MAT1100 LECTURE NOTES

2.1 FUNCTIONS

Relations
Definition 2.1.1 Let A and B be two sets. Then the product (or Cartesian) product of A
and B, written 𝐴 × 𝐵 and read “A cross B”, is the set of all ordered pairs (𝑎, 𝑏) such that
𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵. i.e.
𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵}.
Example 2.1.1 Let 𝐴 = {1,2} and 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}. Then
𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(1, 𝑎), (1, 𝑏), (1, 𝑐), (2, 𝑎), (2, 𝑏), (2, 𝑐)}.
B× 𝐴 = {(𝑎, 1), (𝑎, 2), (𝑏, 1), (𝑏, 2), (𝑐, 1), (𝑐, 2)}.
𝐴 × 𝐴 = 𝐴2 = {(1,1), (1,2), (2,1), (2,2)}.

NOTE: ℝ2 = ℝ × ℝ is the set of ordered pairs of real numbers.

Definition 2.1.2 Let A and B be two sets. Then a binary relation or, simply a relation
from A to B is a subset of 𝐴 × 𝐵. i.e. R is a relation from A to B if it is the set
of all ordered pairs (𝑎, 𝑏) such that 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵. i.e.
𝑅 = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵}
When (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅 we say a is R-related to b and we write 𝑎𝑅𝑏.

Example 2.1.2 Let 𝐴 = {1,2,3} and 𝐵 = {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧} and let 𝑅 = {(1, 𝑦), (1, 𝑧), (3, 𝑦)}.
Then R is a relation from A to B since
𝑅 ⊆ 𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(1, 𝑥), (1, 𝑦), (1, 𝑧), (2, 𝑥), (2, 𝑦), (2, 𝑧), (3, 𝑥), (3, 𝑦), (3, 𝑧)}.

The set of all the first components of the ordered pairs is called the domain of the
relation and the set of all the second components of the ordered pairs is called the range
of the relation.

The domain of R in example 2.2.2 is {1,3} and the range is {𝑦, 𝑧}.

NOTE: The domain of R is a subset of A and the range of R is the subset of B.

Relations can be defined by an equation or a rule or a table or an arrow diagram.

Example 2.1.3 Let the relation 𝑅: 𝐴 → 𝐵 be defined by

𝑅 = {(1,3), (2,6), (3,9), (4,12)}.
Then R can be defined by 𝑦 = 3𝑥 where 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 = {1,2,3,4} and 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵 = {3,6,9,12}.
It can also be defined using an arrow diagram

A R B
1 3
2 6
3 9
4 12

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The relation can also be defined using the Cartesian coordinate system.
y
12 ∗ (4,12)

9 ∗ (3,9)

6 ∗ (2,6)

3 ∗ (1,3)

x
O 1 2 3 4

The domain of R is the set {1,2,3,4} and its range is {3,6,9,12}.

Example 2.1.4 Find the domain and range of each relation whose defining rule and
graph is given below:

y2 x2
(a)  1 (b) x  y 2  3
16 9

y y

O x O x

Solution: (a) The domain of R is ℝ and the range is (−∞, −4] ∪ [4, ∞)
(b) The domain of ℝ is [−3, ∞) and the range is ℝ.
Functions
Definition 2.1.3 Let X and Y be two sets. Then a function f from X into Y is a rule that
assigns each element 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 to unique (one and only one) element 𝑦 ∈ 𝑌. The notation
for the function is 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌. This is read as f maps X into Y.
Example 2.5 Let 𝑋 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑}and 𝐵 = {𝑤, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧}. Then the relation defined by the
arrow diagram
(a) (b)
X Y X Y
a w a w

b x b x

c y c y

d z d z

is a function since each is not a function since there is

element in X is related to an element b in X which is related
only one element in Y to more than one element in Y.

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(c) (d)
X Y X Y
a w a w

b x b x

c y c y

d z d

is a function since each is not a function since there is

element in X is related to an element c in X which is not related
only one element in Y to any element in Y.

(e)
X Y
a

b
z
c

is a function since each

element in X is related to
only one element in Y.

For the function f the unique element 𝑦 ∈ 𝑌 related to 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 is called the image of x and
it is written 𝑓(𝑥). The set of images is called the range of (or image) of f and is denoted
by Ran(f) (or Im(f)). The domain of f is X. The elements of the domain corresponding to
the images are called the pre-images. If X and Y are sets of real numbers, 𝑓(𝑥) ∈ ℝ and
is the value of the function f at x.

NOTE: 1. To every function 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌 there corresponds the relation {(𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥)): 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋}

in 𝐴 × 𝐵 i.e. {(𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥)): 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋} ⊆ 𝐴 × 𝐵.
2. 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌 is a function if each 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 appears as the first coordinate in exactly
one ordered pair (𝑥, 𝑦) in f.
3. The range of f is denoted by 𝑓(𝑋) and is equal to 𝑓(𝑋) = {𝑓(𝑥): 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋}.

Example 2.1.6 Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be a function which relates to each real number its square.
1. This function can be presented as an equation as: For each ∈ ℝ, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 . i.e.
{(𝑥, 𝑥 2 ): 𝑥 ∈ ℝ}. It is said to be a real valued function.

2. The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 can also be represented as a graph as follows:

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 y

𝑦 = 𝑥2

O x

3. The domain of the function is ℝ and its range is 𝑓(ℝ) = {𝑥 2 : 𝑥 ∈ ℝ}.

Definition 2.1.4 A function 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌 is said to be one-to-one (or one-one or 1-1) if

each element in X corresponds to a distinct image in Y. i.e. f is one-to-one if
𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) ⇒ 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 .

Example 2.7 (a) The function 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌 defined by an arrow diagram shown below is
one-one since there is a one to one correspondence between elements of set X and those
of set Y.
X Y

𝑥1 𝑦1

𝑥2 𝑦2

𝑥3 𝑦3

𝑥3 𝑦3

(b) The function 𝑓: [0, ∞) → [0, ∞) defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 is one-one.

𝑦 = √𝑥

x
O

Example 2.1.8 Prove that the function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 is one to-to-
one.

Proof: Let 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ ℝ. We need to show that 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) ⇒ 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 .

Now,
𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) ⇒ √𝑥1 = √𝑥2
Squaring both sides we have
(√𝑥1 )2 = (√𝑥2 )2 ⇒ 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 .

Hence, the function as defined is one-to-one.

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Example 2.1.9 Prove that the function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2

𝑦 = 𝑥2

𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 )

x
𝑥1 = −𝑥2 O 𝑥2
is not one-to-one.

Proof: Let 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ ℝ. Then

𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) ⇒ (𝑥1 )2 = (𝑥2 )2 ⇒ 𝑥1 = ±√(𝑥2 )2 = ±𝑥2 .
i.e. 𝑥1 = +𝑥2 and 𝑥1 = −𝑥2 ⇒ two different element in the domain are
mapped to the same element in the range. Hence the function is not one-to-
one.

Definition 2.1.5 A function 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌 is said to be many to one if there are at least two
distinct elements 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ 𝑋 such that 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ).

For example,
X Y
𝑥1 f

𝑥2 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 )

𝑥3 𝑓(𝑥3 )

is a many to one function.

Definition 2.1.6 A function 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌 is said to be onto if every 𝑦 ∈ 𝑌 is the image of

some 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋, i.e. if 𝑦 ∈ 𝑌 ⇒ there exists 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 for which 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦.

Note that if f is onto, then 𝑓(𝑋) = 𝑌.

Example 2.1.10 The following functions as defined are onto functions:

(a) (b)
X f Y X Y
a w a f

b x b z

c y c

d z d

is an onto function since is an onto function since

each element in Y is related to each element in Y is related to
some element in X or 𝑓(𝑋) = 𝑌. some element in X or 𝑓(𝑋) = 𝑌.

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 But the function defined below is not onto since there is an element in 𝑧 ∈ 𝑌 which is
not related to any of the elements in X.

X Y
a f w

b x

c y

d z

Inverse functions

The inverse of the function 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌 is the function which maps the elements of Y into
the elements of X and it is denoted by 𝑓 −1 : 𝑌 → 𝑋, as shown in the arrow diagram
below:
X Y

𝑓
*x *𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑓 −1

i.e. if 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋, then 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) ∈ 𝑌, and for 𝑦 ∈ 𝑌, 𝑓 −1 (𝑦) = 𝑓 −1 (𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋.

NOTE: 1. A function 𝑓 has an inverse function 𝑓 −1 if and only if it is one-to-one and

onto, and
2. The domain of the inverse function 𝑓 −1 is the range of 𝑓 and the range of
𝑓 −1 is the domain of 𝑓.

To find the inverse of a given function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), interchange x and y so that 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑦),
and change the subject of the formula back to y and obtain 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥).

Example 2.1.11 Find the inverse of the function

2−𝑥 2
𝑓(𝑥) = ,𝑥≠− .
3𝑥+2 3

2−𝑥 2−𝑦
Solution: Let 𝑦 = . Then interchange x and y to obtain 𝑥 = .
3𝑥+2 3𝑦+2

Make y the subject of the formula:

𝑥(3𝑦 + 2) = 2 − 𝑦
3𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑥 = 2 − 𝑦
3𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 = 2 − 2𝑥
𝑦(3𝑥 + 1) = 2 − 2𝑥
2−2𝑥
𝑦=
3𝑥+1
−1 2−2𝑥 1
Therefore, 𝑓 (𝑥) = ,𝑥≠− .
3𝑥+1 3

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NOTE: The domain of the inverse function 𝑓 −1of f in Example 2.11 is
1
𝐷𝑓−1 = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 ≠ − 3}.

Composite functions

Definition 2.7 Consider functions 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌 and 𝑔: 𝑌 → 𝑍 i.e. where the range of the
of f is the domain of 𝑔. Pictorially is shown below:
f g
X Y  Z .
or X Y Z

f
𝑔
∗x ∗ 𝑓(𝑥) ∗ 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥))

𝑔 f
Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋. Then the image of x under f is 𝑓(𝑥) ∈ 𝑌 (the domain of 𝑔). Accordingly, we
can find the image of 𝑓(𝑥) under 𝑔, which is 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) ∈ 𝑍. Thus the rule which assigns
each element x in X an element 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) in Z is called the composition function of f and
𝑔, and it is denoted by 𝑔  f . Briefly, g  f : X  Z and it is defined by

( g  f )( x)  g[ f ( x)]
The function f  g is defined by
( f  g )( x)  f [ g ( x)]
Example 2.1.12 Let the function f be defined by f ( x)  3x  5 and the function 𝑔 by
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 . Find (a) ( g  f )( x) (b) ( g  f )(2) (c) ( f  g )( x) (d) ( f  g )(2) .
Solutions:
(a) (𝑔𝑜𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔[𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑔(3𝑥 − 5) = (3𝑥 − 5)2
(b) (𝑔𝑜𝑓)(−2) = (3(−2) − 5)2 = (−11)2 = 121
(c) (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓(𝑥 2 ) = 3(𝑥 2 ) − 5 = 3𝑥 2 − 5
(d) (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(−2) = 3(−2)2 − 5 = 12 − 5 = 7

Note that ( g  f )( x)  ( f  g )( x) i.e. the composition of function is not commutative.

Exercise Let f ( x)  3x  4 . Show that

1
(a) ( f  f )( x) = 𝑥
1
(b) ( f  f )( x) = 𝑥

1 1
In general for all functions f, ( f  f )( x) = 𝑥 = ( f  f )( x) = 𝑥.

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The composition of functions can be extended to a composite of more than two
functions.
For example, if f : W  X , g : X  Y and h : Y  Z , then h  ( g  f ) is defined
by
h  ( g  f )( x)  h{g[ f ( x)]} .
Example 2.1.13 Let the function f be defined by f ( x)  5  3x , the function 𝑔 by
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2 and ℎ by ℎ(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2. Find (a) [h  ( g  f )]( x) (b) [(h  g )  f ]( x) .

Solutions:
(a) (𝑔𝑜𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔[𝑓(𝑥)] = (5 − 3𝑥) + 2 = 7 − 3𝑥
[ℎ𝑜(𝑔𝑜𝑓)](𝑥) = ℎ[(𝑔𝑜𝑓)(𝑥)] = ℎ(7 − 3𝑥) = 2(7 − 3𝑥)2

(b) (ℎ𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) = ℎ[𝑔(𝑥)] = ℎ(𝑥 + 2) = 2(𝑥 + 2)2

[(ℎ𝑜𝑔)𝑜𝑓](𝑥) = (ℎ𝑜𝑔)[𝑓(𝑥)] = (ℎ𝑜𝑔)[5 − 3𝑥] = [2(5 − 3𝑥 + 2)2 ]
= 2(7 − 3𝑥)2 .

Note that h  ( g  f )( x)  [(h  g )  f ]( x) .

Domain of a composite function

𝑥−3 𝑥−4
Example 2.1.14 Let 𝑓(𝑥) = and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + . Find the domain of the
𝑥 𝑥−1
following composite functions:
(i) 𝑓𝑜𝑔 (ii) 𝑔𝑜𝑓.

Solution: (i)
 x 4
x  3
 x 4  x 1 
( fog )( x)  f [ g ( x)]  f x  
 x 1  x4
x
x 1
x  x  x  4  3( x  1)
2

x2  x  x  4
x 2  3x  1

x2  4
x 2  4x  2

( x  2)( x  2)

Now, fog is not defined at x  2, x  2 and 𝑔(𝑥) is not defined at x  1 .

This means that the domain of 𝑓𝑜𝑔 is {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 ≠ −2,1,2}.

 x  3
 4
 x  3 x  3  x 
(ii) ( gof )( x)  g[ f ( x)]  g   
 x  x  x  3
  1
 x 

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 x  3  4x
x3 x x  3 3x  3
   
x x 3 x x 3
x
𝑥 2 +2𝑥−3
=
𝑥
Now, gof is not defined at x  0 , and 𝑓(𝑥) is also not defined at 𝑥 = 0.
Therefore, the domain of 𝑔𝑜𝑓 is {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 ≠ 0}.

Definition 2.1.8 A peicewise function is a function defined by at least two equations

each of which applies to a different part of the domain.

Piecewise defined functions can take on a variety of forms. Their pieces may be all
linear or a combination of functional forms (such as constant, linear, quadratic, cubic,
square roots, cube roots etc.).

Example 2.1.15 For each of the following functions sketch and find
(a) 𝑓(−1) (b) 𝑓(0) (c) 𝑓(3) (d) its domain and range:

𝑥 + 2, 𝑥 ≤ −1
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = {1, −1<𝑥 <1
2
𝑥 , 𝑥≥1

0, −5 ≤ 𝑥 < −2
2. 𝑓(𝑥) = {−𝑥 2 + 4, −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
−𝑥 + 3, 2 < 𝑥 ≤ 5

Solution: 1. 𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑥2

−2 − 1 0 1 2 𝑥

𝑦 =𝑥+2
(a) 𝑓(−1) = −1 + 2 = 1 (b) 𝑓(0) = 1 (c) 𝑓(3) = (3)2 = 9
(d) Domain of 𝑓 = ℝ, Range of 𝑓 = ℝ.

2. y
4 𝑦 = −𝑥 2 + 4
3
2
1
−5 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x

𝑦 = −𝑥 + 3

(a) 𝑓(−1) = −(−1)2 + 4 = −1 + 4 = 3

(b) 𝑓(0) = −(0)2 + 4 = 0 + 4 = 4

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 (c) 𝑓(3) = −3 + 3 = 0
(d) Domain of 𝑓 = (−∞, 1] ∪ (2, ∞), Range of 𝑓 = (−∞, 4].

Definition 2.1.9 Let 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌 be a function. Then f is said to be an even function if for

each 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋, 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥).

Example 2.1.16 Show that the function f ( x)  3x 2  4 x 4 is even.

Solution: f ( x)  3( x) 2  4( x) 4  3x 2  4 x 4  f ( x) . Since 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥),

f is an even function.

Definition 2.1.10 Let 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌 be a function. Then f is said to be an odd function if for

each 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋, 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥).

Example 2.1.17 Show that the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 6𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 is odd.

Solution: 𝑓(−𝑥) = 6(−𝑥)3 − 5(−𝑥) = −6𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 = −(6𝑥 3 − 5𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥). Since
𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥), f is an odd function.
However, a function which is not even may not necessarily be odd and a function which
is not odd may not necessarily be even. Some functions are neither even nor odd.
Example 2.18 Determine whether the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 2 is even or odd or
neither even nor odd.

Solution: 𝑓(−𝑥) = (−𝑥)3 − 7(−𝑥)2 = −𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 = −(𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 2 ) ≠ −𝑓(𝑥) 𝑜𝑟 𝑓(𝑥).

Therefore, f is neither even nor odd.

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TUTORIAL SHEET 3

1. Which of the following sets of ordered pairs represent a functions:

(a) {(1,4), (3,4), (7,3)} (b) {(1,2), (1,3), (2,3)} (c) {(4,3), (4,7), (3,4)}
(d) {(1,2), (2,3), (3,4)}

2. State whether or not each of the diagrams defines a function from 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}
into 𝐵 = {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧}.
(i) A B (ii) A B (iii) A B
a x a x a x

b y b y b y

c z c z c z

3. Let 𝑋 = {1,2,3,4} and 𝑌 = {1,2,3,4}. Illustrate each of the following in an arrow

diagram and state whether or not each relation from X into Y is a function:
(a) 𝑓 = {(2,3), (1,4), (2,1), (3,2), (4,4)} (b) 𝑔 = {(3,1), (4,2), (1,1)}
(c) ℎ = {(2,1), (3,4), (1,4), (2,1), (4,4)}.

4. Verify that the two given functions are inverses of each other.
x9
(a) f ( x)  5 x  9, and g ( x) 
5
(b) f ( x)  x 3  1 and g ( x)  3 x  1
1 x 1
(c) f ( x)  for x  1 and g ( x)  for x  0 .
x 1 x

5. Let f and g be two functions. Find ( f  g )( x) and ( g  f )( x) . Also specify the

domain for each.

(a) f ( x)  3x  4, g ( x)  x 2  1 (b) f ( x)  2 x 2  x  1, g ( x)  x  4
1 2
(c) f ( x)  x  2 , g ( x)  3 x  1 (d) f ( x)  , g ( x)  .
x 1 x
6. If f ( x)  x , g ( x)  3x  1, find ( f  g )(4) and ( g  f )(4) .
1 1
7. For each given function, find f and verify that ( f  f )( x)  x and
2 1 x
( f 1  f )( x)  x : (a) f ( x)  for 𝑥 > 1 (b) f ( x) 
x 1 x
8. If f ( x)  2 x  3 and g ( x)  3x  5 , find
(a) ( f  g ) 1 ( x) (b) ( f 1
 g 1 )( x) (c) ( g 1  g 1 )( x) .

2 for x  0
 2
9. Let the function be defined by f ( x)   x  1 for 0  x  4 .
  1 for x4


11
 Compute 𝑓(3), 𝑓(6) and 𝑓(−3) and sketch the graph of the function.

10. Determine which of the following function are even or odd or neither even nor odd.
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 − 7𝑥 3 (b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 + 5𝑥 − 𝑥 2 (c) 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 4

11. Prove that each of the following functions is one – to – one:

𝑥+2
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 − 4𝑥 (b) 𝑓(𝑥) = .
3𝑥

12
2.2 Linear and Quadratic Functions

Linear Functions
Definition 2.2.1 A function is of the form
f ( x)  ax  b
where a and b are constants is called a linear function.
The graph of a linear function is simply a straight line.
y
y  ax  b

0 x
In the Cartesian plane, the constant a is the gradient or slope of the straight line and b is
the y- intercept.

Quadratic Function

Definition 2.2.2 A quadratic function is of the form

f ( x)  ax 2  bx  c ,
where a, b and c are constants and a  0 .
Note that when a  0 , the function becomes a linear function.
A quadratic function can also be expressed in the form

f ( x)  a ( x  p ) 2  q ,
where a, p and q are constants. This is done by completing the square.

Example 2.2.1 f ( x)  ax 2  bx  c
 b c
 a  x 2  x   , by factoring out the coefficient of x 2 .
 a a
Dividing the coefficient of x by 2 and squaring the result we write the expression in the
form
 2 b 2
 b   b 
2
c
f ( x)  a  x  x        
 a  2a   2a  a 
2 2
b  b   b 
Now the expression x  x    x   , is a perfect square. Therefore
2

a  2a   2a 
 b 
2
b2 c
f ( x)  a  x    2  
 2a  4a a 

13
  b 
2
4ac  b 2 
 a  x    
 2a  4a 2 
b  4ac  b 2
2

 a x    ,
 2a  4a

b 4ac  b 2
in which p  and q  .
2a 4a

Example 2.2.2 Complete the square of each of the quadratic functions:

5 5
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5 = 2 [𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 2] = 2 [𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + (−1)2 − (−1)2 + 2]
5 5 3
= 2 [𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 − 1 + 2] = 2 [(𝑥 − 1)2 − 1 + 2] = 2 [(𝑥 − 1)2 + 2]
 2( x  1) 2  3
 2 2
5 5
2

(b) f ( x)  3  5 x  x   x  5 x  3  [ x  5 x  3]    x  5 x        3
2 2 2

 2 2 

 5
2
25   5  37 
2
 5
2
37
   x     3    x       x   
 2 4   2 4   2 4

Graph of a Quadratic Function

We consider an arbitrary function

4ac  b 2
2
 b 
f ( x)  ax 2  bx  c  a x    .
 2a  4a
(a) If a  0 , the graph of the quadratic function opens upward and has a minimum turning
 b 4ac  b 2 
point   , .
 2a 4a 

y y  ax 2  bx  c

𝑏
𝑥 = − 2𝑎

0 x
 b 4ac  b 2

  , 
 2a 4a 
(b) If a  0 , the graph of the quadratic function opens downward and has a maximum
 b 4ac  b 2 
turning point   ,  .
 2 a 4 a 

14
  b 4ac  b 2 
y   , 
 2a 4a 

c
x
0
𝑏
𝑥 = − 2𝑎 y  ax 2  bx  c

 b 4ac  b 2 
Note that in both cases, the turning point is given by   ,  and the y -
 2a 4a 
intercept is c.

𝑏
(c) The equation of the line of symmetry of the graph of a quadratic function is 𝑥 = − 2𝑎.

If the graph of the quadratic function cuts the x – axis, the x - intercepts are found by
solving the quadratic equation f ( x)  0 i.e.
4ac  b 2
2
 b 
a x    0.
 2a  4a
b 2  4ac
2
 b 
Thus, a x   
 2a  4a

b 2  4ac
2
 b 
 x   
 2a  4a 2
b b 2  4ac
 x 
2a 4a 2
b b 2  4ac  b  b 2  4ac
x   .
2a 2a 2a

This is the quadratic formula used in finding the solutions or roots of a quadratic
equation
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0.

 b  b 2  4ac  b  b 2  4ac
One x - intercept is x  and the other is x  .
2a 2a

Example 2.2.3 Complete the square of each of the following quadratic functions. Hence
sketch its graph indicating the turning point and the intercepts, and write down the
equation of its line of symmetry.

1. f ( x)  2 x 2  x  10 2. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 2 .

15
Solutions:
 2 1   2 1 2
1 1
2

1. f ( x)  2 x  x  10  2 x  x  5   2 x  x        5 
2 
 2   2 4 4 
 
 2
 
 2 x  14   161  5  2 x  14   16
2 81

 2x  14   81
2
8 .

Since a  0 , the function has a minimum turning point and it occurs at point  14 , 81
8
.
The x-intercepts are
 1  12  4(2)(10)  1  12  4(2)(10)
x and x 
2(2) 2(2)
 1  81  1  81
i.e. x and x 
4 4
8  10  5
i.e. x   2 and x   .
4 4 2
The y – intercept is the term independent of x in the quadratic equation, which in this case
is  10 .

y  2 x 2  x  10

x
 5
2  1
4 2

-10

 14 , 818 
 1 81
The minimum value of the function is f    and the line of symmetry is
 4 8
x   14 .

5 3 5 5 2 5 2 3
2. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 + 5𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 = −2 (𝑥 2 − 2 𝑥 − 2) = −2 (𝑥 2 − 2 𝑥 + (− 4) − (− 4) − 2)


 2 x  54   16
2 25
 
 32  2 x  54   16
49

 2x  54   498 .
2 2

The x-intercepts are

 5  5 2  4(2)(3)  5  12  4(2)(3)
x and x 
2(2) 2(2)

16
  5  49  5  49
i.e. x and x 
4 4
2 1  12
i.e. x    and x   3.
4 2 4
Since a  0 , the function has a maximum turning point and it occurs at  54 , 498  .
The y – intercept is 3.
y

x  54 , 498 

 12 3 x

x 5
4
y  3  5x  2 x 2

5 49
The maximum value of the function is f    and the line of symmetry is
4 8
x  54 .

Applications of Quadratic Functions.

One method of solving a maximum or minimum problems which can be

transformed into a quadratic function is the use of completion of the square.

Example 2.2.4. If the selling price x of an item is related to the profit P by the
equation
P  1000 x  25x 2
Determine the value of x that would yield maximum profit and state the maximum
profit.

Solution: To find the value of x that that would yield maximum profit we have to use
the method of completing the square.

P  1000 x  25 x 2  25 x 2  40 x 

 25 x  40 x  (20)  (20) 2
2 2

 25x 2
 40 x  (20) 2  400 

 25 ( x  20) 2  400 
 25( x  20) 2  10000
The maximum profit is attained when x  20 and the maximum profit is 10 000 .

17
 2. A farmer wishes to enclose a rectangular lot of maximum area with a fence 400 m
long. Find the dimensions of the rectangle and state its maximum area.

Solution: Suppose the length of the rectangle is x and the width is y. Then the
perimeter of the rectangle is
2 x  2 y  400
 x  y  200  y  200  x
The area of the rectangle is
A  xy
 A  x(200  x)  200 x  x 2
This is a quadratic function
A( x)  200 x  x 2
 ( x 2  200 x)
 ( x 2  200 x  (100) 2  (100) 2 )
 (( x  100) 2  10000)
 ( x  100) 2  10000
This means that the maximum area of the rectangle is attained at x  100 .
Therefore, the dimensions of the rectangle are length  100 m and width  100 m
and hence, the maximum area is 10 000 m 2 .

2.3 Polynomail Functions

Let n be a nonnegative integer and let a0 , a1 , a 2 , , an be real numbers with a n  0 , then
the function defined by
p( x)  an x n  an1 x n1    a2 x 2  a1 x  a0
is called a polynomial function of degree n (or simply a polynomial). The numbers
a0 , a1 , a2 , , an are called the coefficients and an the leading coefficient of the function p.
We have already encountered some special polynomials like the linear function
p( x)  a1 x  a0 , the quadratic function p( x)  a2 x 2  a1 x  a0 . The constant function is
defined by p( x)  a0 . A constant function is of the degree 0, a linear function is of degree 1,
and a quadratic function is of degree 2.
Note that no degree is assigned to a zero function p( x)  0 .
Polynomials may be added, subtracted, multiplied, or divided. Thus if p and q are
polynomials of degree m and n respectively, then
(i) p  q is a polynomial of degree less than or equal to the maximum of m and n.
(ii) p  q is a polynomial of degree m  n .

Example 2.3.1 Let p( x)  x 3  3x 2  5 and q( x)  x 3  2 x 2  x  3 . Then

  
(i) p( x)  q( x)  x 3  3x 2  5  x 3  2 x 2  x  3 

18
 = (𝑥 3 + 𝑥 3 ) + (−3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 2 ) + (−𝑥) + (5 + 3)
 2x 3  x 2  x  8 ,
a polynomial of degree 3.
(ii) 𝑝(𝑥) − 𝑞(𝑥) = (𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 5) − (𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 3)
= (𝑥 3 − 𝑥 3 ) + (−3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 2 ) + (0𝑥 − (−𝑥)) + (5 − 3)
 5x 2  x  2 ,
a polynomial of degree 2.
 
(iii) p( x)  q( x)  x 3  3x 2  5  x 3  2 x 2  x  3 

 x 3 x 3  2x 2  x  3  3x x
2 3
 2x 2  x  3  5x 3

 2x 2  x  3

 x 6  2 x 5  x 4  3x 3  3x 5  6 x 4  3x 3  9 x 2  5x 3  10 x 2  5x  15
= 𝑥 6 + (2𝑥 5 − 3𝑥 5 ) + (−𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 4 ) + (3𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 3 ) + (−9𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 2 ) + (−5𝑥) + 15
 x 6  x 5  7 x 4  11x 3  x 2  5x  15 ,
a polynomial of degree 6.

The concept of division involving polynomials is quite similar to that of integers. Thus, if p
and h are polynomials, then p is divisible by h if and only if there is a polynomial q such that
p
q.
h
p( x)
i.e.  q ( x)
h( x )

or p( x)  q( x)h( x) .

Example 2.3.2 Let p( x)  x 3  3x 2  5x  6 and h( x)  x  2 be two polynomials. Then

p is divisible by h if and only if there exist a polynomial q( x)  x 2  x  3 such that
p( x)
 q ( x)
h( x )

x 3  3x 2  5 x  6
i.e.  x2  x  3 .
x2
Theorem 2.3.1 If p and h are polynomials and h is of degree greater than zero, then there
exists unique polynomials q and r such that
p ( x) r ( x)
 q ( x)  ,
h( x ) h( x )
or p( x)  q( x)h( x)  r ( x) ,
where r is either a polynomial of degree less than the degree of h or the zero function.

The polynomial p is called the dividend, h is the divisor, q is the quotient, and r is the
remainder.

19
Long Division of Polynomials
Examples 2.3.3

1. Divide 2 x  4 x  5x  3x  2 by x  2 x  3
4 3 2 2

2. Divide 12 x  6 x  10 by 2 x  1
3 2

Solutions: 1. 2x 2 1
x  2 x  3 2 x  4 x  5 x 2  3x  2
2 4 3

 (2 x 4  4 x 3  6 x 2 )
x 2  3x  2
 ( x 2  2 x  3)
x 1
Therefore,
2 x 4  4 x 3  5 x 2  3x  2 x 1
 2x 2  1  2
x  2x  3
2
x  2x  3

The quotient q( x)  2 x 2  1 and the remainder r ( x)  x  1 .

2. 6x 2  6x  3
2 x  1 12 x 3  6 x 2  0 x  10
 (12 x 3  6 x 2 )
 12 x 2  0 x
 (12 x 2  6 x)
6 x  10
 (6 x  3)
7
Therefore,
12 x 3  6 x 2  10 7
 6x 2  6x  3 
2x  1 2x  1
The quotient q( x)  6 x 2  6 x  3 and the remainder r ( x)  7

Synthetic Division
There is a shortcut called synthetic division for long division of polynomials when dividing
by divisors of the form x  k . The procedure is given below:

To divide ax  bx  cx  d by x  k , use the following procedure

3 2

k a b c d
Add ka kb  k 2 a kc  k 2 b  k 3 a
a b  ka c  kb  k 2 a d  ck  k 2 b  k 3 a  remainder

coefficients of quotient q(x) whose degree

is 1 less than that of that of the dividend.

20
 Vertical pattern: Add terms in columns
Diagonal pattern: Multiply results by k

Hence
q( x)  ax 2  (b  ka) x  (c  kb  k 2 a)
and
r ( x)  d  ck  k 2 b  k 3 a
Therefore,

ax 3  bx 2  cx  d d  ck  k 2 b  k 3 a
 ax 2  (b  ka) x  (c  kb  k 2 a) 
xk xk

Example 2.3.4 Use synthetic division to divide each of the following polynomials:

1. 2 x 3  3x 2  4 x  5 by x  2
2. x 4  3x 3  x 2  2 x  6 by x  3

Solutions: 1.
2 2 3 4 5
Add 4 2 12
2 1 6 17  r
q( x)  2 x  x  6
2

r ( x)  17
Therefore,

2 x 3  3x 2  4 x  5 17
 2x 2  x  6 
x2 x2

2.
3 1 3 1 2 6
Add 3 0 3 15
1 0 1 5 9r
Here the quotient is
𝑞(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 5 i.e.
q ( x)  x 3  x  5
r ( x)  9
Therefore,

x 4  3x 3  x 2  2 x  6 9
 x3  x  5 
x3 x3

We have noted that when a polynomial p(x) of degree n is divided by ( x  k ) then there
exists another polynomial q(x) of degree n  1 such that

p( x)  q( x)( x  k )  r ,
for all x, where r is the remainder.

21
Now note that
p(k )  q(k )(k  k )  r  r ,
which is the remainder. This leads us to the remainder theorem.

Theorem 2.3.2 (Remainder theorem) If the polynomial p(x) is divided by ( x  k ) then the
remainder is
p(k )  r .
Example 2.3.5 Use the remainder theorem to find the remainder when the polynomial p(x)
is divided by ( x  k ) :
1. 2 x 3  3x 2  4 x  5 by x  2
2. x 4  3x 3  x 2  2 x  6 by x  3

Solutions: 1. Let p( x)  2 x 3  3x 2  4 x  5 . Then, by the remainder theorem, the remainder

is
p(2)  2(2) 3  3(2) 2  4(2)  5  16  12  8  5  17  r ,

2. Let p( x)  x 4  3x 3  x 2  2 x  6 . Then the remainder is

p(3)  (3) 4  3(3) 3  (3) 2  2(3)  6

 81  81  9  6  6  9  r .
When a polynomial p(x) is divided by ( x  k ) and the remainder is zero, i.e. p(k )  0 ,
we say that p(x) is divisible by ( x  k ) or ( x  k ) is a factor of p(x) . This leads us to the
Factor theorem:

Theorem 2.3.3 (Factor theorem) If p(x) is a polynomial and k a real number such that
p(k )  0 , then ( x  k ) is a factor of p(x) .

Note: If ( x  k ) is a factor of p(x) , then

p( x)  q( x)( x  k )
and the remainder 𝑟 = 0.
Example 2.3.6 Show that ( x  k ) is a factor of the given polynomial p(x) :
1. p ( x)  2 x 3  x 2  4 x  3 ; x  1
2. p ( x)  x 4  2 x 3  x 2  x  2 ; x  2

Solutions: 1. Let p( x)  2 x 3  x 2  4 x  3 .Then

p(1)  2(1) 3  (1) 2  4(1)  3  2  1  4  3  0 .

By the factor theorem, ( x  1) if a factor of 2 x  x  4 x  3 .

3 2

Note: Dividing using synthetic division, we have

1 2 1 4 3
Add 2 1 3
2 1 3 0r

22
 2 x 3  x 2  4 x  3  ( x  1)(2 x 2  x  3)

2. Let p( x)  x 4  2 x 3  x 2  x  2 . Then

p(2)  (2) 4  2(2) 3  (2) 2  (2)  2

 16  16  4  2  2  0
By the factor theorem, ( x  2) if a factor of x  2 x  x  x  2 .
4 3 2

Dividing using synthetic division, we have

2 1 2 1 1 2
Add 2 0 2 2
1 0 1 1 0r

x 4  2 x 3  x 2  x  2  ( x  2)( x 3  x  1)
Zeros or Roots of a Polynomial
We have seen from the factor theorem that if p is a polynomial of degree n  1 and k is a
number, then p(k )  0 implies that x  k is a factor of p. The number k is called a zero
(or root) of p. Geometrically, k represents the point where the graph of p intersects the x -
axis.

Clearly, since a polynomial p of degree n cannot have more than n factors, then p has at
most n zero.

For the rational zeros of a polynomial we have the following theorem:

a
Theorem 2.3.4 If , a rational number in lowest terms, is a zero of the polynomial
b
p( x)  an x n  an1 x n1    a2 x 2  a1 x  a0 ,
where the ai ' s (i  0,1,2, , n) are integers and a n  0 , the a is an integral factor of
a 0 and b is an integral factor of a n .
It must be noted that this theorem does not guarantee the existence of rational zeros of a
polynomial. It merely enables us to identify the possible rational zeros. These are then
checked using synthetic division or otherwise.

Example 2.3.7 Find all rational zeros of the polynomial

p ( x)  2 x 3  5 x 2  4 x  3 .
a
Solution: If is a rational zero of p, then by the theorem, a must be an integral factor of
b
3 and b must be an integral factor of 2. i.e.
a  {1,3,1,3} and b  {1,2,1,2}
and the set of possible rational zeros of p is
a
k  {3, 32 ,1, 12 , 12 , 32 ,3}
b
Using synthetic division we check each of the possible candidates starting with -3:

23
 3 2 5 4 3
Add 6 3 3
2 1 1 0r
Thus, 3 is a zero of p.
Next we check  32 :

 32 2 5 4 3
Add 3 3 21
2

2 2 7 15
2 r0

Thus,  32 is not a zero of p.

The remaining possible zeros can be checked the same way.

For this polynomial, the zeros are  3, 12 and 1 .

Factoring a Polynomial
To factorize a polynomial we use the factor theorem sometimes combined with repeated
division.
Example 2.3.8 Factorize the polynomial:

p( x)  2 x 4  7 x 3  2 x 2  13x  6

Solution: Integral factors of 6 are a   6,3,1,1,3,6 and integral p(x) factors of 2

are b   2,1,1,2 . The possible rational zeros of p are

  6,3, 32 ,1, `12 , 12 ,1, 32 ,3,6 .

a
k
b
We determine one of the actual zeros of p by using synthetic division:

1 2 7 2 13 6
Add 2 9 7 6
2 9 76 0r
  1 is a zero of p, and by Factor theorem ( x  1) is a factor of p(x) . Thus

p( x)  ( x  1)(2 x 3  9 x 2  7 x  6) .

Let q( x)  2 x 3  9 x 2  7 x  6 . Then again the integral factors of 6 are

a   6,3,1,1,3,6 and the integral factors of 2 are b   2,1,1,2 .
The possible rational zeros of q are

  6,3, 32 ,1, `12 , 12 ,1, 32 ,3,6 .

a
k
b
Again we determine one of the actual zeros of q by synthetic division:

24
 2 2 9 7 6
Add 4  10 6
2 5 3 0r
 2 is a zero of q and by Factor theorem ( x  2) is a factor of q(x) . Thus

q( x)  ( x  2)(2 x 2  5 x  3)
 ( x  2)(2 x  1)( x  3).
Therefore,
p( x)  ( x  1)( x  2)(2 x  1)( x  3) .

Clearly note that the other zeros of p are  1

2
and 3 .

Therefore when we solve the polynomial equation p( x)  0 , i.e. say the equation

p( x)  ( x  1)( x  2)(2 x  1)( x  3)  0 ,

we obtain x  2, x  1, x   12 and x  3 , which are the zeros or roots of p. What

this means is that the zeros or roots of a polynomial indicate where the value of the
polynomial function is equal to zero, i.e. where the graph of the function cuts the x – axis.
Using these x- intercepts and the y - intercept we can sketch the graph of polynomial.

Example 2.3.9 Sketch the graph of each of the following polynomial functions, indicating the
points where the curve cuts the axes.
(a) p( x)  2 x 3  9 x 2  7 x  6

(b) p( x)  2 x 4  5x 3  5x 2  5x  3 .

Solution: (a) The zeros of p( x)  2 x 3  9 x 2  7 x  6 are x  1, x   12 , x  3 . These

are the x – intercepts the curve y  2 x 3  9 x 2  7 x  6 and the y – intercept is 6.

Now note that a polynomial of degree 1 has no turning point, a polynomial of degree 2 has
one turning point, a polynomial of degree 3 has 2 turning point, etc. This curve has 2 turning
points.
Hence, we sketch the curve passing through the intercepts.

25
 y

6 y  2x 3  9x 2  7 x  6

x
1  1
2 0 3

(b) The zeros of p( x)  2 x 4  5x 3  5x 2  5x  3 are  3,  1, 12 and 1 , which are the

x – intercepts of the curve. The y – intercept is y  3 .

p ( x)  2 x 4  5 x 3  5 x 2  5 x  3

x
3 1 0 1
2
1

3

We will only be able to find the exact turning points of a polynomial function of degree
greater than 2 when we do differential calculus.

2.4 Rational Functions

A rational function is one that is written in the form of
p ( x)
f ( x)  ,
q ( x)
where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials and q(x) is not the zero polynomial.

We shall assume that p(x) and q(x) have no common factors.

26
 1 x 3x 2  4 x
Examples of rational functions are , 2 , , etc.
x x  1 2x  1
The domain of a rational function of x includes all real numbers except x – values that make
the denominator zero.
Example 2.4.1
1
1. The function f ( x)  is not defined at x  0 and thus the domain of the function is the
x
set x  R : x  0 .

x
2. The function f ( x)  is not defined at x  1, and thus the domain of the
x 12

function is the set x  R : x  1,1.

3x 2  4 x
3. The function f ( x)  is not defined at x   12 and thus the domain of the
2x  1
function is the set x  R : x   12  .

Recall that the range of a function is the domain of its inverse. Thus, to find the range of a
rational function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), we need to find the domain of the inverse function 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥).

Example 2.4.1 Find the range of each of the following functions:

1 𝑥+4
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2. 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥+2 2𝑥−1
1
Solutions: 1. We first find the inverse of the function. Let 𝑦 = and interchange x
𝑥+2
1
and y and obtain 𝑥 = . Then we make y the subject of the formula.
𝑦+2
1 1 1−2𝑥 1−2𝑥
𝑦+2=𝑥⇒ 𝑦 = − 2 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑦 = ⇒ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = , 𝑥 ≠ 0.
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

Therefore, the range of the function is {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 ≠ 0}

𝑥+4 𝑦+4
2. 𝑦 = interchanging x and y we have 𝑥 = . Making y the subject of the
2𝑥−1 2𝑦−1
formula we have 𝑥(2𝑦 − 1) = 𝑦 + 4 ⇒ 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥 = 𝑦 + 4 ⇒ 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 4
𝑥+4 𝑥+4 1
⇒ 𝑦(2𝑥 − 1) = 𝑥 + 4 ⇒ 𝑦 = . Thus 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = ,𝑥 ≠ .
2𝑥−1 2𝑥−1 2
1
Therefore, the range of the function is {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 ≠ 2}

2.5 Modulus Function

A modulus function is a function of the form

f ( x)  g ( x) ,

where g (x) is a function.

27
Note: 1. When g ( x)  0 , g ( x)  g ( x) .
2. When g ( x)  0 , g ( x)   g ( x) .

The domain of a modulus function is the same as that of the function g (x) and its
range is y  f ( x)  R : y  f ( x)  0 .

Graph of a Modulus Function

Example 2.5.1 Sketch the graph of each of the following modulus functions:

1. f ( x)  x .

 x if x  0
Solution: y  x  
 x if x  0.
Step 1. Sketch the graph of y  x
Step 2. For the part of the line below the x – axis ( i.e. where y  0 ), reflect the line
in the x – axis.
f ( x)  x
y 𝑦 = |𝑥|
y  x

yx

x0 x0
0 x

Note: (a) For both x  0 and x  0 , y  x  0.

(b) Domain of f ( x)  x is ℝ and its range is {𝑦 ∈ ℝ: 𝑦 ≥ 0} .

1
2. f ( x)  .
x
y

1
y
x

x
0 x0
x0

28
 is x  R : x  0 and its range is { y  R : y  0} .
1
Domain of f ( x) 
x

3. f ( x)  3  5 x  2 x
2

y
 54 , 498 
y  3  5x  2 x 2

x
 1
2
0 3

Domain of f ( x)  3  5 x  2 x is R and its range is { y  R : y  0}

2

2.6 Radical Functions

Radical functions are functions involving roots (square roots, cube roots etc.)
For example,
f ( x )  x , g ( x)  2  x h( x)  3 x  4 e.t.c.
are all radical functions.

In this course we shall only consider radical functions involving the square root.

The domain of a radical function is the set of values of x for which the function is defined.

Example 2.6.1 The domain of

1. f ( x)  x is the set x  R : x  0 .

2. f ( x)  2  x is the set x  R : x  2 since for x  2 , 2  x  0 .

3. f ( x)  x 2  4 is the set x  R : x  2 or x  2 since the function is defined for

values of x for which x  4  0 i.e. ( x  2)( x  2)  0 i.e. x  2 or x  2 .

2

y  x2  4

-2 0 2 x

-4

29
The range of a radical function y  f (x) is the set of values y takes for all values of x
within the domain of f.

Example 2.6.1 The range of

1. f ( x)  x is the set y  f ( x)  R : x  0  [0, ) .

2. f ( x)   2  x is the set y  f ( x)  R : x  2  (,0] .

3. f ( x)  x 2  4 is the set y  f ( x)  R : x  2 or x  2  [0, ) since the value of

the function is greater or equal to zero for all x  2 or x  2 .
Graphs of a Radical Functions

Example 2.6.2 Sketch the graph of each of the following functions:

1. f ( x)  x

Solution: Step 1: Plot the points.

x 0 1 4 9 16 25
f (x) 0 1 2 3 4 5

Step 2: Sketch the curve of the function passing through the plotted points.
y

0 5 10 15 20 25 x

2. f ( x)   2  x
Solution: Step 1: Plot the points in the table.

x -23 -14 -7 -2 1 2
f (x) -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0

Step 2: Sketch the curve of the function passing through the plotted points.

30
 y

-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 2 5 x

-1
-2
-3

-4

y   2 x -5
Domain = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 ≤ 2} = [−∞, 2]
Range = {𝑦 ∈ ℝ: 𝑦 ≤ 0} = [−∞, 0]

3. f ( x)  2  x  3

Solution: Step 1: Plot the points in the table.

x -3 -2 1 6 13 22
f (x) -2 -1 0 1 2 3

Step 2: Sketch the curve of the function passing through the plotted points.
y

2
1

-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 x
-1
-2

y  2  x  3

Domain = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 ≥ −3} = [−3, ∞)

Range = {𝑦 ∈ ℝ: 𝑦 ≥ −2} = [−2, ∞)

31
TUTORIAL SHEET 4

1. Complete the square of each of the following quadratic functions. Hence sketch the graph of
the function, showing clearly the x – and y – intercepts and the turning point. State
(i) the line of symmetry, and
(ii) the maximum or minimum value of the function.
(a) f ( x)  2 x 2  4 x  5 (b) f ( x)  x 2  2 x  5 (c) f ( x)  4  3x 2
(d) f ( x)  3  7 x  3x 2 .

2. What are the dimension of the largest rectangular field which can be enclosed by
1200 m of fencing?
3. If the profit p in the manufacture and sale of x units of a product is given by
𝑝(𝑥) = 200𝑥 − 0.001𝑥 2,
(a) Find the number x that yields the maximum profit.
(b) Find the maximum profit if each item is sold at K2.50.
(c) Sketch the graph of the function p.

4. A window is to be constructed in the shape of a rectangle surmounted by a

semicircle. If the perimeter of the window is 540 cm, find its dimensions for
maximum area.

5. Let 𝑝(𝑥) = 63 + 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 7 and 𝑞(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 5. Find

(a) p( x)  qx) (b) p( x)  qx) (c) p( x)  qx) (d) p( x)  qx)
6. Use long division to divide:
Dividend Divisor
(i) 𝑥3 + 8𝑥2 − 5𝑥 − 1 𝑥−2
3
(ii) 2𝑥 + 6𝑥 − 𝑥+5 2
2x 2  1
(iii) 𝑥4 − 4𝑥2 + 3 3 + 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2
7. Use synthetic division to divide the polynomials and write the function in the form
p( x)  ( x  k )q( x)  r , where q(x) is the quotient and r is the remainder:
Dividend Divisor
(i) 𝑥3 − 10𝑥2 + 31𝑥 − 30 𝑥+3
(ii) x  15x  68x  96
3 2
𝑥−2
(iii) 6 x  x  21x  10
3 2
2𝑥 − 1
8. Write the function in the form p( x)  ( x  k )q( x)  r , where q(x) is the quotient and r is
the remainder:
(i) p( x)  x 3  x 2  12 x  20, k  2
(ii) p( x)  x 3  2 x 2  15x  7, k  4
(iii) p( x)  x 3  2 x 2  3x  12, k  3

32
 (iv) p( x)  3x 3  19 x 2  27 x  7, k  3  2
9. Factorize the polynomial completely:
(i) p( x)  x 3  12 x  16 (ii) p( x)  3x 3  10 x 2  27 x  10
(iii) p ( x)  x 3  2 x 2  3 x  6 (iv) p ( x)  x 3  2 x 2  2 x  4

10. Given that ( x  1) and ( x  1) are factors of px 3  qx 2  3x  7 , find the value of p and q.
11. The expression 2𝑥 3 − 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 3 gives a remainder −15 when divided by (𝑥 + 1) and a
remainder −46 when divided by (𝑥 − 3). Find the value of a and of b.

12. Find the zeros of each of the following polynomial functions. Hence sketch its graph
indicating the x – and y - intercepts:
(i) p( x)  x 3  2 x  7 x  12 (ii) p ( x)   x 3  x 2  5 x  2
(iii) p( x)  15  5x  3x 2  x 3 (iv) p ( x)  x 3  5 x 2  6 x  2

13. (a) Show that ( x  2) is a factor of p( x)  x 3  x 2  5x  2 .

(b) Hence, or otherwise, find the exact solutions of the equation p( x)  0 .
14. Sketch the graph of each of the following modulus functions:

(a) f ( x)   x  3 (b) f ( x)  x 3 (c) f ( x)  ( x  1)(2  x)

(d) f ( x)  2 x 2  7 x  3 .

15. Sketch the graphs of the following functions and determine its domain and range:

(a) f ( x)  x  2 (b) g ( x)  4  x  3 (c) h( x)  1   x  2

(d) y   3x  1 .
16. The description of body-heat loss due to convection involves a coefficient of
convection 𝐾𝑐 , which depends on wind speed v according to the equation:
𝐾𝑐 = 4√4𝑣 + 1.
(a) What is the domain?
(b) What restrictions do nature and common sense put on v?

33
2.7 Equations

Quadratic Equations

Any equation of the form

𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0

is called a quadratic equation.

Nature of Roots of a Quadratic Equation

By completing the square of the quadratic function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 and equating to

zero we have the quadratic formula
 b  b 2  4ac
x
2a

used to obtain the solutions (or the roots) of the quadratic equation.

The expression b  4ac , under the square root sign, is called the discriminant, and it
2

determines the nature of the roots of the quadratic equation.

1. If b  4ac  0 , the equation has two and two distinct real roots
2

 b  b 2  4ac  b  b 2  4ac
x and x  .
2a 2a
Case 1. 𝑎 > 0
y

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐

0 x
 b  b 2  4ac  b  b 2  4ac
x x
2a 2a
c
Case 2. 𝑎 < 0

c
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐

0 x
 b  b 2  4ac  b  b 2  4ac
x x
2a 2a

34
 Note that when the quadratic equation has two distinct real roots the graph of the curve
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 cuts the x – axis at two distinct points.
b
2. If b  4ac  0 , the equation has two equal real roots x 
2
.
2a
Case 1. 𝑎 > 0
y

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐

c
x
b
0 x
2a
Case 2. 𝑎 > 0
y

0 x
b
x
2a
c 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐

Note that when the quadratic equation has two equal real roots the graph of the curve
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 touches the x – axis at exactly one point.

3. If b  4ac  0 , the equation has no real roots. It has two complex roots which are
2

conjugates of each other.

y
Case 1. 𝑎 > 0

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐

0 x

35
 Case 2. 𝑎 < 0 y

0 x
c

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐

Note that when the quadratic equation has complex roots the graph of the curve
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 does not cut or touch the x – axis.

Example 2.7.1 Determine the nature of the roots of each of the following quadratic equations:
1. 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9 = 0

Solution: 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = −6, and 𝑐 = 9.

Using the discriminant, we have

𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = (−6)2 − 4(1)(9) = 36 + 36 = 0.

⇒ the equation has two equal real roots.

2. 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 8 = 0

Solution: 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 4, and 𝑐 = −8.

Using the discriminant, we have

𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = (4)2 − 4(1)(−8) = 16 + 32 = 48 > 0.

⇒ the equation has two distinct real roots.

3. 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 2 = 0

Solution: 𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = 4, and 𝑐 = 2.

Using the discriminant, we have

𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = (4)2 − 4(3)(2) = 16 − 24 = −8 < 0.

⇒ the equation has two complex roots.

4. Prove that kx2  2 x  (k  2)  0 has real roots for any value of k.

Proof: If the equation has real roots then b  4ac  0 .
2

Now, b 2  4ac  2 2  4(k ) (k  2)  4  4k 2  8k

 
 4 k 2  2k  1  4(k  1) 2  0 for any value of k.

36
Relationships between the Roots and Coefficients of a Quadratic Equation

Let 𝛼 and 𝛽 be the roots of a quadratic equation

𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0.

Then the equations

(𝑥 − 𝛼)(𝑥 − 𝛽) = 0 (I)
and
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 (II)
have the same roots.
But from (I)
(𝑥 − 𝛼)(𝑥 − 𝛽) = 𝑥 2 (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑥 + 𝛼𝛽 = 0

i.e. 𝑥 2 − (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑥 + 𝛼𝛽 = 0 (III)

Dividing (II) by a we have

b c
x2  x 0 (IV)
a a

Now, (II) and (IV) have the same roots.

Comparing the coefficients of (III) and (IV) we have

b c
   and   .
a a

Example 2.7.2 If the equation

2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 6 = 0
has roots 𝛼 and 𝛽, then the sum of roots
b 3 3
    
a 2 2
and the product of roots
c 6
   3.
a 2
Example 2.7.3 The roots of the equation

2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 7 = 0

1 1 1
are 𝛼 and 𝛽. Find the values of  and .
  

b 1
Solution: sum of roots =      
a 2

c 7
Product of roots =    .
a 2

37
 1 1     12 1 1 1 2
   7  and  7  .
   2 7   2 7

Example 2.7.4 If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the function 𝑥(𝑥 − 3) = 𝑥 + 4, find the values

of 𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3 and 𝛼 3 𝛽3 .

Solution: 𝑥(𝑥 − 3) = 𝑥 + 4 ⇒ 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 4 = 0 Thus 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = −4 and 𝑐 = −4.

b 4
sum of roots =       4
a 1
c 4
Product of roots =     4 .
a 1
But
(𝛼 + 𝛽)3 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)(𝛼 + 𝛽)2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)(𝛼 2 + 2𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽 2 )
= 𝛼 3 + 3𝛼𝛽 2 + 3𝛼𝛽 2 + 𝛽 3

⇒𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)3 − 3𝛼𝛽(𝛼 + 𝛽) = (4)3 − 3(−4)(4) = 64 + 48 = 112

and 𝛼 3 𝛽3 = (𝛼𝛽)3 = (−4)3 = −64.

Note from equations (III) and (IV) that a quadratic equation can be written as

𝑥 2 − (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠)𝑥 + 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 0.

Using this we consider the following Example:

1 2
Example 2.7.5 Write down the quadratic equation whose roots are and  .
3 3
Solution: 𝑥 2 − (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑥 + 𝛼𝛽 = 0
1 2 1 1 2 2
      and     .
3 3 3 3 3 9
Therefore, the equation is
1 2
x2  x   0
3 9
or 9 x 2  3x  2  0 .

2.8 Polynomial Equations

Polynomial equations are of the form
an x n  an1 x n1    a2 x 2  a1 x  a0  0 ,

where a0 , a1 , a 2 , , an are real numbers and a n  0 .

We solve the polynomial equations the same way we find roots or zeros of a polynomial
function.

Example 2.8.1 Solve the polynomial equation

38
 2 x 3  5x 2  x  2  0 .

Solution: Find a zero of f ( x)  2 x 3  5x 2  x  2

f (1)  2(1) 3  5(1) 2  (1)  2  2  5  1  2  0

 1 is a zero of f (x) .

 ( x  1) is factor of f (x) .

1 2 5 1 2
Add 2 3 2
2 3 2 0r

 f ( x)  ( x  1)(2 x 2  3x  2)  ( x  1)(2 x  1)( x  2)

( x  1)(2 x  1)( x  2)  0  x  1, x   12 , x  2 .

2.9 Equations Involving the Absolute Value

Example 2.9.1 Solve each of the following equations:

1. 2x  3  6
 2 x  3 if x   32
Solution: Method 1: 2 x  3  
 (2 x  3) if x   2
3

y  2 x  3 y y  2x  3

y=6

9 3 3

2 2 2

3 9
 2x  3  6  x  and  (2 x  3)  6  x  .
2 2
Method 2: It must be noted that x can also be defined as

x  x2 .

Thus, 2x  3  6  (2 x  3) 2  6   (2x  3)   6
2
2
2

 (2 x  3) 2  36  4 x 2  12 x  9  36

39
  4 x 2  12 x  27  0  (2 x  3)(2 x  9)  0
3 9
 x or x .
2 2
2. 2x  7  x  3
 2 x  7 if x  72
Solution: Method 1: 2 x  7  
 (2 x  7) if x 
7
2

 x  3 if x  3
and x3  
 ( x  3) if x  3

y  2 x  7 y  2x  7

y  x  3

y  x3

4 7
-3 0 3 2
10 x

4
 2 x  7  x  3  x  10 and  2 x  7  x  3  x 
3

Note that 2 x  7 is only defined for x  7

2
and  ( x  3) is only defined for x  3 ,
thus 2 x  7  ( x  3) for x  3 and x  7
2
.

Method 2: 2 x  7  x  3   (2x  7)    (x  3) 
2
2
2
2

 (2 x  7) 2  ( x  3) 2  4 x 2  28x  49  x 2  6 x  9
 3x 2  34 x  40  0  (3x  4)( x  10)  0
4
 x or x  10 .
3
3. x2  x4.

 x  2 if x  2
Solution: Method 1: x  2   .
 ( x  2) if x  2

40
 y

y  x  2 y  x4
4

y  x2

-1 2 x

 ( x  2)  x  4  2 x  2  x  1

Note that x  2  x  4 has no solution because the lines y  x  2 and y  x  4

do not intersect since they have the same gradient and they are parallel.

Method 2 x  2  x  4  ( x  2)  x  4 
2
 (x  2)   (x  4)
2
2
2

 ( x  2) 2  ( x  4) 2  x 2  4 x  4  x 2  8x  16  12 x  12  x  1

2.10 Equations Involving Radicals

Example 2.10.1 Solve each of the following equations:

1. 3x  8  x  2  0
2. 3x  1  2 x  4  3 .
3. x  2  2 x  11  x  5

Solution: 1. 3x  8  x  2

 3x  8  
2
x2 
2

 3x  8  x  2  2 x  6  x  3

Test the root: When x  3 , LHS = 3(3)  8  3  2  1  1  0  RHS

 x  3 is a root of the given equation.

2. 3x  1  2 x  4  3 .
Solution: 3x  1  3  2 x  4
   
2
3x  1  3  2 x  4 2

 3x  1  9  6 2 x  4  2 x  4
 x  12  6 2 x  4


 ( x  12) 2   6 2 x  4 2

 x 2  24 x  144  36(2 x  4)  72 x  144

 x 2  96 x  0  x( x  96)  0  x  0 or x  96

41
 Test the roots: When x  0 , LHS = 3(0)  1  2(0)  4  1  2  3  RHS
 x  0 is a root of the given equation.
When x  96 , LHS = 3(96)  1  2(96)  4  17  14  3  RHS
 x  96 is not a root of the given equation.
Therefore, the equation on has one root x  0 .

3. x  2  2 x  11  x  5
Solution: x  2  2 x  11  x  5
  x2  
2
2 x  11  x  5 
2

 x  2  2 x  11  2 2 x  11  x  5  x  5
 2 x  14  2 2 x  11  x  5


 (2 x  14) 2  2 2 x  11  x  5 2

 4 x 2  56 x  196  4(2 x  11)( x  5)  8x 2  84 x  220

 4 x 2  28x  24  0  x 2  7 x  6  0  ( x  1)( x  6)  0
 x  1 or x  6
Test the roots: When x  1 , LHS = 1  2  2(1)  4 is not defined.
 x  1 is not a root of the given equation.
When x  6 , LHS = 6  2  2(6)  11  2  1  1
RHS  6  5  1  RHS
 x  6 is a root of the given equation.
Therefore, the equation on has one root x  6 .

2.11 System of Equations in Two unknowns

Elimination Method

Example 2.11.1 Solve the system of equations by elimination method:

1. 3x  2 y  1; 5x  2 y  23

Solution: 3x  2 y  1
+ ( 5x  2 y  23 )

8x  24  x  3 and 3(3)  2 y  1  y  4 .
Substitution Method

Example 3.9 Solve the system of equations by substitution method:

1. 3x  2 y  1; 5x  2 y  23

2. y  2 x; y  x2 1

42
3. 3x  7 y  6  0; x 2  y 2  4
Solutions:
1. 3x  2 y  1; 5x  2 y  23
We make either x or y the subject of the formula of one equation and substitute in the other
equation:
1−2𝑦 1−2𝑦
𝑥= ⇒ 5( ) − 2𝑦 = 23 ⇒ 5 − 10𝑦 − 6𝑦 = 69
3 3
1−2(−4)
⇒ 𝑦 = −4. Replacing this in the first equation we have 𝑥 = = 3.
3
Therefore the solution set is {3, −4}.

2. y  2 x; y  x2 1

Replacing 𝑦 = 2𝑥 in the other equation we have

2𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 1 or 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 1 ± √2.

When 𝑥 = 1 ± √2, 𝑦 = 2 ± 2√2. Therefore the solution set is

{(1 + √2, 2 + 2√2), (1 − √2, 2 − 2√2)}.

3. 3𝑥 − 7𝑦 + 6 = 0; 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 4
From the first equation we have
7𝑦−6
𝑥= 3
. Replacing this in the second equation we have
7𝑦−6 2
( ) − 𝑦 2 = 4 or (7𝑦 − 6)2 − 9𝑦 2 = 36
3

49𝑦 2 − 84𝑦 + 36 − 9𝑦 2 = 36 or 40𝑦 2 − 84𝑦 = 0

⇒ 4𝑦(𝑦 − 21) = 0 ⇒ 𝑦 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 21
When 𝑦 = 0, 𝑥 = −2 and when 𝑦 = 21, 𝑥 = 47.
Therefore, the solution set is {(−2,0), (47,21)}.

43
TUTORIAL SHEET 5

1. Without solving the equations determine the nature of the roots of each of the following
quadratic equations.
(a) 3𝑥 2 + 13𝑥 − 10 = 0 (b) 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2 = 0 (c) 4𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 9 = 0
2. If the roots of the quadratic equation 𝑘𝑥 2 + 30𝑥 + 25 = 0 are equal, find the value of k.
3. Prove that kx2  2 x  (k  2)  0 has real roots for any value of k.

4. Find a relationship between p and q if the roots of px 2  qx  1  0 are equal.

5. Without solving write down the sums and products of the roots of the following
equations:
x 1 3
(a) 4 x 2  7 x  3  0 (b)  (c) ax 2  x(a  2)  a  0 .
2 x2
6. The roots of the quadratic equation 3𝑥 2 + 13𝑥 − 10 = 0 are  and  . Find the value of :
1 1
(a)  2   2 (b)  2 (d) (   ) 2 .
 1  1
2

7. The roots 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 10 = 0 are  and  . Without finding the values of  and  , find
the equations whose roots are:
1 1  
(a)   2,   2 (b) , (c) , (d)    ,    .
   
8. (a) On the same diagram, sketch the graphs of y  x and 𝑦 = |2𝑥 − 1|.
(b) Solve the equation |𝑥| = |2𝑥 − 1|.
9. Solve each of the following equations:
𝑘−2
(a) |2𝑥 − 5| = 7 (b) 2 x  1  4 x  3 (c) | | = 3.
𝑘−1
10. On the same diagram, sketch the graphs of y  24  2 x  x 2 and y  5 x  4 .
Solve the equation 24  2 x  x 2  5x  4 .

11. Solve each of the following equations:

(a) 2t  1  2  t (b) 2 x  1  x  3  1 (c) 2x  1  x  3  1

(d) x  2  2 x  11  x  5 (e) 1 2 x  x 1 .

12. Solve each of following system of equations by the substitution method:

𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 3 3𝑥 − 5𝑦 = 2
(a) { (b) { .
𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 1 2𝑥 + 5𝑦𝑦 = 13

13. Solve each of following simultaneous equations:

2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 3 = 0 𝑥−𝑦 = 2
(a) { 2 (b) ) {
𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 𝑦 = 3 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 = 8

44