1.

Computer Fundamentals
Definition

What is Computer?
A computer is a programmable electronic device that accepts raw data as input and
processes it with a set of instructions (a program) to produce the result as output. It
renders output just after performing mathematical and logical operations and can
save the output for future use. It can process numerical as well as non-numerical
calculations. The term "computer" is derived from the Latin word "computare" which
means to calculate.

A computer is designed to execute applications and provides a variety of solutions

through integrated hardware and software components. It works with the help of
programs and represents the decimal numbers through a string of binary digits. It
also has a memory that stores the data, programs, and result of processing. The
components of a computer such as machinery that includes wires, transistors,
circuits, hard disk are called hardware. Whereas, the programs and data are called
software.

It is believed that the Analytical Engine was the first computer which was invented by
Charles Babbage in 1837. It used punch cards as read-only memory. Charles Babbage
is also known as the father of the computer.

The basic parts without which a computer cannot work are as follows:

o Processor: It executes instructions from software and hardware.

o Memory: It is the primary memory for data transfer between the CPU and storage.
o Motherboard: It is the part that connects all other parts or components of a
computer.
o Storage Device: It permanently stores the data, e.g., hard drive.
o Input Device: It allows you to communicate with the computer or to input data, e.g.,
a keyboard.
o Output Device: It enables you to see the output, e.g., monitor.

Computers are divided into different types based on different criteria. Based on
the size, a computer can be divided into five types:

1. Micro Computer
2. Mini Computer
 3. Mainframe Computer
4. Super Computer
5. Workstations

1. Micro Computer:
It is a single-user computer which has less speed and storage capacity than the other
types. It uses a microprocessor as a CPU. The first microcomputer was built with 8-bit
microprocessor chips. The common examples of microcomputers include laptops,
desktop computers, personal digital assistant (PDA), tablets, and smartphones.
Microcomputers are generally designed and developed for general usage like
browsing, searching for information , internet, MS Office, social media, etc.

2. Mini Computer:
Mini-computers are also known as "Midrange Computers." They are not designed for
a single. They are multi-user computers designed to support multiple users
simultaneously. So, they are generally used by small businesses and firms. Individual
departments of a company use these computers for specific purposes. For example,
the admission department of a University can use a Mini-computer for monitoring
the admission process.

3. Mainframe Computer:
It is also a multi-user computer capable of supporting thousands of users
simultaneously. They are used by large firms and government organizations to run
their business operations as they can store and process large amounts of data. For
example, Banks, universities, and insurance companies use mainframe computers to
store the data of their customers, students, and policyholders, respectively.

4. Super Computer:
Super-computers are the fastest and most expensive computers among all types of
computers. They have huge storage capacities and computing speeds and thus can
perform millions of instructions per second. The super-computers are task-specific
and thus used for specialized applications such as large-scale numerical problems in
scientific and engineering disciplines including applications in electronics, petroleum
engineering, weather forecasting, medicine, space research and more. For example,
NASA uses supercomputers for launching space satellites and monitoring and
controlling them for space exploration.
5. Work stations:
It is a single-user computer. Although it is like a personal computer, it has a more
powerful microprocessor and a higher-quality monitor than a microcomputer. In
terms of storage capacity and speed, it comes between a personal computer and
minicomputer. Work stations are generally used for specialized applications such as
desktop publishing, software development, and engineering designs.

Benefits of Using a Computer:

o Increases your productivity: A computer increases your productivity. For example,
after having a basic understanding of a word processor, you can create, edit, store,
and print the documents easily and quickly.
o Connects to the Internet: It connects you to the internet that allows you to send
emails, browse content, gain information, use social media platforms, and more. By
connecting to the internet, you can also connect to your long-distance friends and
family members.
o Storage: A computer allows you to store a large amount of information, e.g., you can
store your projects, ebooks, documents, movies, pictures, songs, and more.
o Organized Data and Information: It not only allows you to store data but also
enables you to organize your data. For example, you can create different folders to
store different data and information and thus can search for information easily and
quickly.
o Improves your abilities: It helps write good English if you are not good at spelling
and grammar. Similarly, if you are not good at math, and don't have a great memory,
you can use a computer to perform calculations and store the results.
o Assist the physically challenged: It can be used to help the physically challenged,
e.g., Stephen Hawking, who was not able to speak used computer to speak. It also
can be used to help blind people by installing special software to read what is on the
screen.
o Keeps you entertained: You can use the computer to listen to songs, watch movies,
play games and more.

The computer has become a part of our life. There are plenty of things that we do in
a day are dependent on a computer. Some of the common examples are as follows:
 1. ATM: While withdrawing cash from an ATM, you are using a computer that enables
the ATM to take instructions and dispense cash accordingly.
2. Digital currency: A computer keeps a record of your transactions and balance in
your account and the money deposited in your account in a bank is stored as a
digital record or digital currency.
3. Trading: Stock markets use computers for day to day trading. There are many
advanced algorithms based on computers that handle trading without involving
humans.
4. Smartphone: The smartphone that we use throughout the day for calling, texting,
browsing is itself a computer.
5. VoIP: All voice over IP communication (VoIP) is handled and done by computers.

History of Computers
The first counting device was used by the primitive people. They used sticks, stones
and bones as counting tools. As human mind and technology improved with time
more computing devices were developed. Some of the popular computing devices
starting with the first to recent ones are described below;

Abacus
The history of computer begins with the birth of abacus which is believed to be the
first computer. It is said that Chinese invented Abacus around 4,000 years ago.

It was a wooden rack which has metal rods with beads mounted on them. The beads
were moved by the abacus operator according to some rules to perform arithmetic
calculations. Abacus is still used in some countries like China, Russia and Japan. An
image of this tool is shown below;
Napier's Bones
It was a manually-operated calculating device which was invented by John Napier
(1550-1617) of Merchiston. In this calculating tool, he used 9 different ivory strips or
bones marked with numbers to multiply and divide. So, the tool became known as
"Napier's Bones. It was also the first machine to use the decimal point.
Pascaline
Pascaline is also known as Arithmetic Machine or Adding Machine. It was invented
between 1642 and 1644 by a French mathematician-philosopher Biaise Pascal. It is
believed that it was the first mechanical and automatic calculator.

Pascal invented this machine to help his father, a tax accountant. It could only
perform addition and subtraction. It was a wooden box with a series of gears and
wheels. When a wheel is rotated one revolution, it rotates the neighboring wheel. A
series of windows is given on the top of the wheels to read the totals. An image of
this tool is shown below;
Stepped Reckoner or Leibnitz wheel
It was developed by a German mathematician-philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibnitz in 1673. He improved Pascal's invention to develop this machine. It was a
digital mechanical calculator which was called the stepped reckoner as instead of
gears it was made of fluted drums. See the following image;
Difference Engine
In the early 1820s, it was designed by Charles Babbage who is known as "Father of
Modern Computer". It was a mechanical computer which could perform simple
calculations. It was a steam driven calculating machine designed to solve tables of
numbers like logarithm tables.

Analytical Engine
This calculating machine was also developed by Charles Babbage in 1830. It was a
mechanical computer that used punch-cards as input. It was capable of solving any
mathematical problem and storing information as a permanent memory.
Tabulating Machine
It was invented in 1890, by Herman Hollerith, an American statistician. It was a
mechanical tabulator based on punch cards. It could tabulate statistics and record or
sort data or information. This machine was used in the 1890 U.S. Census. Hollerith
also started the Hollerith?s Tabulating Machine Company which later became
International Business Machine (IBM) in 1924.

Differential Analyzer
It was the first electronic computer introduced in the United States in 1930. It was an
analog device invented by Vannevar Bush. This machine has vacuum tubes to switch
electrical signals to perform calculations. It could do 25 calculations in few minutes.
Mark I
The next major changes in the history of computer began in 1937 when Howard
Aiken planned to develop a machine that could perform calculations involving large
numbers. In 1944, Mark I computer was built as a partnership between IBM and
Harvard. It was the first programmable digital computer.
Generations of Computers
A generation of computers refers to the specific improvements in computer
technology with time. In 1946, electronic pathways called circuits were developed to
perform the counting. It replaced the gears and other mechanical parts used for
counting in previous computing machines.

In each new generation, the circuits became smaller and more advanced than the
previous generation circuits. The miniaturization helped increase the speed, memory
and power of computers. There are five generations of computers which are
described below;

First Generation Computers

The first generation (1946-1959) computers were slow, huge and expensive. In these
computers, vacuum tubes were used as the basic components of CPU and memory.
These computers were mainly depended on batch operating system and punch
cards. Magnetic tape and paper tape were used as output and input devices in this
generation;

Some of the popular first generation computers are;

o ENIAC ( Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)

o EDVAC ( Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
o UNIVACI( Universal Automatic Computer)
o IBM-701
o IBM-650

Second Generation Computers

The second generation (1959-1965) was the era of the transistor computers. These
computers used transistors which were cheap, compact and consuming less power; it
made transistor computers faster than the first generation computers.

In this generation, magnetic cores were used as the primary memory and magnetic
disc and tapes were used as the secondary storage. Assembly language and
programming languages like COBOL and FORTRAN, and Batch processing and
multiprogramming operating systems were used in these computers.

Some of the popular second generation computers are;

 o IBM 1620
o IBM 7094
o CDC 1604
o CDC 3600
o UNIVAC 1108

Third Generation Computers

The third generation computers used integrated circuits (ICs) instead of transistors. A
single IC can pack huge number of transistors which increased the power of a
computer and reduced the cost. The computers also became more reliable, efficient
and smaller in size. These generation computers used remote processing, time-
sharing, multi programming as operating system. Also, the high-level programming
languages like FORTRON-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, ALGOL-68 were used in this
generation.

Some of the popular third generation computers are;

o IBM-360 series
o Honeywell-6000 series
o PDP(Personal Data Processor)
o IBM-370/168
o TDC-316

Fourth Generation Computers

The fourth generation (1971-1980) computers used very large scale integrated (VLSI)
circuits; a chip containing millions of transistors and other circuit elements. These
chips made this generation computers more compact, powerful, fast and affordable.
These generation computers used real time, time sharing and distributed operating
system. The programming languages like C, C++, DBASE were also used in this
generation.

Some of the popular fourth generation computers are;

o DEC 10
o STAR 1000
o PDP 11
o CRAY-1(Super Computer)
 o CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)

Fifth Generation Computers

In fifth generation (1980-till date) computers, the VLSI technology was replaced with
ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration). It made possible the production of
microprocessor chips with ten million electronic components. This generation
computers used parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software.
The programming languages used in this generation were C, C++, Java, .Net, etc.

Some of the popular fifth generation computers are;

o Desktop
o Laptop
o NoteBook
o UltraBook
o ChromeBook

Characteristics of Computer System

The characteristics of the computer system are as follows −

Speed
A computer works with much higher speed and accuracy
compared to humans while performing mathematical calculations.
Computers can process millions (1,000,000) of instructions per
second. The time taken by computers for their operations is
microseconds and nanoseconds.

Accuracy
Computers perform calculations with 100% accuracy. Errors may
occur due to data inconsistency or inaccuracy.

Diligence
A computer can perform millions of tasks or calculations with the
same consistency and accuracy. It doesn’t feel any fatigue or lack
of concentration. Its memory also makes it superior to that of
human beings.

Versatility
Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform
different kinds of works with same accuracy and efficiency.

Reliability
A computer is reliable as it gives consistent result for similar set
of data i.e., if we give same set of input any number of times, we
will get the same result.

Automation

Computer performs all the tasks automatically i.e. it performs

tasks without manual intervention.

Memory
A computer has built-in memory called primary memory where it
stores data. Secondary storage are removable devices such as
CDs, pen drives, etc., which are also used to store data.
Types of Computer
We can categorize computer in two ways: on the basis of data handling capabilities
and size.

On the basis of data handling capabilities, the computer is of three types:

o Analogue Computer
o Digital Computer
o Hybrid Computer

1) Analogue Computer
Analogue computers are designed to process analogue data. Analogue data is
continuous data that changes continuously and cannot have discrete values. We can
say that analogue computers are used where we don't need exact values always such
as speed, temperature, pressure and current.

Analogue computers directly accept the data from the measuring device without first
converting it into numbers and codes. They measure the continuous changes in
physical quantity and generally render output as a reading on a dial or
scale. Speedometer and mercury thermometer are examples of analogue
computers.

Advantages of using analogue computers:

o It allows real-time operations and computation at the same time and continuous
representation of all data within the rage of the analogue machine.
o In some applications, it allows performing calculations without taking the help of
transducers for converting the inputs or outputs to digital electronic form and vice
versa.
o The programmer can scale the problem for the dynamic range of the analogue
computer. It provides insight into the problem and helps understand the errors and
their effects.

Types of analogue computers:

o Slide Rules: It is one of the simplest types of mechanical analogue computers. It
was developed to perform basic mathematical calculations. It is made of two rods.
 To perform the calculation, the hashed rod is slid to line up with the markings on
another rod.
o Differential Analysers: It was developed to perform differential calculations. It
performs integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms to solve differential
calculations.
o Castle Clock: It was invented by Al-Jarazi. It was able to save programming
instructions. Its height was around 11 feet and it was provided with the display of
time, the zodiac, and the solar and lunar orbits. This device also could allow users to
set the length of the day as per the current season.
o Electronic Analogue Computer: In this type of analogue computer, electrical signals
flow through capacitors and resistors to simulate physical phenomena. Here, the
mechanical interaction of components does not take place. The voltage of the
electrical signal generates the appropriate displays.

2) Digital Computer
Digital computer is designed to perform calculations and logical operations at high
speed. It accepts the raw data as input in the form of digits or binary numbers (0 and
1) and processes it with programs stored in its memory to produce the output. All
modern computers like laptops, desktops including smartphones that we use at
home or office are digital computers.

Advantages of digital computers:

o It allows you to store a large amount of information and to retrieve it easily whenever
you need it.
o You can easily add new features to digital systems more easily.
o Different applications can be used in digital systems just by changing the program
without making any changes in hardware
o The cost of hardware is less due to the advancement in the IC technology.
o It offers high speed as the data is processed digitally.
o It is highly reliable as it uses error correction codes.
o Reproducibility of results is higher as the output is not affected by noise,
temperature, humidity, and other properties of its components.
3) Hybrid Computer
Hybrid computer has features of both analogue and digital computer. It is fast like
an analogue computer and has memory and accuracy like digital computers. It
can process both continuous and discrete data. It accepts analogue signals and
convert them into digital form before processing. So, it is widely used in specialized
applications where both analogue and digital data is processed. For example, a
processor is used in petrol pumps that converts the measurements of fuel flow into
quantity and price. Similarly, they are used in airplanes, hospitals, and scientific
applications.

Advantages of using hybrid computers:

o Its computing speed is very high due to the all-parallel configuration of the analogue
subsystem.
o It produces precise and quick results that are more accurate and useful.
o It has the ability to solve and manage big equation in real-time.
o It helps in the on-line data processing.

On the basis of size, the computer can be of five types:

1) Supercomputer
Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest computers. They are designed to
process huge amount of data. A supercomputer can process trillions of
instructions in a second. It has thousands of interconnected processors.

Supercomputers are particularly used in scientific and engineering

applications such as weather forecasting, scientific simulations and nuclear energy
research. The first supercomputer was developed by Roger Cray in 1976.

Characteristics or applications of supercomputers:

o It has the ability to decrypt your password to enhance protection for security reasons.
o It produces excellent results in animations.
o It is used for virtual testing of nuclear weapons and critical medical tests.
o It can study and understand climate patterns and forecast weather conditions. It can
run in NOAA's system (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) that can
execute any type of simple and logical data.
 o It helps in designing the flight simulators for pilots at the beginner level for their
training.
o It helps in extracting useful information from data storage centres or cloud system.
For example, in insurance companies.
o It has played a vital role in managing the online currency world such as stock market
and bitcoin.
o It helps in the diagnosis of various critical diseases and in producing accurate results
in brain injuries, strokes, etc.
o It helps in scientific research areas by accurately analysing data obtained from
exploring the solar system, satellites, and movement of Earth.
o It also used in a smog control system where it predicts the level of fog and other
pollutants in the atmosphere.

2) Mainframe computer
Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users
simultaneously. They can support multiple programs at the same time. It means they
can execute different processes simultaneously. These features of mainframe
computers make them ideal for big organizations like banking and telecom sectors,
which need to manage and process high volume of data.

Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users

simultaneously. They can support multiple programs at the same time. It means
they can execute different processes simultaneously. These features of mainframe
computers make them ideal for big organizations like banking and telecom sectors,
which need to manage and process a high volume of data that requires integer
operations such as indexing, comparisons, etc.

Characteristics of Mainframe Computers:

o It can process huge amount of data, e.g. millions of transactions in a second in the
banking sector.
o It has a very long life. It can run smoothly for up to 50 years after proper installation.
o It gives excellent performance with large scale memory management.
o It has the ability to share or distribute its workload among other processors and
input/output terminals.
o There are fewer chances of error or bugs during processing in mainframe computers.
If any error occurs it can fix it quickly without affecting the performance.
 o It has the ability to protect the stored data and other ongoing exchange of
information and data.

Applications of mainframe computers:

o In health care, it enabled hospitals to maintain a record of their millions of patients
in order to contact them for treatment or related to their appointment, medicine
updates or disease updates.
o In the field of defence, it allows the defence departments to share a large amount of
sensitive information with other branches of defence.
o In the field of education, it helps big universities to store, manage and retrieve data
related to their courses, admissions, students, teachers, employees and affiliated
schools and colleges.
o In the retail sector, the retail companies that have a huge customer base and
branches use mainframe computers to handle and execute information related to
their inventory management, customer management, and huge transactions in a
short duration.

3) Miniframe or Minicomputer
It is a midsize multiprocessing computer. It consists of two or more processors and
can support 4 to 200 users at one time. Miniframe computers are used in institutes
and departments for tasks such as billing, accounting and inventory management. A
minicomputer lies between the mainframe and microcomputer as it is smaller
than mainframe but larger than a microcomputer.

Characteristics of miniframe or minicomputer:

o It is light weight that makes it easy to carry and fit anywhere.
o It is less expensive than mainframe computers.
o It is very fast compared to its size.
o It remains charged for a long time.
o It does not require a controlled operational environment.

Applications of minicomputers:

A minicomputer is mainly used to perform three primary functions, which are as

follows:
 o Process control: It was used for process control in manufacturing. It mainly performs
two primary functions that are collecting data and feedback. If any abnormality
occurs in the process, it is detected by the minicomputer and necessary adjustments
are made accordingly.
o Data management: It is an excellent device for small organizations to collect, store
and share data. Local hospitals and hotels can use it to maintain the records of their
patients and customers respectively.
o Communications Portal: It can also play the role of a communication device in
larger systems by serving as a portal between a human operator and a central
processor or computer.

4) Workstation
Workstation is a single user computer that is designed for technical or scientific
applications. It has a faster microprocessor, a large amount of RAM and high speed
graphic adapters. It generally performs a specific job with great expertise;
accordingly, they are of different types such as graphics workstation, music
workstation and engineering design workstation.

Characteristics of workstation computer:

o It is a high-performance computer system designed for a single user for business or
professional use.
o It has larger storage capacity, better graphics, and more powerful CPU than a
personal computer.
o It can handle animation, data analysis, CAD, audio and video creation and editing.

Any computer that has the following five features, can be termed as a workstation
or can be used as a workstation.

o Multiple Processor Cores: It has more processor cores than simple laptops or
computers.
o ECC RAM: It is provided with Error-correcting code memory that can fix memory
errors before they affect the system's performance.
o RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks): It refers to multiple internal hard
drives to store or process data. RAID can be of different types, for example, there can
be multiple drives to process data or mirrored drives where if one drive does not
work than other starts functioning.
 o SSD: It is better than conventional hard-disk drives. It does not have moving parts, so
the chances of physical failure are very less.
o Optimized, Higher end GPU: It reduces the load on CPU. E.g., CPU has to do less
work while processing the screen output.

5) Microcomputer
Microcomputer is also known as a personal computer. It is a general-purpose
computer that is designed for individual use. It has a microprocessor as a central
processing unit, memory, storage area, input unit and output unit. Laptops and
desktop computers are examples of microcomputers. They are suitable for personal
work that may be making an assignment, watching a movie, or at office for office
work.

Characteristics of a microcomputer:
o It is the smallest in size among all types of computers.
o A limited number of software can be used.
o It is designed for personal work and applications. Only one user can work at a time.
o It is less expansive and easy to use.
o It does not require the user to have special skills or training to use it.
o Generally, comes with single semiconductor chip.
o It is capable of multitasking such as printing, scanning, browsing, watching videos, etc

Overview of computer
Data and data processing
Computer systems consist of three components: Central
Processing Unit, Input devices and Output devices. Input devices
provide data to the processor (processing unit), which processes
it and generates useful information that’s displayed to the user
through output devices. Output devices are used to show the
processed data to the user on computer screen or in print form.
Below figure depicts the major components of computer systems
−
Fig: Components of computer systems

Computer Parts or Components

Computer components are the essential building parts of developing a functional
computer system. The components that make up a computer are called computer
components. The processor (CPU), memory, and input/output devices are every
computer's three main building blocks. Initially computers were primarily used for
numerical computations because any information can be numerically encoded. The
ability of computers to interpret information for several purposes was quickly
recognized.

There are 5 main computer components that are given below:

o Input Devices
o CPU
o Output Devices
o Primary Memory
o Secondary Memory
Hardware: Definition; Input Unit, CPU, Output
Unit; Storage devices: Primary & Auxiliary
Memory
What is Computer Hardware?
Hardware, which is abbreviated as HW, refers to all physical components of a
computer system, including the devices connected to it. You cannot create a
computer or use software without using hardware. The screen on which you are
reading this information is also a hardware.

What is a hardware upgrade?

A hardware upgrade refers to a new hardware, or a replacement for the old one, or
additional hardware developed to improve the performance of the existing hardware.
A common example of a hardware upgrade is a RAM upgrade that increases the
computer's total memory, and video card upgrade, where the old video card is
removed and replaced with the new one.

Computer Hardware Parts

Some of the commonly used hardware in your computer are described below:
 1. Motherboard
2. Monitor
3. Keyboard
4. Mouse

Input Devices
Input device enables the user to send data, information, or control signals to a
computer. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer receives the input and
processes it to produce the output.

Some of the popular input devices are:

1. Keyboard
2. Mouse
3. Scanner
4. Joystick
5. Light Pen
6. Digitizer
7. Microphone
8. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
9. Optical Character Reader (OCR)
10. Digital Camera
11. Paddle
12. Steering Wheel
13. Gesture recognition devices
14. Light Gun
15. Touch Pad
16. Remote
17. Touch screen
18. VR
 19. Webcam
20. Biometric Devices

1) Keyboard
The keyboard is a basic input device that is used to enter data into a computer or
any other electronic device by pressing keys. It has different sets of keys for letters,
numbers, characters, and functions. Keyboards are connected to a computer
through USB or a Bluetooth device for wireless communication.

Types of keyboards: There can be different types of keyboards based on the region
and language used. Some of the common types of keyboards are as follows:

i) QWERTY Keyboard:

It is the most commonly used keyboard with computers in modern times. It is named
after the first six letters of the top row of buttons and is even popular in countries
that do not use Latin-based alphabet. It is so popular that some people think that it
is the only type of keyboard to use with computers as an input device.

ii) AZERTY Keyboard:

It is considered the standard French keyboard. It is developed in France as an

alternative layout to the QWERTY layout and is mainly used in France and other
European countries. Some countries have manufactured their own versions of
AZERTY.
Its name is derived from the first six letters that appear on the top left row of the
keyboard. The Q and W keys in AZERTY keyboard are interchanged with A and Z keys
in QWERTY keyboard. Furthermore, in AZERTY keyboard M key is located to the left
of the L key.

AZERTY keyboard differs from QWERTY keyboard not only in the placement of letters
but also in many other ways, e.g., it gives emphasis on accents, which is required for
writing European languages like French.

iii) DVORAK Keyboard:

This type of keyboard layout was developed to increase the typing speed by
reducing the finger movement while typing. The most frequently used letters are
kept in a home row to improve typing.

2) Mouse
The mouse is a hand-held input device which is used to move cursor or pointer
across the screen. It is designed to be used on a flat surface and generally has left
and right button and a scroll wheel between them. Laptop computers come with a
touchpad that works as a mouse. It lets you control the movement of cursor or
pointer by moving your finger over the touchpad. Some mouse comes with
integrated features such as extra buttons to perform different buttons.

The mouse was invented by Douglas C. Engelbart in 1963. Early mouse had a roller
ball integrated as a movement sensor underneath the device. Modern mouse devices
come with optical technology that controls cursor movements by a visible or invisible
light beam. A mouse is connected to a computer through different ports depending
on the type of computer and type of a mouse.

Common types of the mouse:

i) Trackball Mouse:
It is a stationary input device that has ball mechanism to move the pointer or cursor
on the screen. The ball is half inserted in the device and can be easily rolled with
finger, thumb or the palm to move the pointer on the screen. The device has sensor
to detect the rotation of ball. It remains stationary; you don't need to move it on the
operating surface. So, it is an ideal device if you have limited desk space as you don't
need to move it like a mouse.

ii) Mechanical Mouse:

It has a system of a ball and several rollers to track its movement. It is a corded type
of mouse. A mechanical mouse can be used for high performance. The drawback is
that they tend to get dust into the mechanics and thus require regular cleaning.

iii) Optical Mouse:

An optical mouse uses optical electronics to track its movement. It is more reliable
than a mechanical mouse and also requires less maintenance. However, its
performance is affected by the surface on which it is operated. Plain non-glossy
mouse mat should be used for best results. The rough surface may cause problems
for the optical recognition system, and the glossy surface may reflect the light
wrongly and thus may cause tracking issues.

iv) Cordless or Wireless Mouse:

As the name suggests, this type of mouse lacks cable and uses wireless technology
such as IrDA (infrared) or radio (Bluetooth or Wi-Fi) to control the movement of the
cursor. It is used to improve the experience of using a mouse. It uses batteries for its
power supply.

3) Scanner
The scanner uses the pictures and pages of text as input. It scans the picture or a
document. The scanned picture or document then converted into a digital format or
file and is displayed on the screen as an output. It uses optical character recognition
techniques to convert images into digital ones. Some of the common types of
scanners are as follows:

Types of Scanner:

i) Flatbed Scanner:

It has a glass pane and a moving optical CIS or CCD array. The light illuminates the
pane, and then the image is placed on the glass pane. The light moves across the
glass pane and scans the document and thus produces its digital copy. You will need
a transparency adapter while scanning transparent slides.

ii) Handheld Scanner:

It is a small manual scanning device which is held by hand and is rolled over a flat
image that is to be scanned. The drawback in using this device is that the hand
should be steady while scanning; otherwise, it may distort the image. One of the
commonly used handheld scanners is the barcode scanner which you would have
seen in shopping stores.
iii) Sheetfed Scanner:

In this scanner, the document is inserted into the slot provided in the scanner. The
main components of this scanner include the sheet-feeder, scanning module, and
calibration sheet. The light does not move in this scanner. Instead, the document
moves through the scanner. It is suitable for scanning single page documents, not for
thick objects like books, magazines, etc.

iv) Drum Scanner:

Drum scanner has a photomultiplier tube (PMT) to scan images. It does not have a
charge-coupled device like a flatbed scanner. The photomultiplier tube is extremely
sensitive to light. The image is placed on a glass tube, and the light moves across the
image, which produces a reflection of the image which is captured by the PMT and
processed. These scanners have high resolution and are suitable for detailed scans.

v) Photo Scanner:
It is designed to scan photographs. It has high resolution and color depth, which are
required for scanning photographs. Some photo scanners come with in-built
software for cleaning and restoring old photographs.

4) Joystick

A joystick is also a pointing input device like a mouse. It is made up of a stick with a
spherical base. The base is fitted in a socket that allows free movement of the stick.
The movement of stick controls the cursor or pointer on the screen.

The frist joystick was invented by C. B. Mirick at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory. A
joystick can be of different types such as displacement joysticks, finger-operated
joysticks, hand operated, isometric joystick, and more. In joystick, the cursor keeps
moving in the direction of the joystick unless it is upright, whereas, in mouse, the
cursor moves only when the mouse moves.
5) Light Pen

A light pen is a computer input device that looks like a pen. The tip of the light pen
contains a light-sensitive detector that enables the user to point to or select objects
on the display screen. Its light sensitive tip detects the object location and sends the
corresponding signals to the CPU. It is not compatible with LCD screens, so it is not
in use today. It also helps you draw on the screen if needed. The first light pen was
invented around 1955 as a part of the Whirlwind project at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (MIT).
6) Digitizer

Digitizer is a computer input device that has a flat surface and usually comes with a
stylus. It enables the user to draw images and graphics using the stylus as we draw
on paper with a pencil. The images or graphics drawn on the digitizer appear on the
computer monitor or display screen. The software converts the touch inputs into
lines and can also convert handwritten text to typewritten words.

It can be used to capture handwritten signatures and data or images from taped
papers. Furthermore, it is also used to receive information in the form of drawings
and send output to a CAD (Computer-aided design) application and software
like AutoCAD. Thus, it allows you to convert hand-drawn images into a format
suitable for computer processing.
7) Microphone

The microphone is a computer input device that is used to input the sound. It
receives the sound vibrations and converts them into audio signals or sends to a
recording medium. The audio signals are converted into digital data and stored in
the computer. The microphone also enables the user to telecommunicate with
others. It is also used to add sound to presentations and with webcams for video
conferencing. A microphone can capture audio waves in different ways; accordingly
the three most common types are described below:

i) Dynamic:

It is the most commonly used microphone with a simple design. It has a magnet
which is wrapped by a metal coil and a thin sheet on the front end of the magnet.
The sheet transfers vibrations from sound waves to the coil and from coil to electric
wires which transmit the sound like an electrical signal.

ii) Condenser:
It is designed for audio recording and has a very sensitive and flat frequency
response. It has a front plate called diaphragm and a back plate parallel to the front
plate. When sound hits the diaphragm, it vibrates the diaphragm and alters the
distance between the two plates. The changes in distance are transmitted as electric
signals.

iii) Ribbon:

It is known for its reliability. It has a thin ribbon made of aluminum, duraluminum, or
nanofilm suspended in a magnetic field. The sound waves cause vibrations in the
ribbon, which generate a voltage proportional to the velocity of the vibration. The
voltage is transmitted as an electrical signal. Early ribbon microphones had a
transformer to increase the output voltage, but modern ribbon microphones come
with advanced magnets to produce a strong signal.
8) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
(MICR)

MICR computer input device is designed to read the text printed with magnetic ink.
MICR is a character recognition technology that makes use of special magnetized ink
which is sensitive to magnetic fields. It is widely used in banks to process the cheques
and other organizations where security is a major concern. It can process three
hundred cheques in a minute with hundred-percent accuracy. The details on the
bottom of the cheque (MICR No.) are written with magnetic ink. A laser printer with
MICR toner can be used to print the magnetic ink.

The device reads the details and sends to a computer for processing. A document
printed in magnetic ink is required to pass through a machine which magnetizes the
ink, and the magnetic information is then translated into characters.

9) Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR computer input device is designed to convert the scanned images of
handwritten, typed or printed text into digital text. It is widely used in offices and
libraries to convert documents and books into electronic files.

It processes and copies the physical form of a document using a scanner. After
copying the documents, the OCR software converts the documents into a two-color
(black and white), version called bitmap. Then it is analyzed for light and dark areas,
where the dark areas are selected as characters, and the light area is identified as
background. It is widely used to convert hard copy legal or historic documents into
PDFs. The converted documents can be edited if required like we edit documents
created in ms word.

10) Digital camera:

It is a digital device as it captures images and records videos digitally and then stores
them on a memory card. It is provided with an image sensor chip to capture images,
as opposed to film used by traditional cameras. Besides this, a camera that is
connected to your computer can also be called a digital camera.

It has photosensors to record light that enters the camera through the lens. When
the light strikes the photosensors, each of the sensors returns the electrical current,
which is used to create the images.
11) Paddle:

It is a simple input device that is widely used in games. It is a wheel that is held by
hand and looks like a volume knob on a stereo that is used to increase or decrease
the volume. Paddle moves or controls cursor or any other objects in the game in a
back-and-forth motion. It is widely used as an alternative to the joystick. Besides this,
the term paddle also refers to many handheld devices designed to control a function
in an electronic device, computer, etc.

12) Steering wheel:

It is used as an input device in racing video games such as car racing games or in
driving programs as virtual simulators to steer a vehicle. It works like the real steering
wheel by allowing you to take a right or left turn. A steering wheel may be provided
with acceleration and brake pedal devices and a mechanism for shifting gears. Thus,
it makes racing games more adventurous and entertaining.
13) Gesture recognition devices:

These devices take human gestures as input. There are many such devices that
respond to gestures. For example, Kinect is one such device that observes the
movement of a player's body and interprets these movements as inputs to video
games. This feature is also available in certain tablets and smartphones where you
can perform certain tasks such as taking pictures using finger gestures such as
swiping, pinching, etc.

14) Light Gun:

As the name suggests, it is a pointing input device that is designed to point at and
shoot the targets on the screen in a video game, or arcade, etc. The light gun was
used for the first time on the MIT Whirwind computer. When the gun is pointed at
the target on the screen and the trigger is pulled, the screen goes blank for a fraction
of a second. During this moment, the photodiode, which is present in the barrel,
determines where the gun is pointed. For example, shooting ducks in a duck hunt
game.
15) Touchpad:

It is usually found in laptops as a substitute for the mouse. It allows you to move or
control the cursor on the screen using your finger. Just like a mouse, it also has two
buttons for right and left click. Using the touchpad, you can perform all the tasks that
you do with a mouse, such as selecting an object on the screen, copy, paste, delete,
open a file or folder, and more.

16) Remote:

It is a hardware device designed to control the functioning of a device, e.g., a TV

remote that can be used to change channels, increase or decrease the volume, from
a distance without leaving the seat. The first cordless TV remote was invented by Dr.
Robert Adler of Zenith in 1956. The remote sends the electromagnetic waves to
communicate with the device. These waves can be infrared rays, radio waves, etc.
17) Touch screen:

It is the display screen of a device such as a smartphone, tablet, etc., that allows users
to interact or provide inputs to the device by using their finger. Today, most of the
electronic devices come with touchscreen as an alternative to a mouse for navigating
a graphical user interface. For example, by touching, you can unlock your phone,
open emails, open files, play videos, etc. Besides this, it is used in lots of devices such
as Camera, Car GPS, Fitness machine, etc.

The concept of the touch screen was first introduced and published by E.A. Johnson
in 1965. The first touch screen was developed at the beginning of the 1970s by CERN
engineers Frank Beck and Bent Stumpe.

18) VR:

VR stands for virtual reality. It is an artificial or virtual environment which is generated

by computers. A person can interact with virtual objects of this artificial environment
using some input devices such as headsets, gloves, headphones, etc. For example, he
or she can find himself or herself walking on a beach, watching a football match,
walking in the sky, etc., without actually doing all this.
19) Webcam:

Any camera which is connected to a computer is called a webcam. The in-built

camera provided on a computer can also be considered a webcam. It is an input
device as it can take pictures, and can be used to record videos if required. The
pictures and videos are stored in the computer memory and can be displayed on the
screen if required. Although it works almost the same as the digital camera, it is
different from a digital camera, as it is designed to take compact digital photos that
can be uploaded easily on the webpages and shared with others through the
internet.

20) Biometric Devices:

Biometrics refers to a process in which a person is identified through his or her
biological features such as fingerprints, eye cornea, face structure, etc. It is done by
using biometric devices, which can be of different types based on their scanning
features and abilities, such as:

i) Face Scanner:
It is designed to identify a person by scanning his or her face. It takes the face
measurements of a person. For example, the distance between eyes, nose, and
mouth, etc., accordingly, it confirms the identity of a person. Besides this, it is smart
enough to differentiate between a person's picture and the real person.

ii) Hand Scanner:

The hand of a person can also be used to verify his or her identity as every person
has a unique pattern of veins in the palm, just like fingerprints. This device takes
advantage of this feature; it identifies a person by scanning the palm of his hand. It
uses infrared light to scan veins' patterns and blood flowing in them. Palm is even
more unique than fingerprints.

iii) Fingerprint Scanner:

It scans the fingerprints to identify people or for biometric authentication. This device
is developed, keeping in mind the fact that no two persons in the world can have the
same fingerprints. It is widely used in companies as a fingerprint attendance system
to mark the attendance of employees. This type of scanners captures the pattern of
valleys and ridges found on a finger and store it in the memory or database. When
you press your finger on the given space, it verifies the identity by using its pattern-
matching software.

iv) Retina or Iris Scanner:

It scans the retina or iris of a person's eye to confirm the identity. This device is more
secure than others as it is next to impossible to copy the retina or iris. It works by
mapping the retina's blood vessel patterns of the eye. The blood vessels of retina
absorb light more easily as well as can be identified with appropriate lighting.

In this scan, a beam of low-energy infrared light falls on the retina through the
scanner's eyepiece. Then, the software captures the network of blood vessels in the
retina and uses it to verify a person's identity.

v) Voice Scanner:
It records the voice of a person and digitizes it to create a distinctive voice print or
template. The voiceprints are stored in the database, and are used to verify the voice
of a person to confirm his or her identity. The person is required to speak in the
normal or same voice that was used to create a voice template. It is not much reliable
as it can be misused using a tape recording.

Output Devices
The output device displays the result of the processing of raw data that is entered in
the computer through an input device. There are a number of output devices that
display output in different ways such as text, images, hard copies, and audio or video.
They bridge the gap between digital data and human perception, letting users
engage with computer-generated information. Understanding the many forms of
output devices and their importance in computing is essential for making informed
decisions while selecting the right devices for certain applications.

Categories of Output Devices

Output devices can be categorized into four main types based on the nature of their
output.

o Visual Output Devices: These devices display processed data as text, images, or
video. Examples include monitors and projectors, which allow users to view
information on screens or project it onto larger surfaces.
o Data Output Devices: These devices provide machine-readable output for further
processing or storage. Plotters and 3D printers fall into this category, allowing users
to create physical representations of data or objects.
 o Print Output Devices: Printers produce hard copies of processed data, such as
documents, images, or graphics. They allow for physical documentation and
distribution of information.
o Sound Output Devices: These devices deliver audio output for listening or
communication purposes. Speakers and headphones/earphones enable users to hear
the sound, whether Music, speech, or other audio content.

Visual Output Devices

Visual output devices are components of computing systems that enable the visual
presentation of processed data. Monitors and projectors, for example, play an
important role in displaying information to users through text, pictures, or video.

Users can view and analyze information more effectively with visual output devices.
They allow for the intelligible display of text, making reading papers, emails, and
online sites simpler. These devices also excel in picture presentation, allowing users
to see photographs, graphics, and illustrations with accuracy and detail. Video
material is additionally improved by visual output devices, resulting in a fascinating
viewing experience.

Some of the popular visual output devices are:

1. Monitor
o CRT Monitor
o LCD Monitor
o LED Monitor
o Plasma Monitor
2. Printer
o Impact Printers
A. Character Printers
i. Dot Matrix printers
ii. Daisy Wheel printers
B. Line printers
i. Drum printers
ii. Chain printers
o Non-impact printers
A. Laser printers
 B. Inkjet printers
3. Projector

1) Monitor
The monitor is the display unit or screen of the computer. It is the main output
device that displays the processed data or information as text, images, audio or
video.

The types of monitors are given below.

i) CRT Monitor

CRT monitors are based on the cathode ray tubes. They are like vacuum tubes which
produce images in the form of video signals. Cathode rays tube produces a beam of
electrons through electron guns that strike on the inner phosphorescent surface of
the screen to produce images on the screen. The monitor contains millions of
phosphorus dots of red, green and blue color. These dots start to glow when struck
by electron beams and this phenomenon is called cathodoluminescence.

The main components of a CRT monitor include the electron gun assembly,
deflection plate assembly, fluorescent screen, glass envelope, and base.The front
(outer surface) of the screen onto which images are produced is called the face plate.
It is made up of fiber optics.

There are three electron beams that strike the screen: red, green, and blue. So, the
colors which you see on the screen are the blends of red, blue and green lights.The
magnetic field guides the beams of electrons. Although LCDs have replaced the CRT
monitors, the CRT monitors are still used by graphics professionals because of their
color quality.

ii) LCD Monitor

The LCD monitor is a flat panel screen that is compact and light-weight as compared
to CRT monitors. It is based on liquid crystal display technology which is used in the
screens of laptops, tablets, smart phones, etc. An LCD screen comprises two layers of
polarized glass with a liquid crystal solution between them. When the light passes
through the first layer, an electric current aligns the liquids crystals. The aligned liquid
crystals allow a varying level of light to pass through the second layer to create
images on the screen.

The LCD screen has a matrix of pixels that display the image on the screen.Old LCDs
had passive-matrix screens in which individual pixels are controlled by sending a
charge. A few electrical charges could be sent each second that made screens appear
blurry when the images moved quickly on the screen.

Modern LCDs use active-matrix technology and contain thin film transistors (TFTs)
with capacitors. This technology allows pixels to retain their charge. So, they don?t
make screen blurry when images move fast on the screen as well as are more
efficient than passive-matrix displays.
iii) LED monitor

The LED monitor is an improved version of an LCD monitor. It also has a flat panel
display and uses liquid crystal display technology like the LCD monitors. The
difference between them lies in the source of light to backlight the display. The LED
monitor has many LED panels, and each panel has several LEDsto backlight the
display, whereas the LCD monitors use cold cathode fluorescent light to backlight the
display.Modern electronic devices such as mobile phones, LED TVs, laptop and
computer screens, etc., use a LED display as it not only produces more brilliance and
greater light intensity but also consumes less power.

iv) Plasma Monitor

The plasma monitor is also a flat panel display that is based on plasma display
technology. It has small tiny cells between two glass panels. These cells contain
mixtures of noble gases and a small amount of mercury. When voltage is applied, the
gas in the cells turns into a plasma and emits ultraviolet light that creates images on
the screen, i.e., the screen is illuminated by a tiny bit of plasma, a charged gas.
Plasma displays are brighter than liquid crystal displays (LCD) and also offer a wide
viewing angle than an LCD.

Plasma monitors provide high resolutions of up to 1920 X 1080, excellent contrast

ratios, wide viewing angle, a high refresh rate and more. Thus, they offer a unique
viewing experience while watching action movies, sports games, and more.

Applications of Monitor
o Personal Computing: Monitors are commonly used in personal computers for
everyday operations such as online surfing, document editing, video viewing, and
gameplay.
o Workstations: Monitors are necessary in professional settings such as workplaces
since they serve as the primary display for employees' workstations. Users may view
and edit documents, spreadsheets, presentations, and other work-related apps with
them.
o Design and Multimedia: Graphic designers, video editors, and other multimedia
workers rely on monitors. High-resolution monitors with precise color reproduction
are utilized to develop and edit visual material.
o Gaming: Gaming monitors give immersive experiences with high refresh rates and
short reaction times. Gamers use monitors to display fast-paced action, colorful
images, and fluid gameplay.
o Education: Monitors are used in educational institutions, such as schools and
universities, to facilitate learning. They display educational content, multimedia
presentations, interactive learning materials, etc.
3) Projector

A projector is an output device that enables the user to project the output onto a
large surface such as a big screen or wall. It can be connected to a computer and
similar devices to project their output onto a screen. It uses light and lenses to
produce magnified texts, images, and videos. So, it is an ideal output device to give
presentations or to teach a large number of people.

Modern projects (digital projectors) come with multiple input sources such as HDMI
ports for newer equipment and VGA ports that support older devices. Some
projectors are designed to support Wi-Fi and Bluetooth as well. They can be fixed
onto the ceiling, placed on a stand, and more and are frequently used for classroom
teaching, giving presentations, home cinemas, etc.

A digital projector can be of two types:

1. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) digital projector: This type of digital projectors are
very popular as they are lightweight and provide crisp output. An LCD projector uses
transmissive technology to produce output. It allows the light source, which is a
standard lamp, to pass through the three colored liquid crystal light panels. Some
colors pass through the panels and some are blocked by the panels and thus images
are on the screen.
2. Digital Light Processing (DLP) digital projector: It has a set of tiny mirrors, a
separate mirror for each pixel of the image and thus provide high-quality images.
These projectors are mostly used in theatres as they fulfill the requirement of high-
quality video output.
Applications of projectors
o Education: Classrooms and educational institutions make heavy use of projectors.
Teachers may use projectors to show large groups of pupils instructional materials,
presentations, movies, and interactive items.
o business Presentations: In corporate settings, projectors are vital for giving
presentations and sharing information with clients, colleagues, or stakeholders.
Presenters can use them to offer slideshows, charts, graphs, and other visual aids.
o Home Theatre: Projectors are commonly used in in-home theatre systems. They
provide a cinematic experience for customers by projecting movies, TV shows, or
streaming material onto a huge screen.
o Events and Conferences: Projectors are essential for events, conferences, and
seminars. They are used to show keynote speeches, slideshows, movies, and live
demonstrations to a big group.
o Digital Signage: Projectors are employed in digital signage applications to display
advertisements, information, or dynamic content on large screens in public spaces,
retail stores, or corporate environments.
o Art Installations: Projectors are used by artists and designers to create immersive art
installations. They project images, videos, or interactive visuals onto walls, buildings,
or other unconventional surfaces, transforming spaces and providing unique visual
experiences.

Print Output Devices

Print output devices are essential components of computing systems that enable the
generation of hard copies of processed data. These devices, commonly known as
printers, allow users to obtain physical copies of documents, images, or other types
of information.

Print output devices offer several advantages. Firstly, they provide a tangible format
for information, allowing for easy reading, sharing, and archiving of documents. Hard
copies are particularly useful for legal documents, contracts, or important records
that require physical signatures or official documentation. Print output devices find
applications in various settings, including homes, offices, schools, and businesses.
They are used for printing documents, reports, presentations, photographs, labels,
and more. From everyday printing needs to specialized requirements, printers
provide a reliable and efficient means of generating physical copies of digital
content.

Some of the popular print output devices are:

3) Printer
o Impact Printers
o Character Printers
o Dot Matrix printers
o Daisy Wheel printers
o Line printers
o Drum printers
o Chain printers
o Non-impact printers
o Laser printers
o Inkjet printers

A printer produces hard copies of the processed data. It enables the user, to print
images, text or any other information onto the paper. Users can pick from various
printer types, such as inkjet, laser, or dot matrix, to meet their printing demands.
Printers enable the generation of tangible copies for record-keeping, presentations,
marketing materials, and other purposes, from household to professional settings.
Printers are essential for personal and commercial use due to their simplicity and
adaptability.

Based on the printing mechanism, the printers are of two types: Impact Printers and
Non-impact Printers.

o Impact Printers: They are of two types:

A. Character Printers
i. Dot Matrix printers
ii. Daisy Wheel printers
B. Line printers
i. Drum printers
ii. Chain printers
o Non-impact printers: They are of two types:
A. Laser printers
B. Inkjet printers
Impact Printer
The impact printer uses a hammer or print head to print the character or images
onto the paper. The hammer or print head strikes or presses an ink ribbon against
the paper to print characters and images.

Impact printers are further divided into two types.

A. Character Printers
B. Line printers

A) Character Printers

Character printer prints a single character at a time or with a single stroke of the print
head or hammer. It does not print one line at a time. Dot Matrix printer and Daisy
Wheel printer are character printers. Today, these printers are not in much use due to
their low speed and because only the text can be printed. The character printers are
of two types, which are as follows:

i) Dot Matrix Printer

Dot Matrix Printer is an impact printer. The characters and images printed by it are
the patterns of dots. These patterns are produced by striking the ink soaked ribbon
against the paper with a print head. The print head contains pins that produce a
pattern of dots on the paper to form the individual characters. The print head of a 24
pin dot matrix contains more pins than a 9 pin dot matrix printer, so it produces
more dots which results in better printing of characters. To produce color output, the
black ribbon can be changed with color stripes. The speed of Dot Matrix printers is
around 200-500 characters per second.

ii) Daisy Wheel Printer

Daisy Wheel Printer was invented by David S. Lee at Diablo Data Systems.It consists
of a wheel or disk that has spokes or extensions and looks like a daisy, so it is named
Daisy Wheel printer. At the end of extensions, molded metal characters are mounted.
To print a character the printer rotates the wheel, and when the desired character is
on the print location the hammer hits disk and the extension hits the ink ribbon
against the paper to create the impression. It cannot be used to print graphics and is
often noisy and slow, i.e., the speed is very low around 25-50 characters per second.
Due to these drawbacks,these printers have become obsolete.

B) Line Printers:

Line printer, which is also as a bar printer, prints one line at a time. It is a high-speed
impact printer as it can print 500 to 3000 lines per minute. Drum printer and chain
printer are examples of line printers.

i) Drum Printer:
Drum printer is a line printer that is made of a rotating drum to print characters. The
drum has circular bands of characters on its surface. It has a separate hammer for
each band of characters. When you print, the drum rotates, and when the desired
character comes under the hammer, the hammer strikes the ink ribbon against the
paper to print characters. The drum rotates at a very high speed and characters are
printed by activating the appropriate hammers. Although all the characters are not
printed at a time, they are printed at a very high speed. Furthermore, it can print only
a predefined style as it has a specific set of characters. These printers are known to
be very noisy due to the use of hammering techniques.

ii) Chain Printer:

Chain printer is a line printer that uses a rotating chain to print characters. The
characters are embossed on the surface of the chain. The chain rotates horizontally
around a set of hammers, for each print location one hammer is provided, i.e., the
total number of hammers is equal to the total number of print positions.

The chain rotates at a very high speed and when the desired character comes at the
print location, the corresponding hammer strikes the page against the ribbon and
character on the chain.They can type 500 to 3000 lines per minute. They are also
noisy due to the hammering action.

Non-Impact Printer:
Non-impact printers don't print characters or images by striking a print head or
hammer on the ink ribbon placed against the paper. They print characters and
images without direct physical contact between the paper and the printing
machinery. These printers can print a complete page at a time, so they are also
known as page printers. The common types of non-impact printers are Laser printer
and Inkjet printer:
i) Laser Printer:

A laser printer is a non-impact printer that uses a laser beam to print the characters.
The laser beam hits the drum, which is a photoreceptor and draws the image on the
drum by altering electrical charges on the drum. The drum then rolls in toner, and
the charged image on the drum picks the toner. The toner is then printed on the
paper using heat and pressure. Once the document is printed, the drum loses the
electric charge,and the remaining toner is collected. The laser printers use powdered
toner for printing instead of liquid ink and produce quality print objects with a
resolution of 600 dots per inch (dpi) or more.

ii) Inkjet Printer:

The inkjet printer is a non-impact printer that prints images and characters by
spraying fine,ionized drops of ink. The print head has tiny nozzles to spray the ink.
The printer head moves back and forth and sprays ionized drops of ink on the paper,
which is fed through the printer. These drops pass through an electric field that
guides the ink onto the paper to print correct images and characters.

An inkjet printer has cartridges that contain ink. Modern inkjet printers are color
printers that have four cartridges containing different colors: Cyan, Magenta, Yellow,
and Black. It is capable of printing high-quality images with different colors. It can
produce print objects with a resolution of at least 300 dots per inch (dpi).

Applications of Printer
o Personal and Home Use: Printers are frequently used in homes to print papers,
pictures, and other personal stuff. Individuals can use them to make tangible copies
of vital information or photographs for personal use.
o Offices and enterprises: Printers are required in offices and enterprises. They print
commercial enterprise papers, reports, contracts, invoices, and documents.
Employees can utilize printers to create physical copies of crucial information, which
aids in communication and record-keeping.
o Education: Students and teachers utilize printers at educational institutions such as
schools and universities. They are used to print assignments, worksheets, study
materials, project reports, and educational tools.
o Printing and Publishing: Printers are critical in the publishing and printing
industries. They're used on a massive scale to print publications, including
newspapers, brochures, flyers, and other published goods.
o Advertising and Marketing: Printers are employed in the advertising and marketing
industry to create promotional materials such as posters, banners, flyers, business
cards, and product labels.

Sound Output Devices

Sound output devices, which allow users to listen to audio material, are a significant
component of computing systems. Speakers and headphones, for example, facilitate
sound reproduction and improve the whole multimedia experience. There are various
advantages to using sound output equipment. They let consumers experience high-
quality audio with increased clarity, depth, and richness. Sound output devices
improve the entire audio experience by bringing information to the existence,
whether or not it is the minute specifics in Music, the immersive sound effects in
movies, or the clear voice during a conference call.

These devices have several applications, which include use in homes, groups,
amusement venues, and academic institutions. They are used for personal
enjoyment, communication, professional audio work, and multimedia jobs. Sound
output devices link to other devices, such as smartphones, tablets, and televisions,
increasing their versatility and utility.

Some of the popular sound output devices are:

4) Speakers
Speakers are important output devices that transform electrical impulses into audible
sounds. They're essential to many modern devices, including computers, televisions,
music players, and mobile phones. The audio system improves the multimedia
experience by providing high-quality audio output, whether listening to the song,
viewing films, playing video games, or participating in virtual meetings. They help
ensure that consumers enjoy audio material with clarity and depth by contributing to
clean and clear sound reproduction.

Types of speakers
o Stereo Speakers: Also known as 2.0 speakers, stereo speakers comprise left and right
speakers. They are the most fundamental speaker, typically found in desktop
computers, laptop computers, and tiny audio installations. Stereo speakers offer a
simple yet efficient method of reproducing sounds and creating a spatial audio
experience.

o Surround Sound Speakers: Surround sound speakers provide immersive audio

commonly used in home theatre systems. For a surround sound experience, many
speakers are carefully positioned around the room. Multiple speakers plus a
subwoofer are used in common arrangements like 5.1, 7.1, and 9.1 systems. The
number denotes the number of speakers, while ".1" denotes a specialized subwoofer
for low-frequency effects. These configurations provide realistic soundscapes,
 immersing viewers in a more engaging home theatre experience.

o Subwoofers: Subwoofers are specialized speakers designed to reproduce low-

frequency sounds, also known as bass. They add depth and impact to audio by
delivering powerful and deep bass tones. Subwoofers are often used alongside stereo
or surround sound systems to enhance the audio experience, specifically in movies,
Music, and gaming.

o Soundbars: Soundbars are slim and elongated speakers that provide an all-in-one
audio solution for TVs and home entertainment systems. They consist of multiple
built-in speakers housed in a single enclosure. Soundbars offer improved audio
quality compared to built-in TV speakers and can create a simulated surround sound
effect. They are popular for those seeking a compact and convenient audio setup.
o Portable Speakers: portable speakers are small, lightweight, wireless devices
designed for audio enjoyment on the go. Customers may additionally listen to songs
and other audio files from anywhere. Bluetooth audio systems are available in various
styles and sizes, as well as outdoor audio systems with long battery life and
waterproof audio systems for use by the pool.

o Bookshelf speakers: Bookshelf speakers are placed on a shelf, table, or stand. They
provide a good combination of size and sound insulation, making them excellent for
small to medium-sized rooms. In surround sound or stereo systems, they are
commonly utilized as back speakers.

o Soundbar subwoofer: Some soundbars have a separate subwoofer for higher bass
response. These subwoofers are designed to maximize sound output and offer lower-
strength enjoyment.
o Outdoor speaker: The outdoor speaker is designed to withstand outdoor situations
such as humidity, UV exposure, and temperature changes. They are ideal for outdoor
gatherings, parties, or enjoying Music in outdoor spaces like gardens or patios.
Outdoor speakers can be mounted on walls, installed on poles, or designed to blend
into the landscape.
Applications of Speakers
o Entertainment: Speakers are used in entertainment systems such as home theatres,
game consoles, and music players to playback audio. They provide immersive sound
experiences, letting users enjoy high-quality audio in movies, Music, and gaming.
o Public Address Systems: Speakers are used in public places such as schools,
stadiums, conference centers, and airports to make announcements, deliver public
speeches, and address big audiences. They provide clear and audible communication
in various public meetings and activities.
o Multimedia Presentations: In multimedia presentations and conferences, speakers
are vital. They magnify the audio of presentations, movies, and speeches, allowing the
audience to better hear and participate in the information.
o Music Production: Speakers are crucial in music production studios and recording
environments. They are used for tracking and playback of recorded audio, ensuring
correct sound duplication and quality manipulation during the production technique.
o Communication Devices: Speakers are integrated into conversation devices like
smartphones, pills, and laptops. They permit customers to make telephone calls,
participate in video conferences, and listen to audio content.

5) Headphones/Earphones
Headphones and earphones are personal audio devices worn over the ears or
inserted into the ear canal, respectively. They deliver Music to the user directly, giving
a private and immersive listening experience. Earphones are tiny and fit within the
ear, whereas headphones have two speakers that cover both ears. They are regularly
used with portable music players, phones, laptop computers, and different gadgets.
Users of headphones and earbuds may listen to Music and podcasts and view films
and other media without bothering others. They offer ease, mobility, and the ability
to concentrate on audio information while maintaining privacy and clarity.

Types of Headphones/Earphones
Headphones and earphones come in various types and designs, catering to different
preferences and audio needs. Here are some common types:

o Over-Ear Headphones: Over-ear headphones feature large ear cups that fully
envelop the ears. They deliver exceptional sound quality and isolate noise, making
them ideal for immersive music listening and studio monitoring. One of their notable
advantages is their comfort, as the ear cups completely cover the ears, evenly
 distributing the weight for a pleasant experience.

o On-Ear Headphones: On-ear headphones rest on the outer ear without fully
enclosing it. In comparison to over-ear headphones, they're smaller and additional
compact. On-ear headphones offer a first-rate aggregate of mobility and sound first-
rate. Even as they do not supply the same quantity of noise isolation as over-ear
headphones, they will often be extra lightweight and less hard to use for prolonged
intervals.
o In-Ear Earphones: In-ear earphones, additionally known as earbuds or earphones,
are inserted right away into the ear canal. They are compact, light, and quite
transportable. In order to ensure a secure and comfortable fit, in-ear earbuds are
equipped with silicone or foam tips in different sizes. They provide good noise
isolation and are appropriate for use during difficult tasks or while traveling. In-ear
earphones are commonly bundled with smartphones and portable music players.

o Wireless Headphones/Earphones: Wireless Headphones/Earphones: Wireless

headphones and earphones have acquired recognition because of their comfort and
freedom from tangled wires. They communicate with different gadgets thru
Bluetooth or different wireless generations. Wi-Fi headphones let you circulate
 spherical freely without being confined via the use of cables. They come in loads of
fashions, together with over-ear, on-ear, and in-ear designs.
o Noise-Canceling Headphones/Earphones: Noise-canceling headphones and
earphones use advanced technology to reduce external ambient noise. They employ
microphones to capture external sounds and generate opposite sound waves to
cancel them out. Noise-canceling headphones are mainly effective in busy locations,
which include airplanes or crowded areas, since they offer extra immersive listening
enjoyment with less background noise.
o Sports/Exercise Headphones/Earphones: Designed for active individuals, sports or
exercise headphones and earphones are designed to withstand sweat, moisture, and
vigorous movement. They often feature a secure fit and may have additional features
like water resistance or ear hooks to stay in place during physical activities.

o Gaming Headsets: Gaming headsets are tailored for gamers, providing enhanced
audio quality and clear communication. They typically come with built-in
microphones for in-game chat and voice communication. Gaming headsets offer
immersive soundscapes, allowing gamers to pinpoint audio cues accurately.
o True Wireless Earbuds: True wireless earbuds are in-ear headphones with no wires
connecting them. Each earbud is self-contained and connects to the smartphone
through Bluetooth. True wireless earbuds provide a cable-free listening experience,
with some versions including sophisticated capabilities such as touch controls and
 smart assistants.

Applications of Headphones/Earphones
o Personal Music Listening: Headphones/earphones are frequently utilized for
personal music enjoyment. Headphones/earphones allow you to listen to your
favorite Music privately and clearly, whether you're on the road or resting at home.
o Communication: Headphones/Earphones with built-in microphones are used for
voice calls, video conferencing, and online gaming. They provide clear audio input
and output, enabling effective communication over voice and video platforms.
o Fitness and Sports: Headphones/Earphones are popular among fitness enthusiasts
and athletes. They offer the convenience of wire-free listening during workouts,
running, or other physical activities, keeping users motivated and entertained.
o Education and Language Learning: Headphones/Earphones are used in educational
settings for language learning programs, online courses, and audio-based learning
materials. They provide a focused listening experience, helping learners improve
comprehension and pronunciation.
o Entertainment: Headphones/earphones are required to watch movies and TV shows
and play video games. They offer immersive audio experiences that allow users to
completely immerse themselves in the entertainment material without bothering
others.

Data Output Devices

Data output devices are essential components of computer systems that allow users
to receive and analyze processed data intelligibly. These gadgets are critical in
displaying data meaningfully, making it accessible and valuable for further analysis or
decision-making.

Data output devices are required for data processing, visualization, and transmission.
They facilitate understanding complex information by presenting it in a visually
accessible format. Using data output devices, users can interpret and make sense of
data more effectively, leading to informed decision-making, improved
communication, and enhanced productivity in various fields and industries.

Some of the popular Data output devices are:

6) Plotter
A plotter is a specialized output device used to generate high-quality, accurate, and
detailed graphics. It's popular in fields like engineering, architecture, and graphic
design. Unlike printers, which use ink or toner to create pictures or text on paper,
plotters utilize a pen or marker to draw continuous lines on diverse media such as
paper, vinyl, or film. Plotters are capable of creating intricate and accurate drawings,
maps, blueprints, and technical diagrams. They are valued for their ability to handle
large-format prints and deliver precise output, making them essential tools in
industries that require precise graphical representation.

Types of Plotters
Plotters come in different types, each with its own unique features and applications.
Here are some common types of plotters:

o Pen Plotters: Pen plotters are the most classic sort of plotter, drawing continuous
lines on paper or other media using a pen or marker. They create precise and
elaborate designs by sliding the pen horizontally and vertically over the page. Pen
plotters are known for their high accuracy and can produce detailed line art, technical
diagrams, architectural blueprints, and engineering designs. They are commonly used
in industries that require precise and professional-looking graphical outputs.

o Electrostatic Plotters: Electrostatic plotters use an electrostatic charge to attract

toner or ink onto paper. They operate by selectively charging areas of the paper and
 then applying toner or ink to those charged areas, resulting in the formation of
graphical output. Electrostatic plotters can print high-resolution images with smooth
gradients and solid fills. They are frequently used in industries requiring accurate
color reproduction, including graphic design, advertising, and photography.
o Inkjet Plotters: Inkjet plotters work similarly to inkjet printers but are designed for
large-format printing. They generate the desired picture or pattern by spraying small
droplets of ink onto the paper. High-quality printouts with brilliant colors and precise
details may be produced using inkjet plotters. They are frequently used in industries
that need large-scale printing, such as architecture, engineering, and signage.

o Cutting Plotters: Cutting plotters, also known as vinyl cutters, are specialized
plotters used to cut out shapes and designs on various materials such as vinyl, paper,
or fabric. They operate by cutting along the outlines of the desired pattern using a
sharp blade. Cutting plotters are commonly used in sign making, vehicle graphics,
apparel design, and other industries that require precise cutting of materials for
signage, decals, or stencils.
o Laser Plotters: Laser plotters use a laser beam to create high-resolution prints on
various media. They work by directing the laser beam across the surface of the media,
selectively exposing it to heat, which creates the desired image or design. Laser
plotters are known for their high precision and can produce detailed and intricate
graphics. They are used in industries such as prototyping, architectural modeling, and
 graphic arts, where precise and complex designs are required.

Applications of Plotter
o Engineering and Architecture: Plotters are extensively used in engineering and
architecture for creating detailed technical drawings, blueprints, and floor plans. They
can produce accurate and scaled drawings on large sheets of paper or other
materials.
o Fine Art & Graphic Design: Plotters are used by artists and graphic designers to
generate large-scale artwork, posters, and drawings. They can reproduce fine details
and beautiful colors, letting artists communicate their ideas on a larger scale.
o Textile and Fashion Design: Plotters are used to create patterns, templates, and
stencils in the textile and fashion sectors. They can produce intricate designs and
precise measurements on fabrics, enabling efficient production and customization.
o Signage and Advertising: Plotters are utilized in the production of signs, banners,
and promotional materials. They can cut vinyl or other materials into desired shapes
and sizes, allowing for the creation of visually appealing signage and advertisements.

Wireless Output Devices

Wireless output devices have grown in popularity and have become essential
components of modern computing systems. These gadgets link and interact with
computers or other devices via wireless technology, eliminating the need for physical
wires or connections. They provide ease, flexibility, and mobility by letting users
engage with their devices from a distance while removing the constraints imposed by
wired connections. Here are a few examples of wireless output devices and their
applications:
o Wireless Monitors: Wireless monitors are display units that can connect to a
computer or other devices using wireless technology, such as Wi-Fi or Bluetooth.
They provide the ease of cable-free communication, letting users position their
displays wherever they are within wireless range. Wireless monitors are especially
beneficial when wire management is difficult or when users need to move or adjust
the display often.

o Wireless Printers: Wireless printers have changed the way people print by removing
the requirement for direct physical connections. These printers usWi-Fifi or Bluetooth
to connect to devices such as PCs, laptops, or smartphones, allowing wireless printing
from anywhere within the network range. Wireless printers provide increased
flexibility, convenience, and decreased cable clutter. Users may print papers, images,
and other items without having to deal with wires and cords. Wireless printers are
very handy in shared office environments or households with many devices since they
may be accessed by several people at the same time.

o Wireless Projectors: They can wirelessly receive video and audio signals, letting
users project material from a distance onto a screen or wall. They can wirelessly
receive video and audio signals, letting users project material from a distance onto a
screen or wall. Wireless projectors are often utilized in classrooms, boardrooms, and
home theatre setups because they provide flexibility and convenience of usage
 during presentations, movie evenings, and gaming sessions.

o Wireless Speakers: wireless speakers make use of wireless technologies like

Bluetooth or Wi-Fi to connect and flow audio from devices which include
smartphones, tablets, or computer systems. They provide a clean method to listen to
Music, podcasts, or other audio records without having to deal with cords. Wi-Fi
audio systems are available in an expansion of sizes and styles, ranging from small
portable devices for on-the-go use to larger devices for home enjoyment systems.

o Wireless Headphones/Earphones: wireless headphones and earbuds have grown in

recognition because of their portability and lack of cables. Wireless headphones and
earbuds connect to gadgets via Bluetooth, giving a hassle-free music experience
without tangled cords. They're available in an expansion of designs to accommodate
an extensive variety of tastes and usage conditions. These gadgets' wireless
connection allows users to roam around freely while listening to audio material.
Wireless headphones and earbuds have become popular alternatives for their
seamless and portable audio experiences, whether for workouts, commuting, or
 simply untethered listening.

o Wireless Presenters: Wireless presenters are handheld devices that enable users to
control presentations remotely. They connect to computers or other devices using
wireless technology, allowing presenters to navigate slides, highlight points, or
control multimedia elements from a distance. Wireless presenters provide flexibility
and enhance the presenter's mobility and engagement during meetings, conferences,
or lectures.

Applications of Wireless Output Devices

o Home and Office Environments: Wireless output devices find widespread use in
both home and office settings. Wireless printers allow multiple users to print
documents or photos from their devices, eliminating the need for everyone to be
physically connected to the printer. Wireless speakers provide flexible audio solutions
for entertainment or productivity purposes.
o Education: Wireless output devices are particularly valuable in educational
environments. Wireless projectors enable teachers to display content from their
 devices onto a larger screen, facilitating effective visual learning for students. Wireless
headphones can be used by students to listen to educational audio materials without
disrupting others.
o Presentations and Conferences: Wireless output devices are commonly used in
business presentations, conferences, and meetings. Wireless projectors and
presenters allow for seamless presentations without the need for cable connections.
Wireless speakers provide clear audio for conference calls or multimedia
presentations.
o Entertainment: Wireless output devices, such as headphones/earphones and
speakers, improve entertainment experiences by allowing for more mobility and
high-quality audio for Music, movies, and other media.
o Mobile Devices: Wireless output devices are compatible with mobile devices such as
smartphones and tablets. Users can wirelessly connect to wireless speakers,
projectors, or headphones/earphones to enhance their mobile entertainment or
productivity experiences.

Advantages of Wireless Output Devices

o Convenience and Flexibility: Wireless output devices offer the convenience of
cable-free connectivity. Users can connect and interact with their devices from a
distance, eliminating the limitations imposed by physical cables. This flexibility allows
for easier device setup, repositioning, and mobility.
o Reduced Clutter: Without the need for physical cables, wireless output devices
contribute to a cleaner and more organized workspace. Users can avoid the tangle of
cables and the hassle of managing and untangling wires, leading to a more
aesthetically pleasing and efficient working environment.
o Enhanced Mobility: Wireless output devices provide greater freedom of movement.
Users can freely move around within the wireless range without being tethered to a
specific location. This is particularly advantageous in scenarios such as presentations,
where the presenter can move around the room while maintaining control over the
output device.
o Ease of Sharing: Wireless output devices make it easier to share resources among
multiple users. For example, wireless printers can be accessed by multiple devices
within a wireless network, allowing users to conveniently print from different
locations without the need for physical connections or transferring files.
 o Increased Accessibility: Wireless output devices improve accessibility for users with
mobility challenges or disabilities. They enable users to interact with devices from a
comfortable position or distance, providing a more inclusive computing experience.

Conclusion
Output devices are essential components of computing systems, offering a range of
functions and applications. From visual devices like monitors and projectors to
printers and sound devices like speakers, each category serves a specific purpose in
presenting, printing, and reproducing processed data. By understanding the types
and applications of these devices, users can choose the most suitable output device
to meet their needs. As technology evolves, output devices continue to advance,
providing improved visual and auditory experiences and opening new possibilities
for multimedia interactions. With the right output device, users can enhance their
computing experience, effectively share information, and communicate seamlessly.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

A Central Processing Unit is also called a processor, central processor, or
microprocessor. It carries out all the important functions of a computer. It receives
instructions from both the hardware and active software and produces output
accordingly. It then performs calculations, manipulates data, and produces output
based on those instructions. It stores all important programs like operating systems
that manage the computer's resources and allows you to interact with it and
application software that you use to perform tasks like word processing, web
browsing, and gaming. Your computer couldn't execute these essential programs
without the CPU.

CPU also helps Input and output devices to communicate with each other. The CPU
translates these inputs when you click, move the mouse, or click on a key on the
keyboard, and it works with the relevant software program to produce the intended
result. The CPU ensures that the input and output devices communicate without any
troubles, whether it means printing a paper, playing music through the audio system,
or showing text on the display screen. Owing to these features of CPU, it is often
referred to as the brain of the computer.
CPU is installed or inserted into a CPU socket located on the motherboard.
Furthermore, it is provided with a heat sink to absorb and dissipate heat to keep the
CPU cool and functioning smoothly.

Central Processing Unit's - History and

Evolution
Computers have become a part of our everyday lives, but the first computer was
developed in 1946 at the University of Pennsylvania!

Backward Skip 10sPlay VideoForward Skip 10s

o Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer or ENIAC was the processo

o Alan Turing and John von Neumann presented the reprogramming feature that is so
widely utilised nowadays. A modern computer's architecture is based on von
Neumann's design.
o Microprocessors have come a long way since Intel's 4004 - the first microprocessor
ever developed.
o We'll take a look at what's happened so far.
o In the early 1970s, Ted Hoff and others at Intel came up with the idea for the first
Processor, which was then produced by the company.
o Intel's 4004 processor was the company's first processor.

1971 - Intel 4004

o Designed by Intel's Federico Faggin and Ted Hoff and Busicom's Masatoshi Shima, it
went on sale on November 15, 1971. "
o 2300 transistors with pMOS technology were used in the device.
o There were a total of 46 instructions.
o The intended clock speed was 1 MHz, but it was only achieved at 740 kHz.
 o As the world's first microprocessor, it powered the Busicom 141-PF calculator, which
is still in use today.

1972 - Intel 8008

o Introduced in August 1972, it is also known as MCS-8.
o CTC's Victor Poor and Harry Pyle worked on it, as did Intel's Ted Hoff, Faggin, Stanley
Mazor, and Hal Feeney.
o There were 3500 transistors in it.
o But it was slower than the 4004.
o This computer had a clock speed of 0.5 MHz and a total number of 48 instructions.
o Micral and SCELBI were the first personal computers to use it.

1974 - Intel 8080

o Intel 8080 was introduced in 1974.
o Faggin, Mazor, and Masatoshi Shima created it in April 1974.
o The clock speed was increased to 2 MHz, and it used 6000 transistors and nMOS
technology. »
o Most notable was the separation of the address (16 bit) and data (8 bit) buses, which
was a major advancement.
o It also had 256 input/output ports.
o The MITS Altair 8800 and IMSAI 8080 both used it.
o Similarly, the main processor in Space Invaders (an arcade video game) was the 8080
microprocessor.

1974 - Motorola 6800

o The Motorola processor had no I/O ports.
o I/Os were memory-mapped.
o In addition, the instruction set contained 72 instructions at a clock speed of just 2
MHz
o HCF (Halt and Catch Fire) opcode was used for the first time, preventing the
processor from responding to any interrupts until it was reset.
o Motorola introduced HCF, a self-testing feature, for the first time.
1977 - Intel 8085
The processor was also used as a microcontroller, operating on a +5V supply, unlike
the other processors formed so far.

o Von Neumann architecture was used for the first time.

o "It was constructed with nMOS technology and 6500 transistors."
o There were 256 instructions in the instruction set.
o In NASA and ESA space explorations, the radiation-hardened version was employed.

1978 - Intel 8086

o The clock speed was designed to be 10MHz.
o Bruce Ravenel was part of the architecture development team, which included
Stephen P. Morse.
o Jim McKevitt, John Bayliss, and William Pohlman designed Logic, with William
Pohlman serving as the project manager.
o Mycron 2000 was the first microcomputer to use it.

1979 - Intel 8088

o HMOS-based 8088 was launched on July 1st.
o PLCC (plastic leaded chip carrier) package was available as well as a 40-pin DIP
package. »
o There was only 8-bits of data in the path, however.
o 10 MHz was the intended frequency.
o 8088 was the basis for the original IBM PC.

1987 - SPARC
o It's a Sun Microsystems processor.
o It had a 40 MHz clock speed.
o 8 million transistors and 256 I/O pins were used to build it.
o According to the TOP500 list, Fujitsu's K Computer is ranked number one among the
world's 500 fastest supercomputers.
o It was based on the SPARC architecture.
1991 - Am386
o There was a striking similarity between this AMD (Advanced Micro Devices) processor
and Intel x86 processors.
o In terms of clock speed, the processor was a competitor to Intel's.
o Many manufacturers chose AMD's floating-point unit because of its excellent
performance.

1993 - Pentium Processor

o P5 was the first Pentium processor.
o Two models were available: 510-pin version and 567-pin
o 1 million transistors were used in its construction.
o At the time, this 32-bit processor was the most advanced processor available.
o There were two instructions that could be executed at the same time in this
superscalar x86 microarchitecture, speeding up computation.

1995 - Pentium Pro

o Pentium II was the first Pentium processor.
o It was packaged in a ceramic multi-chip module (MCM) with 387 pins, which was a
first for the industry.
o In addition to its dual processor configuration, it has a 200 MHz clock speed.
o In order to build this processor, approximately 5.5 million transistors were used.
 o MMX instructions were not included.
o This processor was utilised in ASCI Red, which had teraFLOP (one trillion floating-
point operations per second) performance or results.

1997- Pentium II
o The Pentium II processor family was introduced on May 7 and offered a wide range
of processors.
o With each new model, the clock speed was steadily increased to 450 MHz.
o A slot or socket module was used instead of the traditional processor.
o Because of this, computer manufacturers were able to fit it into a small space.
o Under this umbrella, a number of processors were introduced: Some of these were
Klamath;
o Deschutes; Pentium II overdrive; Tonga, etc.
o It had a heatsink/fan combination that could be removed, which helped with heat
dissipation.

1999-Pentium III
o It was introduced on February 26th.
o The SSE instruction was added to the previous model to speed up floating-point
calculations.
o Like Pentium II, this processor was released in two versions: Celeron (low-end version)
and Xeon (high-end version) (High-end version).
o The following processors are included in this family: Katmai; Coppermine;
Coppermine T and Tualatin.
o PSN (Processor Serial Number) was introduced in the production process that formed
the processor's unique identity.

1999 - Athlon
o Athlon was announced by AMD on June 23.
o A clock speed of 800 MHz was achieved by using 37 million transistors.
o It came in a 453-pin PGA (Pin Grid Array) package.
o It was faster than Intel's Pentium III, which made Athlon a legitimate competitor. »
o That made it the first processor to reach the 1 gigahertz speed mark in history.
o Enhanced 3DNow! was first launched, which sped up by 2-4 times.
2000-Pentium IV
o Pentium IV was Intel's new single-core processor, with clock speeds ranging from 1.3
GHz to 3.08 GHz.
o When it came to packaging, the 423-pin processor was available in both OLGA and
PPGA (Plastic Pin Grid Array) formats.
o The processors that fall under this category include; Willamette; Northwood; Pentium
4-M; Mobile Pentium etc
o Processors in this family were the first to use the NetBurst architecture.

2003-Pentium -M
o This was an Intel single-core mobile processor.
o It was designed with a clock speed is 2.26 GHz.
o There are two processors in this family: Banias; Dothan.
o TDP of 24.5 watts and clock speed of 1.7GHz for Banias
o DOTHAN: Die of 90 nanometers and 2.16 gigahertz, with 21-watt TDP.
o It was used for the first time in the Intel Carmel notebook, Centrino-brand.

2006-Core 2
o E6320 is another name for Intel Core 2 brand, which was launched on July 27, 2006. It
had clock speed of upto 3.5 GHz .
o Single-core, dual-core, and quad-core processors were introduced under this family.
o The processor is no longer available for purchase.
o The desktop processors under this brand include:
o The Conroe XE; Allendale; Wolfdale
o We have Allendale XE, Wolfdale XE, and more.
o This brand's laptop processors include:
o Merom XE; Penryn; Merom
o As well as Merom-L and Penryn XE
o Using a slower clock speed, the processor was able to conserve battery power.
Latest Technology- CPU
Since the launch of the 4004 microprocessor, the technology has advanced
significantly.

A smaller chip, faster clocks, and larger caches have all resulted in a smaller chip and
faster clocks.

Products based on Intel's microarchitecture were introduced in 2011.

It has been able to produce dies with a 32-nanometer thickness.

Included is Intel Quick sync, which is a hardware-based video encoding and decoding
solution from Intel.

Interconnecting the different parts of the processor is also made easier with an
improved 256-bit/cycle ring bus connect.

o This processor has a transistor count of 2,27 billion.

o The designed clock speed is 3.6 GHz.
o Cougar Point Chipset motherboards in the 67-series were recalled by Intel due to a
hardware issue.
o The following series are part of this family:Intel Pentium: Celeron: Core i3: Core i5:
Core i7: Core i7 Extreme: It has the vPro feature that has the ability to delete data
from a hard drive via 3G signals or Ethernet or Internet.
Ivy Bridge
o It was announced in 2011 that Intel would be releasing a 22-nanometer die processor
called Ivy Bridge, but it was only released on April 29, 2012.
o The use of 3D (tri-gate) transistors allows for a smaller die.
o In comparison to 2D transistors, 3D transistors reduce power consumption by nearly
50%.
o PCI Express is also supported, as is DirectX 11, which improves the graphics.
o 80 GHz is the clock speed of the processor.
o According to reports, they have a temperature 20oC higher than Sandy Bridge.
o Under this family, there are the following desktop models:
o i3, i5, and i7 Processors
o Mobile that fall under this category include: i3, i5, and i7 Core Processors
o It is one of the tick version of sandy bridge.

Latest - Fifth Generation CPU or Central

Processing Units
o The fifth generation Central Processing Unit is based on Artificial Intelligence.
o A still-under-development Central Processing Unit.
o The use of voice recognition is an example of a current application.
o By the way, it's still being worked on right now.
o AI aims to create an intelligent device that can respond to natural language input and
can learn on its own.
Components of CPU

Generally, a CPU has three components:

o ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

o Control Unit
o Memory or Storage Unit

Control Unit:
The Control Unit (CU) is a vital part of the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and is
accountable for the overall performance of a computer system. It is the circuitry in
the control unit, which makes use of electrical signals to instruct the computer
system for executing already stored instructions. It takes instructions from memory
and then decodes and executes these instructions. So, it controls and coordinates the
functioning of all parts of the computer.
The Control Unit's main task is to maintain and regulate the flow of information
across the processor. It serves as a traffic controller, ensuring that information and
instructions are efficiently transferred among the various elements of the computer
system. It manages the order in which instructions are executed and synchronizes the
activities of various units within the CPU. It does not take part in processing and
storing data. Instead, it serves as an overseer, coordinating the actions of other CPU
parts to guarantee that instructions are carried out accurately and in the right order.

The Control Unit achieves coordination within the CPU through a series of steps:
o Fetch: The Control Unit retrieves an instruction from the computer's memory. It
accomplishes this by accessing the memory location provided by the program
counter (PC), which contains the address of the next instruction to be executed.
o Decode: Once the instruction is fetched, the Control Unit decodes it. It breaks down
the instruction into its constituent elements, which include the operation code
(opcode) and any associated operands. The operands supply the data or memory
locations on which the operation will be completed, while the opcode suggests the
kind of operation to be done.
o Execute: After the instruction is decoded, the Control Unit initiates the execution
phase. It coordinates the necessary actions within the CPU's functional units, such as
the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), to perform the specific operation indicated by the
instruction. This may involve calculations, data manipulations, or control operations.
o Store: Once the instruction is executed, the Control Unit updates the necessary
registers and flags to reflect the operation results. This could involve storing the
result in a register, updating the program counter to indicate the address of the next
instruction, or modifying status flags that provide information about the outcome of
the operation (e.g., zero flags, carry flags).
o Repeat: After updating the necessary components, the Control Unit repeats the
process by fetching the next instruction from memory. It increments the program
counter to point to the next instruction's address, and the cycle continues.
This fetch-decode-execute cycle is repeated for each instruction in the program,
allowing the Control Unit to coordinate the sequential execution of instructions and
ensure that the computer system performs the required tasks.

The Control Unit ensures the correct information flow and guides the CPU's actions
during this process. It eventually aids in the general operation of the computer
system by allowing the CPU to carry out the required operations and computations
through the fetching, decoding, and execution of instructions.

ALU:
It is the arithmetic logic unit, which carries out arithmetic and logical operations.
Included in the list of arithmetic operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, and comparisons. Data selection, comparison, and merging are the primary
logical operations. More than one ALU may be present in a CPU. ALUs can also be
used to keep track of timers that assist in running the computer.

The ALU consists of two main subsections: the Arithmetic Section and the Logic
Section.

o The ALU's Arithmetic Section conducts mathematical operations. It performs

fundamental mathematical operations including addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division. For mathematical computations in several applications and
programmes, these processes are necessary. Other operations, such as bitwise
operations and incrementing or decreasing values, can also be handled by the
Arithmetic Section.
o The ALU's Logic Section is in charge of performing logical operations. Data
manipulation based on logical conditions is referred to as logical operations. These
operations include choosing or removing certain data elements or fields, comparing
values to identify connections (such as equal, greater than, or less than), and merging
 or combining data in accordance with logical principles. Decision-making, data
filtering, and data processing tasks frequently employ logical operations.

The ALU's arithmetic and logical functions are crucial for the execution of instructions
within the CPU. The ALU is responsible for carrying out the necessary arithmetic or
logical operation specified by the instruction when retrieved and decoded by the
Control Unit. For instance, the Arithmetic Section of the ALU will perform the
addition operation and output the result if an instruction calls for adding two
integers.

Sometimes, a CPU may contain multiple ALUs to enhance its processing capabilities.
Multiple ALUs can work simultaneously, allowing for parallel execution of operations
and speeding up computation tasks. This is especially beneficial in CPUs with
multiple cores or processors designed for high-performance computing.

Memory or Storage Unit

A computer system's memory or storage unit maintains instructions, data, and

intermediate outcomes. It acts as a database that other computer components may
access and save data in as needed. This device has numerous names because of its
numerous functions, including internal storage unit, main memory, primary storage,
or Random-access reminiscence (RAM).

The memory unit's capability directly affects the computer's speed, power, and
normal performance. A memory unit with a larger ability allows for storing more data
and instructions, resulting in an improved machine capacity to handle complicated
tasks efficiently.

A computer system commonly has two types of memory: primary and secondary.
o Primary memory, often called RAM, is the main memory of a computer. It closely
collaborates with the CPU to quickly store and retrieve data. RAM allows the
computer to access information randomly, which means it can retrieve any piece of
data without going through everything in order. RAM acts as a momentary
workspace where the computer stores the information and applications it is now
utilizing. RAM is a volatile memory, so anything saved inside is lost when the machine
is switched off. How many programs can run simultaneously and how much data can
be processed simultaneously depends on the RAM capacity.

o Secondary memory includes hard disk drives (HDDs), solid-state drives (SSDs), and
external storage devices. Computer systems are designed to store data for extended
periods, even if powered off. Secondary memory, unlike RAM, is non-volatile and
maintains records even in the absence of power. It is the storage location for
operating systems, software applications, documents, and user data. Secondary
memory has a larger capability in comparison to RAM. While accessing data from
secondary memory takes longer than primary memory, it gives the advantage of
 long-term data retention.

Some functions of the Memory unit

o Storage: The memory unit stores instructions, data, and intermediate results for the
computer to perform tasks.
o Retrieval: The computer can access stored information quickly and efficiently,
enabling the processor to retrieve data and instructions during program execution.
o Temporary Storage: The memory unit provides temporary storage (RAM) for
actively running programs, allowing the CPU to access and manipulate data quickly.
o Data Transfer: It facilitates the transfer of data between the CPU and other
components of the computer system, ensuring smooth communication and efficient
processing.
o Fast Access: The memory unit offers fast access to data and instructions, reducing
delays in program execution and enhancing overall system performance.
o Random Access: It enables the CPU to retrieve data from any location in the memory
unit without searching sequentially, allowing for quick and random access to
information.
What is CPU Clock Speed?

The clock speed of a processor, often known as the CPU clock rate, is an important
component. The clock speed of a CPU or a processor refers to the number of
instructions it can process in a second. It is measured in gigahertz. For example, a
CPU with a clock speed of 4.0 GHz means it can process 4 billion instructions in a
second.

The number of instructions a CPU can execute in a specific time is determined by the
CPU's clock speed. Each instruction represents a fundamental CPU activity, such as
transferring data or doing mathematical calculations. The clock speed determines
how quickly these instructions are executed. A higher clock speed allows the CPU to
process more instructions per second, enhancing overall performance.

Consider an example with a factory production line to understand better how clock
speed affects CPU performance. The clock speed represents the speed at which the
conveyor belt moves, bringing workpieces to different stations. The faster the
conveyor belt moves; the more workpieces can be processed in a given time.

Note: The entire performance of a CPU is not determined by the clock speed
alone. The processor's architecture and design are also quite important. The
effectiveness of different CPU architectures in carrying out instructions can vary.
Therefore, CPUs with lower clock rates but superior architecture may perform
better than CPUs with greater clock speeds but inefficient designs.

Modern CPUs also frequently use techniques like multi-core architectures and
instruction pipelining to boost speed. To increase processing power overall, multi-
core CPUs include numerous independent processing units (cores) that may carry out
instructions concurrently. The CPU may execute many instructions simultaneously
using instruction pipelining, significantly enhancing efficiency.
Because of advances in semiconductor technology, CPU clock rates have been rising
continuously over time. Early CPUs operated at clock speeds measured in megahertz
(MHz), but with technological progress, GHz speeds became the norm. Some high-
end CPUs even surpassed the 5 GHz mark.

Types of CPU:
CPUs are mostly manufactured by Intel and AMD, each of which manufactures its
own types of CPUs. In modern times, there are lots of CPU types in the market. Some
of the basic types of CPUs are described below:

o Single-Core CPUs
o Dual-Core CPUs
o Quad-Core CPUs
o Hexa-Core CPUs
o Octa-Core CPUs
o Multi-Core CPUs

Single Core CPU

Single Core is the oldest type of computer CPU, which was used in the 1970s. It has
only one core to process different operations. It can start only one operation at a
time; the CPU switches back and forth between different sets of data streams when
more than one program runs. So, it is not suitable for multitasking as the
performance will be reduced if more than one application runs. The performance of
these CPUs is mainly dependent on the clock speed. It is still used in various devices,
such as smartphones.

But as technology developed, multi-core CPUs proliferated and now provide better
multitasking skills. These CPUs can execute several instructions simultaneously due to
their numerous processing cores. Single-core CPUs are less popular in desktop and
laptop computers, although they are still used in embedded systems and mobile
phones. Smartphones often use single-core or dual-core CPUs that are particularly
made for power efficiency to balance performance and battery life.

Dual Core CPU

As the name suggests, Dual Core CPU contains two cores in a single Integrated
Circuit (IC). Although each core has its own controller and cache, they are linked
together to work as a single unit and thus can perform faster than the single-core
processors and can handle multitasking more efficiently than Single Core processors.

A dual-core CPU's two cores enable the execution of many tasks in parallel. Each core
can independently execute instructions, enabling parallel processing. This capability
significantly improves multitasking performance compared to single-core processors.
With dual-core CPUs, users can run multiple applications simultaneously without
experiencing significant performance slowdowns.

Dual-core CPUs offer benefits beyond multitasking. They can also enhance
performance for single-threaded applications. Since each core can handle
instructions independently, tasks that cannot be parallelized can still benefit from the
dual-core architecture. One core can focus on running the main application, while
the other handles background processes or system tasks. This division of work
ensures a smoother user experience and improves overall system responsiveness.
Quad Core CPU

This type of CPU comes with two dual-core processors in one integrated circuit (IC)
or chip. So, a quad-core processor is a chip that contains four independent units
called cores. These cores read and execute instructions of CPU. The cores can run
multiple instructions simultaneously, thereby increases the overall speed for
programs that are compatible with parallel processing.

Quad Core CPU uses a technology that allows four independent processing units
(cores) to run in parallel on a single chip. Thus, by integrating multiple cores in a
single CPU, higher performance can be generated without boosting the clock speed.
However, the performance increases only when the computer's software supports
multiprocessing. The software which supports multiprocessing divides the processing
load between multiple processors instead of using one processor at a time.

Thanks to Quad-core processors' ability to divide the processing burden among

several cores, multiple processors can operate simultaneously instead of one at a
time. Certain software supports this multiprocessing capacity, which improves
productivity and speeds up processing times, especially for jobs that can be broken
down into smaller subtasks and carried out concurrently.

Quad-core CPUs, in particular, provide advantages in terms of increased efficiency

and quicker processing for multitasking and computationally heavy jobs. With four
cores, the CPU can divide the workload more equally, enabling quicker reaction times
and more fluid multitasking. In jobs like video editing, 3D graphics, and gaming,
where simultaneous execution of numerous tasks is essential, quad-core CPUs excel
in parallel processing.
Hexa-Core CPUs

Hexa-core CPUs are computer processors that include six separate cores on a single
integrated circuit (IC) or chip. Each core functions as a separate processing unit that
can perform computations and commands. With six cores, processing power may be
boosted, and performance can be enhanced.

Regarding multitasking and managing resource-intensive tasks, Hexa-core CPUs

provide substantial benefits. The CPU can perform numerous tasks simultaneously
with six cores by distributing the burden among them for more effective processing.
Users may operate many programs simultaneously without noticeably encountering
performance slowdowns or delays, such as web browsers, video editing programs,
and gaming programs.

Hexa-core CPUs also excel in applications that demand significant computational

power, such as video editing, 3D rendering, scientific simulations, and virtualization.
These tasks can be distributed across multiple cores, resulting in faster processing
and reduced waiting times.
Octa-Core CPUs

Octa-core CPUs are computer processors with eight separate cores on a single
integrated circuit (IC) or chip. Each core performs as a separate processing unit that
can perform calculations and commands. An octa-core CPU's eight cores
considerably boost processing power and overall performance.

Octa-core CPUs excel at performing demanding workloads and have impressive

multitasking capabilities. With eight cores, the CPU can effectively manage multiple
simultaneous tasks. The workload is distributed across the cores, allowing for
efficient processing and faster completion of tasks. This means users can run
numerous applications simultaneously without experiencing significant performance
slowdowns or system lag.

The key advantage of octa-core CPUs is their ability to execute instructions in

parallel. Each core can independently work on different tasks, allowing for concurrent
processing. This parallel processing capacity enhances system performance overall
and speeds up operations. It is especially beneficial for undertakings that may be
divided into smaller tasks and finished simultaneously.

Octa-core CPUs are best suited for computationally intensive software that requires
many resources. High-definition video editing, 3D rendering, intricate scientific
simulations, and virtualization are among the examples. These workloads may be
effectively divided across several cores, resulting in quicker processing and shorter
wait times.

Multi-Core CPUs
Multi-core CPUs, also known as multi-core processors, are kinds of computer
processors that combine several independent cores onto a single chip or integrated
circuit. Multi-core CPUs use two or extra cores that work collectively to execute
instructions and do computations, in contrast to single-core processors, which rely
upon a single core to complete all activities.

The primary advantage of multi-core CPUs is their capability to deal with numerous
tasks simultaneously, improving overall performance and efficiency. The CPU's cores
perform as separate processing units that can operate independently. Due to the
CPU's ability to distribute work across its cores through parallel processing, jobs may
be completed more quickly and concurrently.

Users may run numerous programs simultaneously on multi-core CPUs without

suffering severe slowdowns or performance bottlenecks. For instance, each job may
be given to a different core for effective processing, allowing you to browse the web,
stream movies, and work on paper simultaneously. This multitasking feature makes
the system more responsive overall and provides a more convenient user experience.

Multi-core CPUs excel at performing computationally demanding activities in

addition to multitasking. These processors can handle complicated activities like
video editing, 3D rendering, scientific simulations, and gaming more effectively by
distributing the burden among numerous cores. The ability to distribute the
workload across cores results in faster processing times and reduced waiting periods.

Difference between Primary and Secondary Memory –

Comparison Table
Primary memory is used for temporarily storing data that is actively being used by
the computer's CPU, while secondary memory (storage) is used for long-term data
storage, such as files and programs that are not currently in use. Listed below are
some other primary and secondary memory differences.
 Comparison
Primary Memory Secondary Memory
Parameters

Primary memory is the main

Storage Secondary memory is the external
memory and stores data
validity memory and stores data permanently.
temporarily.

The CPU can directly access The CPU cannot directly access the
Access
the data. data.

Primary memory is volatile. Secondary memory is non-volatile;

Volatility It loses data in case of a data is stored even during a power
power outage. failure.

Data is stored on external hardware

Data is stored inside costly
Storage devices like hard drives, floppy disks,
semiconductor chips.
etc.

They do not have such a classification.

It can be divided into RAM
Division Secondary memories are permanent
and ROM
storage devices like CDs, DVDs, etc.

Speed Faster Slower

It saves the data that the It can save various types of data in
Stored data
computer is currently using. various formats and huge sizes.

Now that you know how to differentiate between primary and secondary memory, let
us understand what primary memory and secondary memory are.

What is Primary Memory?

Primary memory is a computer system's internal memory. It stores and retrieves
data, instructions, and information. The CPU directly and randomly accesses primary
memory, which is also referred to as Random Access Memory (RAM). Primary
memory is volatile and loses data and instructions when the power turns off.

Types of Primary Memory:

RAM (Random Access Memory)
Random Access Memory, or RAM, is usually provided as the computer system’s
main memory. It is also regarded as temporary or cache memory that is constantly
being written to and read. Information saved in primary memory will be lost when the
computer or laptop's power supply turns off. Simply put, RAM is a primary memory
from which you can only read information.
ROM (Read-Only Memory)
ROM is a non-volatile memory containing data that we cannot change. In this case,
information is not lost when the power supply is turned off. The computer
manufacturer determines ROM information. It is permanently stored at the time of
manufacture so that the user cannot overwrite it.

Primary Memory Characteristics

 The computer cannot function without primary memory.
 Primary memory is also known as the main memory.
 You may lose data in case the power is off
 Also known as volatile memory
 It is the working memory of the computer.
 It is faster as compared to secondary memory.
 Examples: RAM, ROM, cache, PROM, EPROM, registers, etc.

What is Secondary Memory?

Secondary memory is a storage device that the CPU cannot access directly. It is a
permanent storage device.
The CPU accesses these devices through an input/output channel. Data is first
transferred to primary from secondary storage before its assessment. Modern
computers often use hard drives and optical storage devices (CDs, DVDs) as
secondary storage devices.

A secondary storage device organizes data into files and directories based on a file
system. It also allows the user to access or use additional information like access
permissions, owner, last access time, etc. Also, secondary memory keeps less used
data temporarily when primary memory gets full.
Secondary memory devices are less expensive and can store vast amounts of data,
audio, video, and multimedia files. Organizations can store the equivalent of a
roomful of data on disks that consume dramatically and significantly less physical
space.
Types of Secondary Memory
 Solid-state storage devices, such as USB memory sticks.
 Optical storage devices, such as CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs.
 Examples: Magnetic storage devices include zip, floppy, and hard disk drives.
Secondary Memory Characteristics
 These are magnetic and optical memories.
 It is a type of non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even when the computer is turned off
 It helps store data on a computer
  The computer can function without secondary memory
 Slower than primary memory
 Examples: magnetic tapes, optical discs, floppy disks, flash memory [USB drives],
paper tape, punched cards, etc.

Comparison Between Primary And Secondary Memories

 Primary memory is the computer’s main memory and stores data temporarily.
 Secondary memory is external memory and saves data permanently.
 Data stored in primary memory can be directly accessed by the CPU, which
cannot be accessed in secondary memory.
 Primary memory is lost during a power outage, while secondary memory saves
the data.
 Secondary memory is non-volatile, while primary memory is volatile.
 Primary memory is stored on semiconductor chips, while secondary memory is
stored on external devices.
 Primary memory is classified into cache and random access memory, while
secondary memory has no such categories.
 Secondary memory can save data in various formats that can be accessed
anytime, while primary memory uses the computer’s current data.
 Primary memory is faster.

Conclusion
Both types of memory have several differences. Although different, they work
together for the computer to run smoothly. Primary memory itself can’t save more
than a few gigabytes of data, but secondary memory fills that gap by providing up to
a terabyte of space. While the latter lags in processing data, the primary memory is
faster and easily accessible.
Both primary and secondary memories are crucial for a computer’s effortless and
efficient functioning, and they complement each other. I hope this article helped you
to differentiate between primary and secondary memory, or understand the
difference between primary and secondary storage.

Software
Software, which is abbreviated as SW or S/W, is a set of programs that enables the
hardware to perform a specific task. All the programs that run the computer are
software. The software can be of three types: system software, application software,
and programming software.
1) System Software
The system software is the main software that runs the computer. When you turn on
the computer, it activates the hardware and controls and coordinates their
functioning. The application programs are also controlled by system software. An
operating system is an example of system software.

i) Operating System:
An operating system is the system software that works as an interface to enable the
user to communicate with the computer. It manages and coordinates the functioning
of hardware and software of the computer. The commonly used operating systems
are Microsoft Windows, Linux, and Apple Mac OS X.

Some other examples of system software include:

o BIOS: It stands for basic input output system. It is a type of system software, which is
stored in Read Only Memory (ROM) located on the motherboard. However, in
advanced computer systems, it is stored in flash memory. BIOS is the first software
that gets activated when you turn on your computer system. It loads the drivers of
the hard disk into memory as well as assists the operating system to load itself into
the memory.
o Boot Program: Boot refers to starting up a computer. When you switch on the
computer, the commands in the ROM are executed automatically to load the boot
program into memory and execute its instructions. The BIOS program has a basic set
of commands that enables the computer to perform the basic input/output
instructions to start the computer.
o An assembler: It plays the role of a converter as it receives basic computer
instructions and converts them into a pattern of bits. The processor uses these bits to
perform basic operations.
o A device driver: This system software controls hardware devices connected to a
computer. It enables the computer to use the hardware by providing an appropriate
interface. The kernel of a Computer's CPU communicates with different hardware
through this software. Operating systems generally come with most of the device
drivers. If the operating system does not have a device driver for hardware, you have
to install the device driver before using that hardware device.
2) Application Software:
Application software is a set of programs designed to perform a specific task. It does
not control the working of a computer as it is designed for end-users. A computer
can run without application software. Application software can be easily installed or
uninstalled as required. It can be a single program or a collection of small programs.
Microsoft Office Suite, Adobe Photoshop, and any other software like payroll
software or income tax software are application software. As we know, they are
designed to perform specific tasks. Accordingly, they can be of different types such
as:

o Word Processing Software: This software allows users to create, edit, format, and
manipulate the text and more. It offers lots of options for writing documents, creating
images, and more. For example, MS Word, WordPad, Notepad, etc.
o Spreadsheet Software: It is designed to perform calculations, store data, create
charts, etc. It has rows and columns, and the data is entered in the cell, which is an
intersection of a row and column, e.g., Microsoft Excel.
o Multimedia Software: These software are developed to perform editing of video,
audio, and text. It allows you to combine texts, videos, audio, and images. Thus, you
can improve a text document by adding photos, animations, graphics, and charts
through multimedia software. For example, VLC player, Window Media Player, etc.
o Enterprise Software: These software are developed for business operational
functions. It is used in large organizations where the quantum of business is too
large. It can be used for accounting, billing, order processing and more. For example,
CRM (Customer Relationship Management), BI (Business Intelligence), ERP (Enterprise
Resource Planning), SCM (Supply Chain Management), customer support system, and
more.

3) Programming Software:
It is a set or collection of tools that help developers in writing other software or
programs. It assists them in creating, debugging, and maintaining software or
programs or applications. We can say that these are facilitator software that helps
translate programming language such as Java, C++, Python, etc., into machine
language code. So, it is not used by end-users. For example, compilers, linkers,
debuggers, interpreters, text editors, etc. This software is also called a programming
tool or software development tool.

Some examples of programming software include:

 o Eclipse: It is a java language editor.
o Coda: It is a programming language editor for Mac.
o Notepad++: It is an open-source editor for windows.
o Sublime text: It is a cross-platform code editor for Linux, Mac, and Windows.

What is firmware?
Firmware is a type of software that is embedded into hardware devices to control their
functionality. Unlike traditional software, firmware is not designed to be modified or updated
frequently, and it is typically stored in non-volatile memory

Cache memory, supplementary memory system that temporarily stores

frequently used instructions and data for quicker processing by the central
processing unit (CPU) of a computer. The cache augments, and is
an extension of, a computer’s main memory. Both main memory and cache
are internal random-access memories (RAMs) that use semiconductor-
based transistor circuits. Cache holds a copy of only the most frequently
used information or program codes stored in the main memory. The
smaller capacity of the cache reduces the time required to locate data within
it and provide it to the CPU for processing.

Cache memory provides faster data storage and access by storing

instances of programs and data routinely accessed by the processor.
Thus, when a processor requests data that already has an instance in the
cache memory, it does not need to go to the main memory or the hard
disk to fetch the data.

Cache memory is the fastest memory available and acts as a buffer

between RAM and the CPU. The processor checks whether a
corresponding entry is available in the cache every time it needs to read
or write a location, thus reducing the time required to access
information from the main memory.
 Hardware cache is also called processor cache, and is a physical
component of the processor. Depending on how close it is to the
processor core, can be primary or secondary cache memory, with primary
cache memory directly integrated into (or closest to) the processor.

Multimedia is a form of communication that uses a combination of different content

forms, such as writing, audio, images, animations, or video, into a single interactive
presentation, in contrast to traditional mass media, such as printed material or audio
recordings, which feature little to no interaction between users. Popular examples of
multimedia include video podcasts, audio slideshows, and animated videos. Multimedia
also contains the principles and application of effective interactive communication, such
as the building blocks of software, hardware, and other technologies. The five main
building blocks of multimedia are text, image, audio, video, and animation. The first
building block of multimedia is the image, which dates back 15,000 to 10,000 B.C. with
concrete evidenc

File management is all about organizing the digital information on your computer's storage
devices. It covers how data is stored, accessed, and manipulated. Here's a breakdown of the
specific concepts you mentioned:

1.4.1 Physical Structure of the Disk

Imagine your hard drive or storage device as a giant library with shelves full of books. To
efficiently store information, the disk has a physical structure that breaks down storage space
into manageable chunks. Here's a simplified breakdown:

 Sectors: The smallest unit of storage on a disk. Think of them as individual words on
a page.
 Tracks: A collection of sectors forming a concentric circle on the disk platter, like
rows on a bookshelf.
 Clusters: A group of sectors working together as the smallest unit that can store a
file. Similar to how a sentence is made up of multiple words.
 Tracks and Sectors combined: Imagine a specific location on the shelf using shelf
number (Track) and book number (Sector) within that shelf.

1.4.2. Concept of File and Folder

 File: A named collection of related information. Think of it as a book in the library

containing information on a specific topic. There are different file types, like
documents (.docx), pictures (.jpg), and music (.mp3), each suited for storing a
particular kind of information.
  Folder: A digital container that holds files and other folders, similar to folders or
cabinets in a library that group related books together. Folders help organize your files
and keep things tidy.

1.4.3. Types of Files and File Extensions

Files come in various types, each suited for storing specific information. To help identify file
types, most operating systems use file extensions - a short identifier added to the filename,
usually separated by a period (.). Here are some common examples:

 .docx: Microsoft Word document

 .jpg, .png: Image files
 .mp3, .wav: Audio files
 .pdf: Portable Document Format - a universal file format that can retain formatting
regardless of the device it's opened on.
 .exe: Executable program files that you can run on your computer.

By understanding these file management concepts, you can effectively organize your digital
information, making it easier to find and manage your files.

ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) is the most common character
encoding format for text data in computers and on the internet. In standard ASCII-encoded
data, there are unique values for 128 alphabetic, numeric or special additional characters
and control codes.
A=65
a=97
0=48,1=49

How Does ASCII Work?

ASCII uses 7 bits to represent a total of 128 characters. With the widespread use of
8-bit computers, an extended ASCII table was developed that uses 8 bits to
represent 256 characters.Each character is assigned a unique numerical value (an
ASCII code) ranging from 0 to 127. For example, the ASCII code for the letter “A” is 65,
while the ASCII code for the number “1” is 49.

Pros of ASCII
 Universal acceptance: ASCII is a widely recognized and universally accepted standard
for encoding text data, making it ideal for data communication and exchange between
computer systems and applications.
 Simplifies communication: ASCII allows developers to design interfaces that both
humans and computers can understand, making it easier to communicate between
different systems.
  Efficient for programming: ASCII is a simple and efficient encoding
standard, making it ideal for programming. It uses a limited number of characters, which
helps to simplify specific tasks, and its 7-bit encoding allows for quick and efficient data
processing.
 Legacy support: ASCII has been around for several decades and is still widely used,
which means that many older systems and applications still rely on ASCII, making it a
valuable tool for developers who need to work with older systems.
 Low resource usage: ASCII requires fewer bits to represent each character, requiring
less storage and bandwidth for data transmission, making it ideal for applications that
use limited resources.
 Robustness: ASCII is a robust encoding standard that is less prone to errors and data
corruption than other encoding standards, which makes it a reliable option for
developers who need to ensure the accuracy and reliability of their data.

Cons of ASCII
 Limited character set: the inability to encode characters beyond the English alphabet
can lead to problems encoding data in other languages, leading to data corruption or
loss.
 Outdated: ASCII was created at a time when the use of computers was not widespread,
and as such, it needs to consider the increasing number of languages and characters
used in modern computing. This means that it may not be suitable for use in modern
applications that need to support a wide range of characters and languages.
 Vulnerability to data corruption: ASCII uses a 7-bit encoding system, which makes
it vulnerable to data corruption. For example, suppose one of the bits in an ASCII-
encoded character is lost or changed. In that case, the receiving system may not correctly
interpret the character, leading to data corruption or loss.

Unicode is a computing industry standard introduced to address the limitations of

character encoding systems such as ASCII. It provides a standardized, universal
character set that covers various characters in different scripts and
languages, including Latin, Greek, Cyrillic, Hebrew, Arabic, Hindi, Chinese, and many
more.
Unicode contains over 100,000 characters, making it possible to encode text in
any written language used today. Using several encoding formats known as UTF
(Unicode Transformation Format), Unicode can represent characters as binary data that
computers can process. UTF-8 is the most widely used encoding format for web
content.
Unicode has become the standard for character encoding in the computing
industry, and its widespread use has helped to eliminate data exchange problems
between systems that use different encoding systems. In addition, it allows developers
to create user-friendly interfaces that can be used by people speaking different
languages, and it helps to simplify tasks related to data processing and information
management.

How does Unicode work?

Unicode assigns a unique number, called a code point, to each character in the
universal character set. These code points represent the characters in binary form
using one of the encoding formats specified by Unicode, such as UTF-8, UTF-16, or
UTF-32.
When text is stored in a computer system, the code points for each character are first
assigned and then encoded into a binary form using one of the Unicode encoding
formats. The encoding format determines the number of bytes used to represent
each character and affects the storage space required and the processing speed.
When text is displayed, the binary representation of the code points is decoded back into
characters, which can then be displayed on the screen. The process of encoding and
decoding ensures that the text is stored and transmitted accurately, regardless of
the platforms, applications, or languages involved.

Pros of Unicode
 It can represent more characters than ASCII, including symbols, emojis, and characters
from different scripts and languages
 Enables internationalization and localization, making it easier to develop applications
for a global audience
 Better compatibility with modern computer systems and devices
 It offers consistency in encoding and representation, reducing the chances of
compatibility issues