Chapter 4

STRUCTURE OF THE
ATOM

4.1 The Atomic Models of Thomson and Ruther-

ford
The first model of the atom was given by J.J. Thomson in 1898. He assumed
Joseph John Thomson
that atoms are homogeneous uniform spheres of positively charged matter was born in 1856 in Eng-
in which electrons are embedded, much like “raisins in plum pudding.” land, of Scottish parentage.
He studied engineering at
In 1911, Geiger and Marsden conducted an experiment in which they Owens College, Manchester,
studied the scattering of α-particles (ionized helium atom) by a very thin and moved on to Trinity Col-
lege, Cambridge. In 1884
foil of gold. A calumniated beam of α-particles hitting a gold foil showed he became Cavendish Profes-
that deflection through large angles. Most of these particles went unde- sor of Physics. One of his
flected while a few were turn back. Thomson’s model could not explain students was Ernest Ruther-
ford, who would later suc-
it. Rutherford suggested that the atom consists of a central massive nu- ceed him in the post. For his
cleus where its entire mass and positive charge is concentrated and it is this discovery of the electron, he
was awarded a Nobel Prize
nucleus which is responsible for repelling the alpha particles. Around the in 1906. In 1918 he be-
came Master of Trinity Col-
lege, Cambridge, where he
remained until his death. He
died in 1940 and was buried
in Westminster Abbey, close
to Isaac Newton.

Figure 4.1: Thomson’s plum pudding model of the atom

1
 Class Notes on
4.2. RUTHERFORD SCATTERING Applied Modern Physics ECEG-341

Figure 4.2: α-particle scattering

nucleus there is a mist of electrons whose total charge is equal in magnitude

to the charge in the nucleus.

4.2 Rutherford Scattering

A charged particle of mass m, charge Z1 e and velocity vo is incident on a
target material or scatterer of charge Z2 e. The impact parameter, b, is the
closest distance of approach between the beam particle and scatterer if the
projectile had continued in a straight line. Let us find the relation between
b and the scattering angle θ.
Z
∆p = F∆p dt

where F∆p is the force along the direction of ∆p.

∆p = Pf − Pi
pi ≈ pf = mvo (assume no recoil of the scatterer)

Then (isosceles triangles of Pi , Pf , and ∆p)

Ernest Rutherford (1871- ∆p mvo
1937) was the brilliant New =
Zealand physicist who ex- sin θ sin( π−θ
2 )
plained natural radioactiv-
ity, determined the structure Since
of the atom, and changed one
element into another (nitro-
   
π−θ θ
gen to oxygen) by splitting sin = cos
an atom’s nucleus. A farm 2 2
boy from New Zealand’s    
South Island, he spent most
θ θ
sin θ = 2 sin cos
of his professional career 2 2
overseas at McGill Univer-  
sity in Montreal, Canada θ
(1895-98), and at Manch-
∴ ∆p = 2mvo sin
2
ester University (1898-1907)
and Cambridge University
(1919-37) in the United Murad Ridwan, 2 of 5
Kingdom. Rutherford was School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
an energetic pioneer in nu- AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
clear physics: he discovered
(and named) alpha and beta
radiation, named the nucleus
and proton and won the
1908 Nobel prize in chem-
istry for explaining radioac-
tivity as the disintegration
 Class Notes on
4.3. ESTIMATION OF NUCLEAR RADIUS Applied Modern Physics ECEG-341

The coulomb force F is along the instantaneous direction of the position

vector r (unit vector âr )

1 Z1 Z2 e 2
F= âr = F âr
4πεo r2

and F∆p = F cos ϕ since ∆p is in ϕ = 0 direction. Therefore,

Z
∆p = 2mvo sin (θ/2) = F cos ϕdt

Z1 Z2 e2
Z
cos ϕ
= dt
4πεo r2

The instantaneous angular momentum must be conserved, so

dϕ
mr2 = mvo b
dt
vo b
⇒ r2 =
dϕ/dt
Z1 Z2 e 2
Z
cos ϕ dϕ
∴ 2mvo sin(θ/2) =
4πεo vo b dt
2 Z ϕf
Z1 Z2 e
= cos ϕdϕ
4πεo vo b ϕi

Let ϕi be on the -ve side and ϕf on the +ve side of z ′ (ϕ = 0), then

ϕi = −ϕf , −ϕi + ϕf + θ = π ⇒ ϕi = −(π − θ)/2, ϕf = (π − θ)/2

(π−θ)/2
8πεo mvo2 b
Z
sin(θ/2) = cos ϕdϕ = 2 cos(θ/2)
Z1 Z2 e 2 −(π−θ)/2
Z1 Z2 e 2
∴b = cot(θ/2)
4πεo mvo2

Or with Ek = 12 mvo2 - kinetic energy of the particle:

Z1 Z2 e 2
b= cot(θ/2) (4.1)
8πεo Ek

4.3 Estimation of Nuclear Radius

For a given Ek and b there ia a distance of closest approach between a
bombarding particle and target scatterer of like charges. The minimum
separation occurs for a head-on collision. The particle turns around and

Murad Ridwan, 3 of 5
School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
 Class Notes on
4.4. ELECTRON ORBIT (HYDROGEN ATOM) Applied Modern Physics ECEG-341

Figure 4.3: Electron orbit of hydrogen atom

scatters backward at 180o . At the instant the particle turns around, the
entire kinetic energy has been converted into coulomb potential energy.
(Z1 e)(Z2 e)
Ek =
4πεo r
Z1 Z2 e 2
∴ rmin = (4.2)
4πεo Ek
For α particles (Z1 = 2) of 7.7 MeV scattering on aluminium (Z2 = 19) or
gold(Z2 = 79)
rmin (aluminium) = 5 × 10−15 m
rmin (gold) = 3 × 10−14 m
We now know that nuclear radii vary from 1 to 10 × 10−15 m.

4.4 Electron Orbit (Hydrogen Atom)

The coulomb attractive force between the nucleus and the orbiting electron
is
1 e2
Fe = − âr
4πεo r2
The electron’s radial acceleration is
v2
ar =
, v − the tangential velocity
r
From Newton’s second law,
1 e2 mv 2
2
=
4πεo r r

Murad Ridwan, 4 of 5
School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
 Class Notes on
4.4. ELECTRON ORBIT (HYDROGEN ATOM) Applied Modern Physics ECEG-341

Implying
e
v=√ (4.3)
4πεo mr
The total energy E of the electron in a hydrogen atom is the sum of its
e2
kinetic energy ( 21 mv 2 ) and potential energy (− 4πεor
)

E = Ek + Ep
mv 2 e2
= −
2 4πεo r
Substituting v from Eq. 4.3

e2
E=− (4.4)
8πεo r
The total energy is negative, indicating a bound, attractive system. Experi-
mentally it is found that a binding energy of 13.6 eV is required to separate
a hydrogen atom into a proton and an electron. Therefore,

e2
r=− = 5.23 × 10−11 m
8πεo E
In summary, the classical atomic model assumes that the atom consists of a
small, massive, positively charged nucleus surrounded by moving electrons,
resembling the planetary model of the solar system.
This model fails to explain the origin of spectral lines. An orbiting
electron has an acceleration directed towards the center. According to the
classical electrodynamics, an accelerated charged particle emits radiation.
This implies that with the loss of energy by radiation, the electron orbit
should shrink and the electron should crash into the nucleus. This process
would occur in about 10−9 s. Also, by this process, it would emit a continuous
range of radiations. Actually, however, it is observed that atoms are stable
and emit only discrete spectral lines when excited.
To overcome this difficulty, Bohr discarded the classical atomic model
and put forward his quantum model of the atom. The main idea in it is
that electrons can revolve in certain stationary orbits only, those in which
no radiation of energy takes place.

Exercise 1: Calculate the time, according to classical laws, it would take the
electron of the hydrogen atom to radiate its energy and crash into the nucleus.
   2   2 2
1 2Q d r
(Hint: The radiated power P is given by 4πε o 3c3 dt2 where Q is the
charge, c the speed of light, and r the position vector of the electron from the
center of the atom.)

Murad Ridwan, 5 of 5
School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.