Energy Reports 7 (2021) 2021–2042

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Energy Reports
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Review article

Hydrokinetic energy harnessing technologies: A review

∗ ∗
W.I. Ibrahim b , M.R. Mohamed c , , R.M.T.R. Ismail a , P.K. Leung a , W.W. Xing d , A.A. Shah a ,
a
Key Laboratory of Low-grade Energy Utilization Technologies and Systems, MOE, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400030, China
b
Faculty of Electrical & Electronics Eng. Tech., Universiti Malaysia Pahang, 26600 Pekan, Malaysia
c
College of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, 26300 Kuantan, Malaysia
d
School of Microelectronics, Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, No. 37 Xueyuan Road, Haidian District, 100191, China

article info a b s t r a c t

Article history: Energy harnessing from hydrokinetic systems has been explored over several centuries. With ad-
Received 12 August 2020 vancements in the technology in last decade, and the intermittent nature of other technologies
Received in revised form 21 March 2021 for energy harvesting, interest in harnessing energy from water-based hydrokinetic systems has
Accepted 3 April 2021
amplified. This paper reviews and studies the state-of-the-art of these systems in sea- and river-
Available online 16 April 2021
based applications. The history of development, working principles, different turbines classifications,
Keywords: and research prospects and opportunities are reviewed and discussed. We also conduct a survey of
Hydrokinetic systems currently available commercial technologies. Elements of the design that need to be enhanced are
Energy harnessing presented in detail, along with further research prospects in areas related to the technology.
Turbines © 2021 Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Contents

1. Introduction..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2021
2. Hydrokinetic Energy Conversion Systems (HECS) ...................................................................................................................................................... 2023
2.1. Comparison of hydrokinetic technology with other technologies............................................................................................................... 2023
2.2. Structure of hydrokinetic technology.............................................................................................................................................................. 2030
2.3. Concept and formulae for hydrokinetic technology ...................................................................................................................................... 2030
2.4. Hydrokinetic technology classification............................................................................................................................................................ 2030
2.4.1. Horizontal axis hydrokinetic turbines ............................................................................................................................................. 2030
2.4.2. Vertical axis hydrokinetic turbines .................................................................................................................................................. 2030
2.4.3. Cross-flow hydrokinetic turbines ..................................................................................................................................................... 2030
2.4.4. Venturi and gravitational vortex turbine ........................................................................................................................................ 2031
2.4.5. Non-turbine hydrokinetic systems................................................................................................................................................... 2031
3. Survey on hydrokinetic technology ............................................................................................................................................................................ 2031
3.1. Hydrokinetic technology in tidal and marine settings.................................................................................................................................. 2031
3.2. Hydrokinetic technology in rivers ................................................................................................................................................................... 2033
4. Research prospects in hydrokinetic technology ......................................................................................................................................................... 2033
4.1. Assessment studies ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 2033
4.2. Broader research on hydrokinetic turbines .................................................................................................................................................... 2033
4.3. Other research trends in hydrokinetic systems ............................................................................................................................................. 2037
5. Conclusions .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2040
Declaration of competing interest................................................................................................................................................................................ 2040
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 2040
References ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2040

1. Introduction

The depletion of fossil fuels, high CO2 emissions, global warm-

∗ Corresponding authors. ing, and environmental pollution are the main factors motivating
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M.R. Mohamed), the drive towards renewable energy (RE) technologies as clean
[email protected] (A.A. Shah). and sustainable sources for electricity generation (Gholikhani

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2021.04.003
2352-4847/© 2021 Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
W.I. Ibrahim, M.R. Mohamed, R.M.T.R. Ismail et al. Energy Reports 7 (2021) 2021–2042

Nomenclature
CP Power Coefficient
CEC Current Energy Converter
EMEC European Marine Energy Centre
FIV Flow Induce Vibration
HECS Hydrokinetic Energy Conversion Sys-
tem
ITDG Intermediate Technology Development
Group
MCT Marine Current Turbine
ORPC Ocean Renewable Power Company
PMSG Permanent Magnet Synchronous Gener-
ator
RE Renewable Energy
RECS River Energy Conversion System
TISEC Tidal-in Stream Energy Converters
TSR Tip Speed Ratio
VIV Vortex-Induced Vibration Fig. 1. The framework of a hydrokinetic system.
WCT Water Current Turbine Source: Adapted from Khan et al. (2009).
WEC Wave Energy Converter
WECS Wind Energy Conversion System
V Water velocity (m s−1 ) A hydrokinetic system is an electromechanical device that
M Mass of water converts the kinetic energy of water flow into electrical energy
ρ Water density (1000 kg/m3 ) through a generator and power electronics converter, as illus-
V Water volume trated in Fig. 1 (Khan et al., 2008). Even though the output
P Power (W) capacity is small, capacity can be increased by an array or mod-
E Kinetic Energy ular installation (Alvarez Alvarez et al., 2018; Shafei M.A.R et al.,
2015). In addition, a hydrokinetic system is based on free-flowing
PT Power develop at the rotor (W)
water without the construction of a reservoir or impoundment.
A Swept Area of turbine (m2 )
The system is easy to transport and relocate due to the small
F Thrust Force size of the plant. Moreover, the system can be installed along
T Torque (N m) the riverside either mooring to a fixed structure or on a floating
R Radius of rotor pontoon (Anyi and Kirke, 2010).
TT Actual torque of rotor Nevertheless, despite its benefits, enormous research efforts
CT Torque Coefficient are still necessary in order to improve hydrokinetic technology,
λ Tip Speed Ratio especially for energy conversion applications. Areas of research
ω Angular speed of rotor that require further attention include (but are not limited to) the
β Pitch Angle turbine selection and enhancement, assessment studies, energy
H Head conversion efficiency, and environmental impacts. Hydrokinetic
systems continue to receive significant attention from researchers
Q Flowrate
in order to improve the technology, reduce the barriers to imple-
mentation, gain further insights and understand the limitations
of the technology.
Several previous reviews have appeared on hydrokinetic tech-
et al., 2020; Andrade Furtado et al., 2020; Camera, 2019). Cur-
nologies (Khan et al., 2009; Lago et al., 2010; Güney and Kay-
rently, RE meets almost 25% of world energy demand with 6321
TWh electricity generation (IEA, 2018). gusuz, 2010; Yuce and Muratoglu, 2015; Laws and Epps, 2016;
Renewable energy resources such as wind energy, solar PV, Kumar and Sarkar, 2016; Niebuhr et al., 2019). In Khan et al.
hydropower, geothermal, and bioenergy have been explored by (2009) and Lago et al. (2010) the authors focus on classifications
researchers and private industries worldwide (Yao et al., 2021; and comparisons of energy conversion mechanisms. In Güney
Zahedi et al., 2021). Nevertheless, RE resources have a num- and Kaygusuz (2010), a categorisation of hydrokinetic turbines
ber of limitations, especially intermittent sources such as wind and recommendations for the suitability of turbines for river
energy and solar (Li et al., 2021), which are not suitable to suf- and tidal settings is presented. Environmental impacts and tur-
ficiently reliable to fulfil base energy load demand. Hydropower bine performance were discussed in Yuce and Muratoglu (2015)
and geothermal energy require specific geological conditions, in- and Kumar and Sarkar (2016) respectively, while in Laws and
volve high initial capital costs and can severely impact local en- Epps (2016) and Niebuhr et al. (2019), modelling, turbine design
vironments (Kadier et al., 2018). Bioenergy requires complex en- and enhancement are discussed and reviewed. As far as authors
gineering processes and advanced technology in the energy con- are aware, updated research on hydrokinetic technologies for
version schemes, and there is doubt about its carbon neutrality tidal, marine and river settings are scattered in the literature.
when taking into account the full life cycle (Scarlat and Dallem, Moreover, the research prospects for hydrokinetic systems are
2018). As a result, energy harnessing based on, e.g., free-flowing rarely discussed. Therefore, in this paper, the state-of-the-art of
water streams, i.e., the hydrokinetic systems, are promising for hydrokinetic technologies and the research trends are reviewed;
the delivery of clean, safe and sustainable energy, especially in since these technologies are emerging and expanding world-
remote areas that do not have access to grid power. wide, this review provides a timely and concise description of
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Fig. 2. Time-line of development and progress of hydrokinetic systems (not exhaustive).

Fig. 3. The structure of a hydrokinetic system. (The high-end system either as stand-alone or grid connected).

their current status and of the focus for future development and 1986). The WCT is used for water pumping and electricity gen-
research. eration in remote areas. In 1978, the Intermediate Technology
This review is organised as follows. Section 2 provides an Development Group (ITDG) developed the Garman Turbine for
overview of hydrokinetic systems, including their history, struc- water pumping and irrigation.
ture, and fundamental underlying mechanisms. Section 3 reviews During the early 1980s, a free rotor with 15 kW output power
hydrokinetic systems in tidal, marine and river settings. Research at 3.87 ms−1 water velocity was installed by the US Department
prospects and research trends in hydrokinetic systems are pro- of Energy for an ultra-low head hydro energy program as reported
vided in Section 4 and in Section 5 we summarise and draw in R and H (1981). In 1986, the In-Stream Turbine with the
conclusions. straight blade Darrieus Turbine was designed by Nova Energy
Systems and ITDG. The system is able to harness 0.5 kW output
power at a flow speed of 1 ms−1 . Experiments on the use of WCT
2. Hydrokinetic Energy Conversion Systems (HECS)
for electricity generation and irrigation have been carried out in
several countries, such as Canada (Davis, 1989), Zaire and Aus-
Water currents have been used as sources of energy for over
tralia (Levy, 1995). The straight blade Darrieus turbine has been
a century. One of the technologies using water flow is the wa- used in Canada and Africa with 5 kW and 15 kW output power
termill. The system consists of a water wheel or water turbine to respectively. Alternative Way, Australia developed the horizontal
drive a mechanical process such as grinding, rolling, and hammer- axis Tyson Turbine with the generator submerged under water.
ing. These technologies have been installed at fast-flowing rivers In 1990 the idea to manipulate WCT technology for large scales
for food, textile and paper production, amongst other applica- emerged (Güney and Kaygusuz, 2010).
tions (Tanier-Gesner et al., 2014). Electricity can also be generated
using the flow of water. 2.1. Comparison of hydrokinetic technology with other technologies
Fig. 2 shows a rough timeline of the development and progress
of hydrokinetic systems. Based on the literature, energy har- As one of the promising renewable energy technologies, the
nessing from free stream rivers is attributed to Peter Garman, HECS offers an economical and reliable option for remote and off-
who developed the Water Current Turbine (WCT) (Peter Garman, grid areas, compared to conventional hydropower. Conventional
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Fig. 4. Hydrokinetic configuration under the turbine and non-turbine classification.

Fig. 5. Horizontal axis turbines.

Source: Adapted from Behrouzi
et al. (2016).

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W.I. Ibrahim, M.R. Mohamed, R.M.T.R. Ismail et al. Energy Reports 7 (2021) 2021–2042

Fig. 6. Vertical axis turbine.

Source: Adapted
from Behrouzi et al.
(2016).

hydropower requires a head (H) and flow rate (Q ), and the output construction. In contrast, HECS has little if any impact on flora
power is proportional to both parameters (Mishra et al., 2015). In and fauna (Petrie et al., 2014). According to Güney and Kay-
contrast, HECS does not required a head, large dam or reservoir to gusuz (2010), HECS is environmentally friendly and water-life
operate, and a free stream velocity as low as 0.3 m/s is acceptable friendly. For example, several researchers have investigated the
in order to rotate the small turbine (Sarma et al., 2014). impact of hydrokinetic turbines on fish. Romero-Gomez and Rich-
The construction of large conventional hydropower can have mond (2014) reported that the survival rates of fish following
a negative impact on the local environment and ecosystem. So- blade strike is higher than 96% and better than conventional
vacool and Bulan (2012) reported that more than 1600 pro- hydropower. Schramm et al. (2017) reported that the behaviour
tected plants and 300 rare and engendered species are threatened of fish was not altered due to the turbine sound emission.
due to the development of the Bakun hydropower in Sarawak. Even though the capacity for power generation of hydrokinetic
In addition, Izadyar et al. (2016) reported on the relocation of systems is small compared to conventional hydropower, using an
high numbers of indigenous people to enable hydropower plant array system or hydrokinetic farm, the capacity of HECS can be
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Fig. 7. The Cross-flow turbine produced by The RivGen and TidGen.

Source: Adapted from TidGen Power Generation (2019).

Fig. 8. The venturi and gravitational vortex turbine.

increased up to 100 MW (Laws and Epps, 2016). Several studies On the other hand, most researchers, such as Behrouzi et al.
have reported on hydrokinetic array systems. For example, Ven- (2016), Kumar and Chatterjee (2016) and Vermaak et al. (2014)
nell et al. (2015) proposed a design layout for macro–micro array have reported that a hydrokinetic system is similar to the wind
turbines in HECS. The controller and details design for a modular turbine system in terms of concept, operation and electrical hard-
hydrokinetic system connected to a smart grid was presented ware. In addition, Bahaj and Myers (2003) identified that with the
in Alvarez Alvarez et al. (2018). water velocity between 2–3 ms−1 , a hydrokinetic system is able
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Fig. 9. Non-turbine system for energy conversion in the water (Karin, 2019).

Fig. 10. The classification of hydrokinetic energy harnessing technology based on the working principle and energy conversion.

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Fig. 11. Various marine hydrokinetic technologies.

to generate four times the output power compared to a similarly WECS is typically between 5 to 6. In contrast, the TSR value for
rated wind turbine. In other words, the size of the hydrokinetic HECS is less than 2.5 to avoid cavitation (Salter, 2005). Further-
turbine could be much smaller than that of a WECS with the more, Romero-Gomez and Richmond (2014) reported that HECS
same output power. This is because the density of water is 800
is less dependent on weather conditions compared to WECS.
times that of air (Zupone et al., 2015; Marine Renewables Canada,
The direction and velocity of water are practically fixed and can
2018).
The significant difference between HECS and WECS is the be predicted much more reliably than wind velocity and direc-
range of Tip Speed Ratio (TSR). Ginter and Pieper (2011) reported tion (Shahsavarifard et al., 2015). On the contrary, the atmosphere
that HECS has a lower TSR than WECS. The optimal TSR for is a highly non-linear system in which the speed and direction of
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Fig. 12. Various river turbines in commercial and pre-commercial status.

Fig. 13. The classification of augmentation channels.

wind are influenced by changes in air pressure, air temperature Highly turbulence flow will affect the efficiency of the system and
and the earth’s rotation, amongst other factors (Barber, 2019). reduce the output power (Hamta et al., 2013). It will also increase
Conversely, Muljadi et al. (2016) found that the level of mechanical stresses, inducing significant fatigue of the physical
turbulence in the air and water are similar for HECS and WECS. components of both systems. The turbine design and the use of a
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Fig. 14. Augmentation Channel shape on top and side view.

Source: Adapted from Behrouzi et al. (2016).

control strategy, such as maximum power point tracking (MPPT), where R is the turbine radius and ωm is the turbine rotational
pitch control and robust control, are important for reducing the speed. The mechanical torque (Tm ) can be determined by Eq. (3).
mechanical stress and fatigue due to turbulent effects in harsh
marine environments. Pm
Tm = (3)
ωm
2.2. Structure of hydrokinetic technology
2.4. Hydrokinetic technology classification
A hydrokinetic system consists of a hydrokinetic turbine, a
As an emerging technology in renewable energy, the hydroki-
generator (Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG)),
netic system can be classified based on the energy conversion
power electronics converter, and battery or grid-tie connection
scheme and the working principle of the system. Khan et al.
system, as shown in Fig. 3. The flowing water is able to rotate the
(2009) and Lago et al. (2010) have classified the hydrokinetic
turbine at a certain velocity. The PMSG rotor is coupled to the tur-
technology into two classes based on the conversion scheme:
bine shaft directly without a gearing system, and the movement the first uses a turbine and the second is a non-turbine system.
automatically turns the generator rotor. The output power from Fig. 4. shows the hydrokinetic configuration under the turbine
the PMSG is controlled and converted by the power electronics and non-turbine classification.
conversion system. In the stand-alone system, the variable AC
(three-phase) system converts to the variable DC voltage through 2.4.1. Horizontal axis hydrokinetic turbines
three-phase rectifiers. Then, the DC–DC converter converts the Conversion schemes using turbines, such as the horizontal
variable DC voltage into a constant DC bus voltage. In contrast, axis, vertical axis, and cross-flow are widely used in HECS as
in the grid-tie connection system, an inverter is used to convert reported in Elbatran et al. (2015). According to Magagna and
the constant DC bus voltage into AC power prior transporting it Uihlein (2015), the horizontal axis turbine has dominated al-
to the grid system. most 76% of the research and development into turbine design
worldwide. In the horizontal axis turbine, the rotational axis is
2.3. Concept and formulae for hydrokinetic technology parallel or inclined towards the direction of the flowing water, as
shown in Fig. 5(a)–(d). The advantage of a horizontal axis turbine
is that the turbine has a self-starting capability for slow water
The efficacy of hydrokinetic turbines to generate power de-
currents (Koko et al., 2015). Nevertheless, the turbine clogs easily
pends on the water density (ρ ), turbine power coefficient, cross-
with debris in the river, and the cost of manufacturing is higher
sectional area, and water velocity (Vermaak et al., 2014; Sornes,
than that of the vertical axis turbine.
2010). The ideal kinetic energy of the hydrokinetic system is given
in Eq. (1)
2.4.2. Vertical axis hydrokinetic turbines
1 The vertical axis turbine is commonly used to extract the
Pm = ρ ACP V 3 (1) kinetic energy in the rivers (Behrouzi et al., 2016). The vertical-
2
axis turbines as shown in (Fig. 6) have the rotor’s axis of rotation
where Pm is the power developed by the rotor, A is the area swept
is at a right angle to the surface of the water (Khalid et al.,
out by the turbine rotor, V is the stream velocity, and Cp is the
2013). This property means that vertical-axis turbines can do
power coefficient of the turbine.
without a yawing device since it can handle incoming flows from
The Cp is the percentage of power that the turbine can extract
any direction. Besides, the turbines are quieter in operation, and
from the water flowing through the turbine. According to studies the mechanical complexity has been reduced. Furthermore, this
carried out by Betz, the theoretical maximum amount of power type of turbine requires no gearing coupling, and the costs will
that can be extracted from a fluid flow is about 59%, which is decrease because of placement above water (Birjandi et al., 2012).
referred to as the Betz limit (Vermaak et al., 2014). In addition,
The Cp of the turbine is a function of the Tip Speed Ratio (TSR) 2.4.3. Cross-flow hydrokinetic turbines
which is the ratio of the linear speed of the tip of the blade to The cross-flow turbine has an orthogonal rotor axis with re-
the water speed spect to the flow of water but parallel with reference to the sur-
ωm R face of the water (Laws and Epps, 2016). The cross-flow turbine
TSR(λ) = (2) can operate without the yawing mechanism, similar to vertical
V
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axis turbine (Bachant and Wosnik, 2015). In addition, cross-flow 3. Survey on hydrokinetic technology
turbines are preferable for use in hydrokinetic farms or arrays by
virtue of being more economical in terms of space, and the rect- Hydrokinetic technology moved from the prototype stage to
angular swept area will increase the output power (Cavagnaro, the pre-commercial stage as the technology started to emerge in
2016). This turbine is also operated at a lower speed, and as a 1990 (Lago et al., 2010; Zupone et al., 2015). Even though the
result it will reduce cavitation, lower noise levels and is safer for hydrokinetic system is a relatively new technology, the maturity
marine animals (Forbush et al., 2017). As noted in Saini and Saini in WECS technologies will help it to develop rapidly due to the
(2019) the configuration of a cross-flow turbine can be classified similarity in hardware components and operation. To the best
into three groups based on lift force, drag force and combination of the authors’ knowledge, at present no commercial marine
of lift and drag force. hydrokinetic system is operational. Nevertheless, most of the
Fig. 7 shows an example of the cross-flow turbine, developed manufacturers of marine hydrokinetic systems have tested pro-
by Ocean Renewable Power Company (ORPC). ORPC was founded totypes, especially under the European Marine Energy Centre Ltd
in 2004 in Florida and is one of the most active companies in (EMEC). In contrast, river hydrokinetic systems are available in
marine renewable energy. In 2015, ORPC successfully installed the market and have been installed in several remote community
the RivGen in a remote Alaskan village. The company also in- areas.
stalled the first grid-connected hydrokinetic system to harness
tidal energy, using the TidGen at Eastern Maine in 2012 (ORPC,
3.1. Hydrokinetic technology in tidal and marine settings
2019).
Hydrokinetic technology in tidal and marine settings has been
2.4.4. Venturi and gravitational vortex turbine
emerging since the early 1990s. In early development, the un-
The venturi turbine can be applied at low water velocity with
shallow water depth (Neill and Hashemi, 2018). As can be seen derwater Electric Kite was developed by UEK Corporation in the
in Fig. 8(a), the venturi concept is based on funnel-like devices. United States with the diffuser augmented solid pontoon (Vau-
Therefore, it will increase the water velocity and decrease the thier, 1988). The most significant success story of tidal energy
pressure subsequently driving a turbine. On the other hand, the comes from Marine Current Turbine Ltd (MCT). In the late 1990s,
vortex turbine is able to generate power at low head and low MCT started the Seaflow Project that was financed by the UK DTI,
flowrate using gravitational vortices (Nishi et al., 2020). The vor- the European Commission and the German government. In 2003,
tex turbine design required a round basin with a central drain as the Seaflow, shown in Fig. 11(a), was installed and rotated for
shown in Fig. 8(b) (Loots et al., 2015). The rotational energy of the first time with 300 kW output power. By November 2005,
the vortex will drive the generator to produce the energy. Seagen launched a twin-rotor turbine with capacity of more than
1000 kW output power, shown in Fig. 11(b) (Fraenkel, 2004).
2.4.5. Non-turbine hydrokinetic systems Currently, MCT is managed under the Atlantis turbine division
A non-turbine system can also be used to extract power from after acquisition by Siemens in 2015 (Tidal Turbines, 2019).
marine, river, or open channel flows. The flapping foil, as shown Verdant Power (Fig. 11(c)) was the first company to acquire
in Fig. 9(a) is inspired by the motion of animals due to their a commercial licence for a tidal power project in the United
aerodynamic manoeuvrability in water (Karbasian et al., 2016). States. From 2006 to 2009, the company tested six full scale
Fig. 9(b) depicts the physical design of the sails for extract- prototypes at the East River in New York City. Verdant Power
ing energy from the water flow. The model consists of a series has advanced the Kinetic Hydropower System (KHPS) to the
of sails that are connected and rotate in a rectangular motion. 5th Generation (Gen5) based on operational experience gained
As the water flows through the device, the sails produce a lift from the Roosevelt Island Tidal Energy (RITE) project (Kinetic
force perpendicular to the water flow that is able to power the Hydropower System, 2017). Scotrenewables Tidal Power Limited
generator (Arkel et al., 2011). launched SR250, a 250 kW prototype of a large floating tidal
According to Wang et al. (2020), a non-turbine system based turbine in 2011. In 2016, the company successfully launched the
on flow induced vibration (FIV) energy harvesting can be classi- 2 MW SR2000, shown in Fig. 11(d), which is the world’s largest
fied into four categories such as vortex-induced vibration (VIV), tidal energy converter (Scotrenewables Lmd, 2017). The com-
buffeting, galloping, and flutter. The VIVACE converter utilises pany claims that the floating tidal turbine can sustain 20 years
VIV, galloping, and flow-induced motions (FIM) as shown in of operation in a harsh marine environment, in contrast to a
Fig. 9(c). The early model of the VIVACE converter was a com-
bed-mounted system.
bination of a physical spring, damper, and generator (Lee et al.,
Open Hydro Canada was established in 2014 to commercialise
2011). The latest VIVACE is more complicated, with a cylinder, a
tidal technology. Several projects have been carried out success-
belt, pulley transmission, a generator and controller to control the
fully, such as 4 MW tidal array at the Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia,
damping and spring forces. The flutter flag induces von Karman
Canada, and 100 MW tidal farm at Antrim Coast, Northern Ireland
hydrodynamic instability and has a two-layer piezoelectric poly-
in 2012. OpenHydro’s design philosophy is to keep the turbine as
mer PVDF with an electrode sandwiched in between, as shown
in Fig. 9(d) (Pobering and Schwesinger, 2004). The differential simple as possible to reduce build and maintenance costs (Open-
pressure around the flag results in bending and will activate the Hydro, 2017). The RER Hydro TREK (Kinetic Energy Recovery
charge separation inside the piezoelectric materials to produce Turbine) (Laws and Epps, 2016), which is shown in Fig. 11(e), is
the energy. a ducted, multi-stage turbine. There are three rows of blades, in
On the other hand, Yuce and Muratoglu (2015) classified exist- which the first and last rows acting as stators (Hanson, 2014).
ing hydrokinetic technology according to the principle of opera- The TREK has been in full-scale testing since 2010. In 2012, RER
tion as shown in Fig. 10. Hydrokinetic systems are divided into Hydro partnered with Boeing, giving Boeing the rights to sell and
current energy converter (CEC) systems and wave energy con- market the RER hydro technology. The Nautricity Cormat, shown
verter (WEC) systems. River current energy conversion systems in Fig. 11(f), consists of two rows of contra-rotating blades and is
(RECS), tidal-in stream energy converters (TISEC) and marine moored by a single point at the front of the floating turbine. In
current turbines are placed under CEC. Oscillating water columns, this design, the turbine can align with the flow stream passively.
overtopping devices, and wave activated bodies fall under WEC. The Cormat is currently in commercial-scale testing.
Niebuhr et al. (2019) suggests that the classifications will be Table 1 lists recent manufacturer and pre-commercial testing
broadened since hydrokinetic energy technologies are continually projects, specifically those under The European Marine Energy
emerging in numerous applications. Centre Ltd (EMEC).
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Table 1
List of manufacturer and pre-commercial testing under EMEC.
a
Manufacturer Devices Turbine Project Requirements Illustration
specification

Verdant power Gen5 Free Flow 3- Blades Roosevelt Requires a rigid

(Free Flow System (FFS) horizontal axis Island Tidal structure
System, 2019) TRIFRAME-3 5 m, Energy (RITE) mounting to
Gen5 FFS >1.8 ms−1 support the
35 kW turbine at the
seabed.

Atlantis AR1500 3- Blades Meygen Project Need to build a

resources horizontal axis (2019) solid structure
(Atlantis 18 m, at the seabed
Resource Corp, 3.0 ms−1 to hold the
2019) 1500 kW turbine pillar.

Andritz Hydro MK1 3- Blades Pentland Firth, Placed at the

Hammerfest horizontal axis Scotland seabed,
(MK1, 2019) 18–26 m, requires a
undisclosed strong
1000–1500 kW structure to
support the
turbine.

Marine Current SeaGen 2-Blades Kyle Rhea, Requires a

Turbine- horizontal axis Scotland pilling at the
Siemens 18 m Anglesey seabed.
(Siemens, 2.4 ms−1 Skerries, Wales High cost of
2019) 1200 kW construction.

Orbital Marine SR-2000 2-Blades Lashy Sound, Requires a

Power Ltd. horizontal axis Orkney large floating
(SR2000, 2019) 16 m platform to
3 ms−1 hold the
2000 kW turbine.

(continued on next page)

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Table 1 (continued).
a
Manufacturer Devices Turbine Project Requirements Illustration
specification

Sustainable Platform for 3- Blades Grand Passage, Required to

Marine Energy Inshore Energy horizontal axis Nova Scotia build a floating
(SME) (Plat-I, (PLAT-I)-SIT 4–6.3 m platform to
2019) 250 (Hydro, 3.2–2.7 ms−1 hold the array
2018) 280 kW turbines.

Tocardo (2021) T1 2-Blades Afsluitdijk, Only suitable to

horizontal axis Netherlands be deployed at
-undisclosed (Power, 2019) the tide barrier,
100 kW required to
build a
complete
structure to
hold the
turbine.

Note:
a
Turbine specifications sequences as follows; number of blades, types, diameter, water velocity, output power.

3.2. Hydrokinetic technology in rivers a suitable location for energy harnessing is found. The turbine
efficiency can be improved by a duct/shroud, augmentation and
The river energy conversion systems employ the same prin- innovation in turbine design. On the other hand, studies related
ciple as the tidal systems, but with lower output power, and are to non-turbine energy conversion schemes and river channel
suitable for remote communities. The systems are based on float- bathymetry constitute other tracks for research in the field. Fur-
ing structures and are placed at river channels. Table 2 provides thermore, the MPPT and other control strategies are necessary to
the specifications of the hydrokinetic river turbines available on extract the maximum power and are also receiving attention.
the market.
Smart Hydro Power has developed two types of river turbines: 4.1. Assessment studies
the Smart Monofloat and the Smart Free Stream. Both turbines
have debris protection with a 5 kW under-water generator. Smart Several assessment and feasibility studies have investigated
Monofloat, as shown in Fig. 12(a), has a diffuser system to in- the potential for hydrokinetic energy harnessing from rivers. For
crease the velocity of the water. The Smart Free Stream, shown example, the assessment of small and medium size rivers in
in Fig. 12(b), is very reliable and requires almost no maintenance. Lithuania revealed that they are able to produce 79.4 GWh of
The turbine is installed on a river-bed or canal with the slightly electric energy per year (Sarauskiene, 2017). Initial assessment
curved blades to reduce debris effects. of river current energy in Canada indicated that the country
The Waterotor in Fig. 12(c) can produce a high energy output has a huge potential of up to 340 GW of energy (Marine Re-
while operating in shallow waters with low flow speeds (Watero- newables Canada, 2018; Jenkinson et al., 2014). Evaluation in
tor Energy Technologies, 2017). The system can extract the energy Alaska indicated an available power in the range 1900–6500 W
at as slow as 2 mph flow consistently when submerged in rivers m−2 (Kalnacs, 2017).
or canals. A rotating drum-like mechanism in the Waterotor Several assessment studies have focused on tailwater and wa-
generates mechanical power which is converted into electricity ter spillway. For example, the feasibility studies in the tailwaters
by on-board generators. The advantages of this invention are that of Nigeria’s hydropower station are able to produce from 228.7
it is possible to suspend the system from buoys or anchor it MW to 342.4 MW with 10, 25 and 50 array turbines (Ladokun
to the sea-floor. Moreover, the design requires no blades and et al., 2018). In addition, feasibility studies on hydrokinetic tur-
is safe for aquatic life (Neil, 2017). The Idénergie, a novel form bines at the spillway of a barrage gate showed an expected
of sub-water electricity generator, is shown in Fig. 12(d). The production of 14.88 MW (Shafei M.A.R et al., 2015). Table 3 sum-
system has high efficiency even at low water velocity. With the marises the recent assessment studies investigating the potential
fully-sealed housing the generator is able to produce more than of hydrokinetic systems.
500 W continuously, which converts to 12 kWh per day (River
Turbine, 2018). Details of the design, energy conversion, and 4.2. Broader research on hydrokinetic turbines
control method were not disclosed.
Turbines with a diffuser and augmentation channel are still
4. Research prospects in hydrokinetic technology the focus for research in the field (Song et al., 2019; Vaz et al.,
2019; Nunes et al., 2019). Augmentation channels can increase
Apart from new designs, most of the recent research in the the velocity of the water; this can in turn provide greater energy
hydrokinetic field is focused on site assessment, turbine efficiency extraction (Yuce and Muratoglu, 2015). The increase in pressure
improvement, and environmental impacts. Site assessment is im- within the confined area in the augmentation channel leads to
portant to determine the energy capacity and to ensure that an increase in the velocity of the flow. If the turbine has been
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Table 2
List of companies and associated hydrokinetic technologies for river systems.
Manufacturers Device name Turbine Requirements Ilustration
specification

Instream Instream Vertical axis Required a

Energy Systems vertical axis H-Darrieus floating
Corp. (Canada) hydrokinetic Pout = 25 kW flatform to
turbines support the
structure.

HydroQuest Hydroquest Twin vertical Big in size and

(France) river 1.4 axis H-Darrieus suitable for
Pout = up to river with large
40 kW cross-sectional.

Ocean RivGen power Cross-flow Pout Required a

Renewable system = 35 kW large floating
Power flatform
Company (USA)

Guinard P66 Horizontal axis Required a

Energies hydrokinetic turbine Pout = rigid structure
(France) turbine 3.5 kW to support the
turbine

(continued on next page)

placed on a channel, the velocity around the rotor will be higher Fig. 13 shows the channel shape from a top and side view of
than that of the free rotor. augmentation channels. Hybrid type augmentation is suitable for
Different terms are used widely to represent the augmentation vertical type turbines while the diffuser type is more suitable for
channels, including ducts, shrouds, wind-lenses, nozzles, concen- horizontal axis turbines. Several groups have produced systematic
trators, or diffusers, all used synonymously (Khan et al., 2006). reviews and analyses regarding diffuser-augmentation turbines.
For example in Nunes et al. (2020), it is found that the tip
The Betz limit does not apply to turbines with augmentation
speed ratio has an approximately 90% narrow operational interval
channels. Nevertheless, this limit is dependent on the inlet–outlet
by using the diffuser-augmentation on a horizontal-axis turbine.
pressure gradient as well as the volume of flow through the In Wong et al. (2017), the maximum output power increases
duct. This factor is dependent upon the duct’s shape and the dramatically using the vertical axis turbine augmentation sys-
duct-turbine area ratio (García et al., 2014). Fig. 12 shows the tem. In Bontempo and Manna (2020), a newly-developed axial
classification of various design augmentation channels. They can momentum theory approach and an extended version of the free-
be categorised into two types, namely hybrid and diffuser type. wake ring-vortex actuator-disk model for a diffuser-augmented
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Table 2 (continued).
Manufacturers Device name Turbine Requirements Ilustration
specification

New Energy EnviroGen 005 Vertical axis Required a

Corp (Canada) series H-Darrieus floating
Pout = 5.0 kW flatform to
support the
turbine

Idenergies Inc Riverlution Cross-flow Need to be

(Canada) turbine darrieus Pout deployed at the
= 500 W riverbed

Smart Hydro Smart Horizontal axis Required a

Power monofloat Pout 5.0 kW strong anchor
(Germany) point to
support the
structure

Table 3
List of the recent assessment location studies.
Authors Location Methodology Outcomes/comment Issues
D’Auteuil et al. Winnipeg River By Satellite Imagery from Suitable for river assessment at Higher cost due to
(2019) Canada Digital Globes & Image Finder. cold climate regions. usage of aerial/drone.
Then compared to aerial
photos.
Fouz et al. Mino Estuary, (NW Numerical model formulation Estimated to produce 2.26 Complicated due to
(2019) Spain & N Portugal) through analysis of space–time MWh during Winter & Spring. numerical model
distribution by Delft3D flow Power drop up to 69% during formulation.
model. summer & autumn.
Hazim et al. Morocco (Tarfaya, 3D Simulating Wave nearshore Estimated to produce 2514 W Higher cost due to 3D
(2019) El-Jadida and (SWAN). m−2 at stream velocity >2.5 software.
Tangier) ms−1 .
Santos et al. Amazon river basin Collecting bathymetric river Estimated to produce 109.5 kW Non-competitive
(2019) data such as sectional area, and 31.5 kW at the Jamari and because LCOE is still
depth & velocity. Curua Ana river respectively. high ($80–$123
/MWh).

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Table 4
List of recent turbine developments and improvements in hydrokinetic research.
Authors Research topic Notes/comment/issues Illustration

Mosbahi A new deflector • A new deflector system

et al. system design for design for three blade Helical
(2019) three blade Helical Savonius hydrokinetic turbine
Savonius turbine. to improve the power
coefficient from 0.125 to 0.14
at 0.7 TSR.

• Six configurations of the

deflector system have been
studied using CFD in Ansys
Fluent 17 to determine the
optimal configuration.
• Increases the cost of the
turbine.

Patel Effect on different • Investigated the effect of

et al. geometries of channel hump at the bottom of channel
(2019) on Savonius turbine and channel sidewall location
on the Savonius turbine.

• The effect of hump will

increase the output power up
to 83%.
• High cost, requires the study
and imaging of riverbed.

Abutunis Blade Element • Proposed the multilayer

et al. Momentum (BEM) perceptron Neural Network
(2019) improvement for (MLP-NN) algorithm for blade
horizontal axis element momentum (BEM) to
hydrokinetic turbine overcome convergence issues
and improve the turbine
structure.

(continued on next page)

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W.I. Ibrahim, M.R. Mohamed, R.M.T.R. Ismail et al. Energy Reports 7 (2021) 2021–2042

Table 4 (continued).
Authors Research topic Notes/comment/issues Illustration
• Complicated programming
and requires training.

Vaz et al. Assessment of the • Investigated the effect of

(2019) wind and diffuser on the powertrain
hydrokinetic turbine resistance, dissipative torque
with a diffuser and starting torque.

• The finding is the use of

diffuser will increase the
dissipative torque of the
turbine powertrain.
• The diffuser turbine has a
27% lower starting torque
compared to a bare turbine.

Song Analysis of a • Investigated the Micro

et al. diffuser-augmented horizontal axis diffuser turbine
(2019) turbine (MHDT) through CFD and
experiment.

• The Cp is increased up to
45% with the diffuser
compared to the bare turbine.
• High cost of design due to
double buoyancy tube.

Nunes Diffuser enhanced • Evaluates two geometries of

et al. propeller rear diffuser for 4-blades
(2019) horizontal axis turbines.

• The turbine’s power

coefficient is improved
between 48% and 79%.
• High cost and reliability
problems.

wind turbine is proposed. The proposed diffuser-augmentation is array design. The interaction between the turbine wakes and
based on a divided duct surface, into an internal and external part sediment has also been investigated in Musa et al. (2019). A
(see Fig. 14). summary of recent developments and advances in hydrokinetic
On the other hand, wake studies also constitute a research research is shown in Table 4.
trend in hydrokinetic systems. For example, Lust et al. (2020)
presented a survey of the near wake of the horizontal axis in the 4.3. Other research trends in hydrokinetic systems
presence of surface gravity waves. Dou et al. (2019) proposed a
wake model to predict the turbine wake in a yawed condition. Hydrokinetic research is not limited to assessment studies
The wake measurement data from Guerra and Thomson (2019) and turbine improvement but also extends to non-turbine en-
can be used for numerical validation and hydrokinetic turbine ergy conversion and environmental studies. Several groups have
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Table 5
Various research trend in the hydrokinetic system.
Authors Research topic Notes/comment/issues Illustration

Arias and Oscillating membrane based • Proposed a novel design of an

De Las Heras for hydrokinetic energy oscillating-membrane induced by a water
(2019) extraction. flow.

• Designed to harness the energy from

narrow channels, i.e. a place not suitable
for using a turbine.
• Able to generate 30 mW cm−2 at 2.0 m
s−1 water velocity.
• Very small output power.

Sun and Bio-inspired adaptive damping • Studied the one-degree-of-freedom

Bernitsas (2019) for nor-turbine hydrokinetic cylinder-oscillator which is an application
based Flow-induced oscillation of Flow Induced Oscillation (FIO).
(FIO).

• Proposed a non-linear adaptive damping

and linear spring stiffness for Vortex
induced vibration (VIV) application.
• Requires a complicated mechanism and
structure.

(continued on next page)

investigated different concepts for non-turbine energy conver- On the other hand, several researchers have studied the effects
sion systems in hydrokinetic technologies, such as using a mem- of hydrokinetic technologies on ecological systems (Musa et al.,
brane (Arias and De Las Heras, 2019), a flapping foil (Duarte et al., 2019; Shields et al., 2011; Bonar and Bryden, 2015; Saini and
2019) and two tandem flapping hydrofoils (Ding et al., 2019). Saini, 2020; Khaled et al., 2021; Hill, 2015). In Shields et al. (2011)
Different channel geometries at the bottom of the channel and and Bonar and Bryden (2015) a detailed discussion regarding the
channel sidewall have been investigated by Patel et al. (2019). ecological impacts of marine energy extraction are presented. As
noted in Saini and Saini (2020), almost 20% of bed level rises
Musa et al. (2019) investigated river channel bathymetry and sed-
due to hydrokinetic turbine deployment. The interaction between
iment effect on the siting placement of the hydrokinetic turbine.
sediment transport and the hydrokinetic turbine is investigated
Furthermore, Kirke (2019) studied the deployment of hydroki- in Khaled et al. (2021) and Hill (2015). This study indicates
netic turbines in rivers and concluded that the cost per kW of that the asymmetric turbine installation might introduce bed
the technology is too high. In contrast, the LCOE of hydrokinetic topography deformation and change the bedform migration ve-
power generation in the remote communities area at the Amazon locities. Furthermore, the effect of hydrokinetic turbines on fish
River basin is up to USD125/MWh (Santos et al., 2019). Table 5 has been investigated. Romero-Gomez and Richmond (2014) have
shows a summary of these and other research efforts. reported that fish survival rates on hydrokinetic systems due to
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Table 5 (continued).
Authors Research topic Notes/comment/issues Illustration

Duarte et al. Flapping foil hydrokinetic • A fully passive flapping foils prototype
(2019) turbine. has been designed and investigated based
on Reynolds number of 6 × 104 .

• To identify the condition on the pitching

axis location (Iθ ) and pitching stiffness (Kθ ).
• Complicated to determine the best angle

Xu et al. (2019) Tandem flapping hydrofoils. • Design, built and tested the two flapping
in-tandem configuration.

• Two flapping tandems improve the

efficiency to 36.6%.
• The Tandem flapping is quite in
operation, has less impact on the
environment, and is suitable for a shallow
water depth and low water speed.
• Requires a complex mechanism and
structure.

Ding et al. Interactive two tandem • Investigated two rough, tandem cylinders
(2019) cylinder for hydrokinetic on spring of flow induce oscillation (FIO) at
Reynolds number 30 000 ≤ Re ≤ 120 000.

• The results are validated with

experimental data in LTFSW channel and
comparison how two tandem-cylinder will
improve the efficiency.
• The efficiency can improved up to 63%
and 54% for spacing ratio, d/D = 2.0 and
d/D = 2.57 respectively.
• High cost, required twin tandem.

(continued on next page)

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W.I. Ibrahim, M.R. Mohamed, R.M.T.R. Ismail et al. Energy Reports 7 (2021) 2021–2042

Table 5 (continued).
Authors Research topic Notes/comment/issues Illustration

Tandon et al. Mobile underwater turbine • Proposed a novel hybrid of Autonomous

(2019) system Underwater Vehicles (AUV) and
Hydrokinetic turbine.

• A solution to harness the energy at the

Gulf stream due to meandering stream.
• High cost and complex design

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