.
c=3 4 Simplify and solve the equation.
1
=
y x+3 5 Substitute c = 3 into the equation
2 1
=
y x+c
2

Parallel and perpendicular lines

A LEVEL LINKS
Scheme of work: 2a. Straight-line graphs, parallel/perpendicular, length and area problems

Key points
• When lines are parallel they have the same
gradient.
• A line perpendicular to the line with equation
y = mx + c has gradient − 1 .
m

Examples
Example 1 Find the equation of the line parallel to y = 2x + 4 which passes through
the point (4, 9).

y = 2x + 4 1 As the lines are parallel they have

m=2 the same gradient.
y = 2x + c 2 Substitute m = 2 into the equation of
a straight line y = mx + c.
9=2×4+c 3 Substitute the coordinates into the
equation y = 2x + c
9=8+c 4 Simplify and solve the equation.
c=1
y = 2x + 1 5 Substitute c = 1 into the equation
y = 2x + c

Example 2 Find the equation of the line perpendicular to y = 2x − 3 which passes through
the point (−2, 5).

y = 2x − 3 1 As the lines are perpendicular, the

m=2 gradient of the perpendicular line
1 1 1
− = − is − .
m 2 m
1 1
y= − x+c 2 Substitute m = − into y = mx + c.
2 2
1 3 Substitute the coordinates (–2, 5)
5 =− × (−2) + c
2 1
into the equation y = − x+c
2
5=1+c 4 Simplify and solve the equation.
c=4
1 1
y=− x+4 5 Substitute c = 4 into y =
− x+c.
2 2

Example 3 A line passes through the points (0, 5) and (9, −1).
Find the equation of the line which is perpendicular to the line and passes through
its midpoint.
 x1 = 0 , x2 = 9 , y1 = 5 and y2 = −1 1 Substitute the coordinates into the
y2 − y1 −1 − 5 y −y
=m = equation m = 2 1 to work out
x2 − x1 9−0 x2 − x1
−6 2 the gradient of the line.
= = −
9 3
2 As the lines are perpendicular, the
1 3
− = gradient of the perpendicular line
m 2 1
is − .
m
3
=
y x+c 3 Substitute the gradient into the
2 equation y = mx + c.

 0 + 9 5 + (−1)   9  4 Work out the coordinates of the

Midpoint =  ,  =  , 2
 2 2  2  midpoint of the line.
3 9
2= × +c 5 Substitute the coordinates of the
2 2
midpoint into the equation.
19
c= − 6 Simplify and solve the equation.
4
3 19 19
=
y x− 7 Substitute c = − into the equation
2 4 4
3
=
y x+c.
2

Pythagoras’ theorem
A LEVEL LINKS
Scheme of work: 2a. Straight-line graphs, parallel/perpendicular, length and area problems

Key points
• In a right-angled triangle the longest side is called the
hypotenuse.
• Pythagoras’ theorem states that for a right-angled triangle
the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the
squares of the other two sides. c2
= a 2 + b2

Examples
Example 1 Calculate the length of the hypotenuse.
Give your answer to 3 significant figures.
 c 2 = a2 + b2 1 Always start by stating the formula
for Pythagoras’ theorem and
labelling the hypotenuse c and the
other two sides a and b.

x 2 = 52 + 82 2 Substitute the values of a, b and c

x2 = 25 + 64 into the formula for Pythagoras'
x2 = 89 theorem.
x = 89 3 Use a calculator to find the square
root.
x = 9.433 981 13... 4 Round your answer to 3 significant
x = 9.43 cm figures and write the units with your
answer.

Example 2 Calculate the length x.

Give your answer in surd form.

c 2 = a2 + b2 1 Always start by stating the formula

for Pythagoras' theorem.
102 = x2 + 42 2 Substitute the values of a, b and c
100 = x2 + 16 into the formula for Pythagoras'
x2 = 84 theorem.
x = 84
3 Simplify the surd where possible
x = 2 21 cm
and write the units in your answer.
Proportion
A LEVEL LINKS
Scheme of work: 2a. Straight-line graphs, parallel/perpendicular, length and area problems

Key points
• Two quantities are in direct proportion when, as one
quantity increases, the other increases at the same rate.
Their ratio remains the same.
• ‘y is directly proportional to x’ is written as y ∝ x.
If y ∝ x then y = kx, where k is a constant.
• When x is directly proportional to y, the graph is a
straight line passing through the origin.

• Two quantities are in inverse proportion when, as one quantity

increases, the other decreases at the same rate.
• ‘y is inversely proportional to x’ is written as y ∝ 1 .
x
1 k
If y ∝ then y = , where k is a constant.
x x
• When x is inversely proportional to y the graph is the same shape
as the graph of y = 1x

Examples
Example 1 y is directly proportional to x.
When y = 16, x = 5.
a Find x when y = 30.
b Sketch the graph of the formula.

a y∝x 1 Write y is directly proportional to x,

using the symbol ∝ .
y = kx 2 Write the equation using k.
16 = k × 5 3 Substitute y = 16 and x = 5 into
y = kx.
k = 3.2 4 Solve the equation to find k.

y = 3.2x 5 Substitute the value of k back into

the equation y = kx.
When y = 30,
30 = 3.2 × x 6 Substitute y = 30 into y = 3.2x and
x = 9.375 solve to find x when y = 30.
 b 7 The graph of y = 3.2x is a straight
line passing through (0, 0) with a
gradient of 3.2.

Example 2 y is directly proportional to x2.

When x = 3, y = 45.
a Find y when x = 5.
b Find x when y = 20.

a y ∝ x2 1 Write y is directly proportional to x2,

using the symbol ∝ .
y = kx2 2 Write the equation using k.
45 = k × 32 3 Substitute y = 45 and x = 3 into
y = kx2.
k=5 4 Solve the equation to find k.
y = 5x2 5 Substitute the value of k back into
the equation y = kx2.
When x = 5,
y = 5 × 52 6 Substitute x = 5 into y = 5x2 and
y = 125 solve to find y when x = 5.

b 20 = 5 × x2 7 Substitute y = 20 into y = 5x2 and

x2 = 4 solve to find x when y = 4.
x = ±2

Example 3 P is inversely proportional to Q.

When P = 100, Q = 10.
Find Q when P = 20.

1
P∝ 1 Write P is inversely proportional
Q to Q, using the symbol ∝ .
k
P= 2 Write the equation using k.
Q
k
100 = 3 Substitute P = 100 and Q = 10.
10
k = 1000 4 Solve the equation to find k.
k
P=
1000 5 Substitute the value of k into P =
Q Q
1000
20 =
1000 6 Substitute P = 20 into P = and
Q Q
1000 solve to find Q when P = 20.
=Q = 50
20

Circle theorems
 A LEVEL LINKS
Scheme of work: 2b. Circles – equation of a circle, geometric problems on a grid

Key points
• A chord is a straight line joining two points on
the circumference of a circle.
So AB is a chord.

• A tangent is a straight line that touches the

circumference of a circle at only one point.
The angle between a tangent and the radius is 90°.

• Two tangents on a circle that meet at a point

outside the circle are equal in length.
So AC = BC.

• The angle in a semicircle is a right angle.

So angle ABC = 90°.

• When two angles are subtended by the same arc,

the angle at the centre of a circle is twice the
angle at the circumference.
So angle AOB = 2 × angle ACB.

• Angles subtended by the same arc at the

circumference are equal. This means that angles
in the same segment are equal.
So angle ACB = angle ADB and
angle CAD = angle CBD.
 • A cyclic quadrilateral is a quadrilateral with all
four vertices on the circumference of a circle.
Opposite angles in a cyclic quadrilateral total 180°.
So x + y = 180° and p + q = 180°.

• The angle between a tangent and chord is equal

to the angle in the alternate segment, this is
known as the alternate segment theorem.
So angle BAT = angle ACB.

Examples
Example 1 Work out the size of each angle
marked with a letter.
Give reasons for your answers.

Angle a = 360° − 92° 1 The angles in a full turn total 360°.

= 268°
as the angles in a full turn total 360°.

Angle b = 268° ÷ 2 2 Angles a and b are subtended by

= 134° the same arc, so angle b is half of
as when two angles are subtended by the angle a.
same arc, the angle at the centre of a
circle is twice the angle at the
circumference.

Example 2 Work out the size of the angles in the triangle.

Give reasons for your answers.
 Angles are 90°, 2c and c. 1 The angle in a semicircle is a right
angle.
90° + 2c + c = 180° 2 Angles in a triangle total 180°.
90° + 3c = 180° 3 Simplify and solve the equation.
3c = 90°
c = 30°
2c = 60°

The angles are 30°, 60° and 90° as the

angle in a semi-circle is a right angle
and the angles in a triangle total 180°.

Example 3 Work out the size of each angle marked with a letter.
Give reasons for your answers.

Angle d = 55° as angles subtended by 1 Angles subtended by the same arc

the same arc are equal. are equal so angle 55° and angle d
are equal.
Angle e = 28° as angles subtended by 2 Angles subtended by the same arc
the same arc are equal. are equal so angle 28° and angle e
are equal.

Example 4 Work out the size of each angle marked with a letter.
Give reasons for your answers.

Angle f = 180° − 94° 1 Opposite angles in a cyclic

= 86° quadrilateral total 180° so angle 94°
as opposite angles in a cyclic and angle f total 180°.
quadrilateral total 180°.

(continued on next page)

Angle g = 180° − 86° 2 Angles on a straight line total 180°
= 84° so angle f and angle g total 180°.
as angles on a straight line total 180°.

Angle h = angle f = 86° as angles 3 Angles subtended by the same arc

subtended by the same arc are equal. are equal so angle f and angle h are
equal.
Example 5 Work out the size of each angle marked with a letter.
Give reasons for your answers.

Angle i = 53° because of the alternate 1 The angle between a tangent and
segment theorem. chord is equal to the angle in the
alternate segment.
Angle j = 53° because it is the alternate 2 As there are two parallel lines, angle
angle to 53°. 53° is equal to angle j because they
are alternate angles.
Angle k = 180° − 53° − 53° 3 The angles in a triangle total 180°,
= 74° so i + j + k = 180°.
as angles in a triangle total 180°.

Example 6 XZ and YZ are two tangents to a circle with centre O.

Prove that triangles XZO and YZO are congruent.

Angle OXZ = 90° and angle OYZ = 90° For two triangles to be congruent you
as the angles in a semicircle are right need to show one of the following.
angles.
• All three corresponding sides are
equal (SSS).
OZ is a common line and is the
hypotenuse in both triangles. • Two corresponding sides and the
included angle are equal (SAS).
OX = OY as they are radii of the same • One side and two corresponding
circle. angles are equal (ASA).

So triangles XZO and YZO are • A right angle, hypotenuse and a

congruent, RHS. shorter side are equal (RHS).
Trigonometry in right-angled triangles
A LEVEL LINKS
Scheme of work: 4a. Trigonometric ratios and graphs

Key points
• In a right-angled triangle:
o the side opposite the right angle is called the hypotenuse
o the side opposite the angle θ is called the opposite
o the side next to the angle θ is called the adjacent.

• In a right-angled triangle:
opp
o the ratio of the opposite side to the hypotenuse is the sine of angle θ, sin θ =
hyp
adj
o the ratio of the adjacent side to the hypotenuse is the cosine of angle θ, cosθ =
hyp
opp
o the ratio of the opposite side to the adjacent side is the tangent of angle θ, tan θ =
adj

• If the lengths of two sides of a right-angled triangle are given, you can find a missing angle
using the inverse trigonometric functions: sin−1, cos−1, tan−1.

• The sine, cosine and tangent of some angles may be written exactly.

0 30° 45° 60° 90°

1 2 3
sin 0 2 2 2
1
3 2 1
cos 1 2 2 2 0
3
tan 0 3
1 3
Examples
Example 1 Calculate the length of side x.
Give your answer correct to 3 significant figures.

1 Always start by labelling the sides.

adj
cos θ = 2 You are given the adjacent and the
hyp hypotenuse so use the cosine ratio.

6 3 Substitute the sides and angle into

cos 25° =
x the cosine ratio.
6
x= 4 Rearrange to make x the subject.
cos 25°
x = 6.620 267 5... 5 Use your calculator to work out
6 ÷ cos 25°.
x = 6.62 cm 6 Round your answer to 3 significant
figures and write the units in your
answer.

Example 2 Calculate the size of angle x.

Give your answer correct to 3 significant figures.

1 Always start by labelling the sides.

opp 2 You are given the opposite and the

tan θ =
adj adjacent so use the tangent ratio.
3 3 Substitute the sides and angle into
tan x =
4.5 the tangent ratio.
x = tan–1 
3 
 4 Use tan−1 to find the angle.
 4.5 
x = 33.690 067 5... 5 Use your calculator to work out
tan–1(3 ÷ 4.5).
x = 33.7° 6 Round your answer to 3 significant
figures and write the units in your
answer.

Example 3 Calculate the exact size of angle x.

 1 Always start by labelling the sides.

opp 2 You are given the opposite and the

tan θ =
adj adjacent so use the tangent ratio.
3
tan x = 3 Substitute the sides and angle into
3 the tangent ratio.
4 Use the table from the key points to
x = 30° find the angle.

The cosine rule

A LEVEL LINKS
Scheme of work: 4a. Trigonometric ratios and graphs
Textbook: Pure Year 1, 9.1 The cosine rule

Key points
• a is the side opposite angle A.
b is the side opposite angle B.
c is the side opposite angle C.

• You can use the cosine rule to find the length of a side when two sides and the included
angle are given.
• To calculate an unknown side use the formula a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2bc cos A .

• Alternatively, you can use the cosine rule to find an unknown angle if the lengths of all three
sides are given.
b2 + c2 − a 2
• To calculate an unknown angle use the formula cos A = .
2bc

Examples
Example 4 Work out the length of side w.
Give your answer correct to 3 significant figures.
 1 Always start by labelling the angles
and sides.

a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2bc cos A 2 Write the cosine rule to find the

side.

w2 = 82 + 7 2 − 2 × 8 × 7 × cos 45° 3 Substitute the values a, b and A into

the formula.
w2 = 33.804 040 51... 4 Use a calculator to find w2 and
then w.
w = 33.80404051
5 Round your final answer to 3
w = 5.81 cm significant figures and write the
units in your answer.

Example 5 Work out the size of angle θ.

Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.

1 Always start by labelling the angles

and sides.

b2 + c2 − a 2
cos A = 2 Write the cosine rule to find the
2bc angle.
102 + 7 2 − 152
cosθ = 3 Substitute the values a, b and c into
2 × 10 × 7 the formula.
−76
cos θ = 4 Use cos−1 to find the angle.
140
θ = 122.878 349... 5 Use your calculator to work out
cos–1(–76 ÷ 140).
θ = 122.9° 6 Round your answer to 1 decimal
place and write the units in your
answer.
The sine rule
A LEVEL LINKS
Scheme of work: 4a. Trigonometric ratios and graphs
Textbook: Pure Year 1, 9.2 The sine rule

Key points
• a is the side opposite angle A.
b is the side opposite angle B.
c is the side opposite angle C.

• You can use the sine rule to find the length of a side when its opposite angle and another
opposite side and angle are given.
a b c
• To calculate an unknown side use the formula = = .
sin A sin B sin C
• Alternatively, you can use the sine rule to find an unknown angle if the opposite side and
another opposite side and angle are given.
• To calculate an unknown angle use the formula sin
= =
A sin B sin C
.
a b c

Examples
Example 6 Work out the length of side x.
Give your answer correct to 3 significant figures.

1 Always start by labelling the angles

and sides.

a b
= 2 Write the sine rule to find the side.
sin A sin B
x 10
= 3 Substitute the values a, b, A and B
sin 36° sin 75° into the formula.
10 × sin 36°
x= 4 Rearrange to make x the subject.
sin 75°
x = 6.09 cm 5 Round your answer to 3 significant
figures and write the units in your
answer.
Example 7 Work out the size of angle θ.
Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.

1 Always start by labelling the angles

and sides.

sin A sin B 2 Write the sine rule to find the angle.

=
a b
sin θ sin127° 3 Substitute the values a, b, A and B
=
8 14 into the formula.
8 × sin127° 4 Rearrange to make sin θ the subject.
sin θ =
14
θ = 27.2° 5 Use sin−1 to find the angle. Round
your answer to 1 decimal place and
write the units in your answer.
Areas of triangles
A LEVEL LINKS
Scheme of work: 4a. Trigonometric ratios and graphs
Textbook: Pure Year 1, 9.3 Areas of triangles

Key points
• a is the side opposite angle A.
b is the side opposite angle B.
c is the side opposite angle C.
1
• The area of the triangle is ab sin C .
2

Examples
Example 8 Find the area of the triangle.

1 Always start by labelling the sides

and angles of the triangle.

Area = 1 ab sin C 2 State the formula for the area of a

2 triangle.
1 3 Substitute the values of a, b and C
Area = × 8 × 5 × sin 82°
2 into the formula for the area of a
triangle.
Area = 19.805 361... 4 Use a calculator to find the area.

Area = 19.8 cm2 5 Round your answer to 3 significant

figures and write the units in your
answer.
Rearranging equations
A LEVEL LINKS
Scheme of work: 6a. Definition, differentiating polynomials, second derivatives
Textbook: Pure Year 1, 12.1 Gradients of curves

Key points
• To change the subject of a formula, get the terms containing the subject on one side and
everything else on the other side.
• You may need to factorise the terms containing the new subject.

Examples
Example 1 Make t the subject of the formula v = u + at.

v = u + at 1 Get the terms containing t on one

side and everything else on the other
v − u = at side.
v−u
t= 2 Divide throughout by a.
a

Example 2 Make t the subject of the formula r = 2t − πt.

r = 2t − πt 1 All the terms containing t are

already on one side and everything
else is on the other side.
r = t(2 − π) 2 Factorise as t is a common factor.
r
t= 3 Divide throughout by 2 − π.
2 −π

t + r 3t
Example 3 Make t the subject of the formula = .
5 2

t + r 3t 1 Remove the fractions first by

= multiplying throughout by 10.
5 2
2t + 2r = 15t 2 Get the terms containing t on one
side and everything else on the other
2r = 13t side and simplify.
2r 3 Divide throughout by 13.
t=
13

3t + 5
Example 4 Make t the subject of the formula r = .
t −1
 3t + 5 1 Remove the fraction first by
r= multiplying throughout by t − 1.
t −1
r(t − 1) = 3t + 5 2 Expand the brackets.
rt − r = 3t + 5 3 Get the terms containing t on one
side and everything else on the other
rt − 3t = 5 + r
side.
t(r − 3) = 5 + r 4 Factorise the LHS as t is a common
factor.
5+ r 5 Divide throughout by r − 3.
t=
r −3

Volume and surface area of 3D shapes

A LEVEL LINKS
Scheme of work: 6b. Gradients, tangents, normals, maxima and minima

Key points
• Volume of a prism = cross-sectional area × length.
• The surface area of a 3D shape is the total area
of all its faces.

• Volume of a pyramid = 1 × area of base × vertical height.

3

• Volume of a cylinder = πr2h

• Total surface area of a cylinder = 2πr2 + 2πrh

4 3
• Volume of a sphere = πr
3
• Surface area of a sphere = 4πr2

1 2
• Volume of a cone = πr h
3
• Total surface area of a cone = πrl + πr2

Examples
Example 1 The triangular prism has volume 504 cm3.
Work out its length.
 V= 1
bhl 1 Write out the formula for the
2
volume of a triangular prism.
1
2 Substitute known values into the
504 = 2 ×9×4×l formula.
3 Simplify
504 = 18 × l
l = 504 ÷ 18 4 Rearrange to work out l.
= 28 cm 5 Remember the units.

Example 2 Calculate the volume of the 3D solid.

Give your answer in terms of π.

Total volume = volume of hemisphere 1 The solid is made up of a

hemisphere radius 5 cm and
+ Volume of cone
a cone with radius 5 cm and height
1 4 1 12 − 5 = 7 cm.
= 2 of 3 πr3 + 3 πr2h

1 4
Total volume = 2 × 3 × π × 53 2 Substitute the measurements into the
formula for the total volume.
1
+ 3 × π × 52 × 7
425
3 π cm
3
= 3 Remember the units.
Area under a graph
A LEVEL LINKS
Scheme of work: 7b. Definite integrals and areas under curves

Key points
• To estimate the area under a curve, draw a chord between
the two points you are finding the area between and straight
lines down to the horizontal axis to create a trapezium.
The area of the trapezium is an approximation for the area
under a curve.

1
• The area of a trapezium = h( a + b)
2

Examples

Example 1 Estimate the area of the region between the curve

y = (3 − x)(2 + x) and the x-axis from x = 0 to x = 3.
Use three strips of width 1 unit.

x 0 1 2 3 1 Use a table to record the value of y

y = (3 − x)(2 + x) 6 6 4 0 on the curve for each value of x.

Trapezium 1: 2 Work out the dimensions of each

a1 = 6 − 0 = 6 , b1 = 6 − 0 = 6 trapezium. The distances between
the y-values on the curve and the
Trapezium 2:
x-axis give the values for a.
a2 = 6 − 0 = 6 , b2 = 4 − 0 = 4
Trapezium 3:
a3 = 4 − 0 = 4 , a3 = 0 − 0 = 0
(continued on next page)
 1 1
h(a1 + b1 ) = × 1(6 + 6) =6 3 Work out the area of each
2 2 trapezium. h = 1 since the width of
1 1 each trapezium is 1 unit.
h(a2 + b2 ) = × 1(6 + 4) =5
2 2
1 1
h(a3 + b3 ) = × 1(4 + 0) =2
2 2

Area = 6 + 5 + 2 = 13 units2 4 Work out the total area. Remember

to give units with your answer.

Example 2 Estimate the shaded area.

Use three strips of width 2 units.

x 4 6 8 10 1 Use a table to record y on the curve

y 7 12 13 4 for each value of x.

x 4 6 8 10 2 Use a table to record y on the

y 7 6 5 4 straight line for each value of x.

Trapezium 1: 3 Work out the dimensions of each

a1 = 7 − 7 = 0 , b1 = 12 − 6 = 6 trapezium. The distances between
the y-values on the curve and the
Trapezium 2: y-values on the straight line give the
a2 = 12 − 6 = 6 , b2 = 13 − 5 = 8 values for a.
Trapezium 3:
a3 = 13 − 5 = 8 , a3 = 4 − 4 = 0

1 1 4 Work out the area of each

h(a1 + b1 ) = × 2(0 + 6) =6
2 2 trapezium. h = 2 since the width of
1 1 each trapezium is 2 units.
h(a2 + b2 ) = × 2(6 + 8) =14
2 2
1 1
h(a3 + b3 ) = × 2(8 + 0) =8
2 2

Area = 6 + 14 + 8 = 28 units2 5 Work out the total area. Remember

to give units with your answer.