EXPERIMENT 1:

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES OF SOIL, WATER, AIR AND NOISE POLLUTIONS

A: SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF SOIL
Objectives
• To evaluate fertility status of soil
• To assess salinity/sodicity status of soil
• To monitor contamination of soil
• To assess physical, chemical and biological properties of a soil

Pre-sampling Requirements
1. Before sampling be sure to have
a. Map of the sampling site
b. Cropping history of the sampling site
c. History of fertilizer/amendment applications
d. Field notebook and marker

2. Tools for soil sampling

a. Sampling bags
b. Buckets
c. Augers/soil sampler

Method of sampling
1. Collect randomly 4 to 5 samples from the soil at specific depth (e.g. 0-15 cm and 15-30
cm depth) depending upon the purpose of analysis.
2. Remove large stones, sticks and vegetation from the samples.
3. Combine these 4-5 samples of same depth by mixing the soil and make one composite
sample for each depth.
4. Bring the sample to the lab.
5. Choose appropriate analytical methods based on the pollutants of interest.
6. Ensure the laboratory follows standard procedures and is accredited.

Sample size
Approximately 1 kg composite sample is sufficient.
Sample preparation
1. Air dry the samples
2. Grind the samples if needed
3. Sieve the soil through 2 mm sieve

Sample labelling
A label should have the following information
1. Date of collection
2. Depth of collection
3. Name of the collector
4. Geographical information of the sampling area

Sample storage
The labelled samples should be stored at 4 °C in a refrigerator
 B: SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF WATER

Objectives

• To assess the quality of irrigation water and its effects on soil

• To evaluate the suitability of water for crop use
• To know the nature, type and amount of salts present in the water
• To recommend suitable measures for using available water

Methods of sampling

1. Sample should be true representative of the water to be analyzed.

2. If new tubewell is being installed, water sample should be collected from every 50 feet depth.
3. In case of existing tubewell, it should be run for 15-20 minutes before taking the sample. Sample
should be collected from the discharge pipe and not from the water channel.
4. Samples from the canals, rivers and streams should be taken from running water. The properties
of samples may vary due to the following factors.
• Depth of sampling.
• Rate of flow of water.
• Distance from the bank.
• Time of the year (season).
5. It is best to take an integrated sample from top to bottom of the water body.
Sample size
Analysis of water for irrigation purpose requires at least one liter of water.

Sample labelling
Samples should be labelled with:
1. Name of canal / stream/ tubewell/tap water
2. Date of collection
3. Depth of collection
4. Name of the collector
5. Geographical information of the sampling area

Sample storage
1. Clean plastic/glass bottles should be rinsed two to three times with water to be collected.
2. Fill the bottle up to the top and cap tightly.
3. The bottles should not be washed with any detergent.
4. Sample should be refrigerated and analyzed as quickly as possible so that chemical
changes during storage can be minimized.
5. Sample should be analyzed preferably within seven days of collection.
 C: SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF AIR
Objective:
The purpose of air pollution sampling may be;

• Regulatory compliance
• Health assessments
• General environmental monitoring.

Selection of Sampling Sites:

Identify locations based on potential sources of pollution, population density, and regulatory
requirements. Ensure a representative sample by considering factors like wind direction and
topography.

Sampling Equipment:
Choose appropriate air samplers based on the pollutants of interest (e.g., particulate matter, gases).

• High-volume samplers (High-volume air sampler is used to collect particulate matter

(PM2.5 and PM10) samples such as HAZ-SCANNER).
• Passive samplers (Passive air sampler are used for the collection of persistent organic
pollutants (POPs) in ambient air).
• Real-time monitoring instruments such as Ozone Meter, Carbon Monoxide Meter, Sulphur
Dioxide Meter, Nitrogen Dioxide Meter.

Sampling Equipment Calibration:

• Calibrate all sampling equipment regularly to ensure accurate measurements.
• Calibration should be performed using certified standards.
• Implement QA/QC measures to ensure the reliability of data. This includes using blank
samples, field duplicates, and certified reference materials.

Sampling and Analysis:

• Determine the appropriate sampling duration, considering the nature of pollutants,
regulatory guidelines, and project objectives. It may range from short-term (hours) to long-
term (months).
 • Install the sampling instrument in the selected area and note the readings for specific
intervals (e.g. 1 hour) for the period of 24 hours.
• To calculate Air Quality Index (AQI) measure the PM2.5, PM10 O3, CO, SO2 and NO2 using
high volume sampler (HAZ-SCANNER) and real time air monitoring instruments (Ozone
Meter, Carbon Monoxide Meter, Sulphur Dioxide Meter, Nitrogen Dioxide Meter).
• Monitor and document weather conditions during sampling. Factors such as temperature,
humidity, and wind speed can influence pollutant concentrations.
• Employ appropriate statistical and analytical methods to interpret the collected data in the
form of Air Quality Index (AQI). Compare results with regulatory standards or baseline
values to assess the impact of air pollution.

Labelling:
Record essential information during sampling, including date, time, location, weather conditions
and any unusual events that may affect the data.
 D: SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF NOISE
Objectives
• To measure the noisiness in specific areas/location
• To identify the permissible limit of noise
• For regulatory compliance and health assessment

Select Sampling Locations:

Choose diverse locations representing various noise sources, such as busy streets, industrial areas,
residential neighborhoods and recreational spaces.

Time of Sampling:
Conduct measurements during different times of the day to account for variations in noise levels.
Include peak hours and quieter periods.

Equipment Setup:
• Use a calibrated Sound Level Meter (SLM) for accurate measurements
• Ensure it complies with relevant standards
• Place the microphone of the SLM at ear height
• Approximately 1.2 to 1.5 meters above the ground

Measurement Duration:
• Take measurements over a sufficient duration to capture variations
• Short-term measurements (15-30 minutes) are suitable for quick assessments
• Long-term measurements (24 hours) provide a comprehensive overview

Frequency Analysis:
• Conduct frequency analysis to identify specific noise components. This can help in
pinpointing sources and planning mitigation strategies.

Source Identification:
• Note potential noise sources in the vicinity during measurements
• Identify specific activities or machinery contributing to the noise levels
Data Analysis:
• Analyze the collected data using appropriate statistical methods
• Calculate average noise levels, peak levels, and any other relevant metrics

Comparison with Standards:

• Compare the measured noise levels with applicable noise standards or guidelines to
determine if the observed levels exceed acceptable limits.

Calibration:
• Calibrate the SLM before each session according to the manufacturer's guidelines. This
ensures accurate and reliable measurements.
EXPERIMENT 2:
IDENTIFICATION OF PERMISSIBLE LIMITS FOR SOIL, WATER, AIR AND NOISE
POLLUTION

A: PERMISSIBLE LIMITS OF POLLUTANTS IN SOIL

Pollutant Permissible Limit Pollutant Permissible Limit

(ppm) (ppm)
Arsenic 20 Manganese 2000
Cadmium 3 Lead 50
Chromium 100 Nickel 100
Copper 100 Zinc 300

B1: PERMISSIBLE LIMITS OF POLLUTANTS IN DRINKING WATER

Parameter Permissible Permissible Parameter Permissible Permissible

Limit by Limit by Limit by Limit by
WHO NEQS (Pak) WHO NEQS (Pak)
pH 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5 NO3 50 50
EC 400 1000 Ca 75 75
TDS 1000 1000 Mg 50 50
SO4 400 400 Na 200 200
Cl 250 250 K 12 12
Fe 0.3 0.3 Cr 0.05 0.05
Cu 2 2 Ni 0.02 0.02
Zn 3 5 Pb 0.01 0.05
As 0.01 0.05 Cd 0.003 0.01
*All parameters are in mg/L except pH and EC = µS/cm.

WHO = World Health Organization

NEQS = National Environmental Quality Standards
B2: PERMISSIBLE LIMITS Of IRRIGATION WATER QUALITY ATTRIBUTES

Parameter Permissible Limit by WHO

TSS (Total Soluble Salts) Less than 15 meL-1
SAR (Sodium Adsorption Ratio) Less than 10 (mmolL-1)1/2
RSC (Residual Sodium Carbonates) Less than 2.25 meL-1

C: PERMISSIBLE LIMITS OF AIR POLLUTANTS

Pollutant Average Time Guideline Values (µg/m3)

PM2.5 24 hours 15
PM10 24 hours 45
O3 08 hours 100
CO 24 hours 4
SO2 24 hours 40
NO2 24 hours 25

D: PERMISSIBLE LIMITS OF NOISE POLLUTION

Area Day (dB) Night (dB)

Industrial area 75 65
Commercial area 65 55
Residential area 50 45
Sensitive areas (hospitals, 50 40
educational institutes etc.)
EXPERIMENT 3:
WEATHER AND CLIMATE DATA COLLECTION
NOTE: Students are assigned to calculate above mentioned data in tabulated form in their practical
notebook for at least two-week duration on their local residential location using Weather
Application available on mobile devices.
EXPERIMENT 4:
IDENTIFICATION AND USES OF DIFFERENT INSTRUMENTS USED TO MONITOR
ENVIRONMENT QUALITY
1. Electrical Conductivity (EC) Meter
• EC meter is used to measure soluble salts present in sample solution (Soil, Water).
• It is used to quantify water on the basis of brackishness/salty nature.
2. pH Meter
• pH meter is used to measure the pH of a sample solution (pH is the -ve log of H+ activity).
• It categorizes whether a solution is acidic (pH<7), basic (pH>7) or neutral (pH=7)
3. Flame Photometer
• Flame Photometer is used to simultaneously detect and display five ions (K, Na, Li, Ca,
and Ba) and to accurately determine the concentration of each within a given substance.
4. Spectrophotometer
• It is used to determine the concentrations of elements/ions which are colored.
• It is also used to measure water quality indicators such as turbidity, organic matter content,
iron, phosphorus, plant enzymes and the presence of other pollutants.
• Spectrophotometers are a valuable tool for monitoring nitrogen and phosphorus levels in
fertilizers and soil compounds.
5. Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
• Atomic spectroscopy is primarily used for the determination of trace metals (As, Pb, Cd,
Ni, Cr, Zn) in many types of samples composed of organic or inorganic matrices.
• More than 60 elements of the periodic table can be detected by AAS.
 6. Wind Van/Anemometer

It is used to detect;

• Wind direction
• Wind speed
7. Turbidity Meter
• It is used to measure the turbidity of water (turbidity is cloudiness or clarity of water or
presence of particulate matter/sand, silt, clay in water).
• Determine purity of water in terms of suspended particles.
8. TDS (Total Dissolved Solids) Meter
• Used to measure total dissolved solids in water.
9. High Performance Liquid Chromatographer (HPLC)
• HPLC is a chromatic technique that can separate a mixture of compounds.
• It is used to identify, quantify and purify the individual components of the mixture.
10. Gas Chromatography (GC)
• Gas chromatography is an analytical technique used to separate and detect the chemical
components of a sample mixture to determine their presence or absence and/or quantities.
• These chemical components are usually organic molecules or gases.
11. Noise Meter
• It is usually used for assessing noise in work environments, basic environmental
measurements, entertainment noise, construction noise and vehicle noise.
12. Haze Meter
• Haze meter is an instrument used to measure the haze value of environment (clarity of
environment).
• Haze is the light-transmitting and light scattering characteristics of transparent materials.
• The lower the haze value, the higher the clarity.
13. DO (Dissolved Oxygen) Meter
• A dissolved oxygen meter measures the amount of oxygen in the water when it is in its
dissolved form.
14. BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand) Meter
• BOD meter is commonly used in wastewater treatment plants, sewage treatment plants,
and other industrial and municipal environments to monitor and optimize the biological
treatment process.
15. COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) Meter
• COD is often used as a measurement of pollutants in water, wastewater
• and aqueous hazardous wastes. One application of the COD meter is to measure soluble
COD in wastewater, since characterization of total COD in wastewater is critical for
accurate modeling of biotransformation in wastewater treatment processes.
EXPERIMENT 5:
LABORATORY/FIELD/INDUSTRY VISITS

Students who have performed any visit of Laboratories/Industries/Fields for practical

demonstration for outlines relevant to Introduction to Environmental Science course can elaborate
their visit activities in this section, If any.