AIMS Energy, 7(6): 971–988.

DOI: 10.3934/energy.2019.6.971
Received: 04 September 2019
Accepted: 10 December 2019
Published: 24 December 2019
http://www.aimspress.com/journal/energy

Review

The additional functions of smart inverters

Kushan Tharuka Lulbadda* and K.T.M.U. Hemapala

Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Moratuwa, Moratuwa 10400, Sri Lanka

* Correspondence: Email: [email protected]; Tel: +94712736891.

Abstract: As a result of the rapid rise of distributed generation (DG) from Renewable energy
sources, the grid becomes more vulnerable. Therefore, DG systems are needed to be controlled with
high flexibility and reliability to get rid of those vulnerabilities. At the same time the power quality is
also needed to be developed. To help this process the traditional solar inverters are also should be
advanced with some additional smart functions as “Smart Inverters”. In order to standardize this
process, IEEE has introduced a series of standards called IEEE 1547. At the beginning of this paper,
these issues are discussed which are listed under smart inverters. Then the supporting functions are
summarized, under two categories as power system support functions and user-friendliness
improving functions. The advantages, along with the disadvantages, are given in order to better
understanding of these functions.

Keywords: smart inverters; smart functions; issues; IEEE1547; power system stabilization; communication;
user friendly

1. Introduction

As a result of the increase in power demand, the whole world is adapting the usage of renewable
energy. With this revolution, isolated areas, or large building schemes which have Distributed Energy
Resources (DER) are being converted to smart grids.
Due to the high saturation level of DER traditional inverters get stress with the system. From
several studies it has found that some issues contribute to these behaviors of inverters. As a solution
for these common problems the smart inverters come into play by solving most of the problems of
the traditional system. With the new technology the normal inverter gets upgraded to smart inverters
in order to withstand new challenges in the modern grid. Since smart inverters work autonomously,
they have a positive impact on the implemented residential sector as well as the national power
 972

grid. The traditional grid requires constant maintenance due to the stress, but smart inverters
could help to address these localized challenges and growth the flexibility of the system [1].
With the progress of the smart inverters in smart grids IEEE gave a standard ‘IEEE 1547
Standard” for smart inverters. The main purpose is to standardize the inter-links and
interoperability of DERs with the connected Electric Power Systems (EPS). Certain standards
and requirements for interlinks of DERs with the EPSs, and associated interfaces were
launched by this standard [2]. Certain requirements for safety, interoperability, functionality,
security, testing [3,4] and maintenance are specified in the standard [5].
When updated the traditional inverters to the smart inverters, it catches some smartness with
additional functions. Mainly there are two sides to consider for smartness as improvement of the user
friendliness and stabilize the power system.
The objective of this paper is to review the available technologies regarding functions of smart
inverters. The following sections in the paper describes the evolution of the current smart inverter in
detail along with smart inverter functions.

2. The issues with current inverters

The inverter plays a main role as a main component which is used to make the interconnection
between DERs and the power system. The inverters get stuck in some abnormal conditions due to the
complexity of the current power system. From those bunch of issues few several issues are discussed
as below.

2.1. Overheating

Most electronic components inside the inverters are sensitive to temperatures. High temperatures
will cause a considerable reduction of the power production, and if the maximum operating
temperature is reached it can even stop the production. Therefore a method must be there to ensure
the suitableness of the proposed thermal management system in the designing stage of the inverter.
To get the maximum efficiency, a regular checking of cooling during the operational period is
highly advisable and it is better to make sure that the cooling or the ventilation system is operating
correctly. Additionally, a number of steps can be taken such as installing and cleaning dust filters as
well as removing soles that obstruct airflow, in order to avoid extremely high temperatures.
For the optimal cost design of an inverter, increasing the switching frequency can reduce the
inductance and capacitance values. As a result of increasing the switching losses, the cost of cooling
will increase [6].

2.2. Isolation fault

Inverter will report an “isolation alarm” when a short-circuit occurs between various parts of the
inverter circuit. The main causes of these defects are the combination of moisture, damage to the
sleeve on the cabling, installation failure, and poor connectivity to the DC cables in the panel. This is
most common in areas with high humidity or near the sea. In the event of an isolation fault, the
inverter will stop working completely or the inverter is not performing at its maximum capacity. In
both cases, production is lost.

AIMS Energy Volume 7, Issue 6, 971–988.

 973

As a solution for this problem, preventive maintenance program can be scheduled. Sensors are
used to quantify the irradiance, temperature and wind situations and to measure the fulfilment of the
entire system at large PV stations [7].

2.3. Inverter does not restart after a grid fault

An inverter must be able to restart after a grid fault of an unbalance (if there are no other faults).
If the inverter does not reboot, a service group will have to come to the location in order to reboot the
system. This can lead to unnecessary product, loss of money and time.
Use of a good monitoring system for 24/7 is much important for detecting the faults as quickly
as possible. All PV modules linked to the inverter will be unable to send power until the fault or the
error has been discovered. Therefore it is more important to have an organized system. This is
especially the case in areas where grid connectivity is not always stable. Grid-connected inverters
typically have software for parameter setting and system monitoring [8] which has the facilities to
record the system operation and on-line visualization in a remote manner. Also some of them can
contain monitoring [9] external signals such as irradiance and temperature. Different products have
different capabilities in these areas and fields [10]. Figure 1 shows a sample diagram for the remote
monitoring system.

Figure 1. Remote monitoring system.

2.4. The finding of MPPT

Almost all the current inverters operate on the concept of the Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)
operation [11]. This function has been developed with the intention of maximizing the achievements
of inverters. Due to the scale of today's large PV systems, several rows of PV modules are linked
together in series, called “strings”. However, not all strings produce the same quantity of power as a
consequence of many factors such as shading, different placing, errors in panel, etc. The strings
provide dissimilar voltages, and in this respect the difference between the strings continuously
changes. The MPPT algorithm is designed in such a way that the inverter is always connected to the
most optimum supply voltage in spite of these variances in PV strings. The control period of MPPT

AIMS Energy Volume 7, Issue 6, 971–988.

 974

has an important impression on the efficiency of power generation and the steadiness of the PV
system [12]. This always maximizes the production of electricity. Therefore it is important to
recognize the working order of the MPPT module in order to maximize the efficiency. A sample
diagram and a graph to describe the MPPT tracking system is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. MPPT tracking.

A number of algorithms has been established to track the maximum power point efficiently.
Most of the current MPPT algorithms suffer from slow tracking, which in turn reduces the utility
efficiency. It is difficult to estimate the efficiency of a PV inverter only by considering the translation
efficiency [13]. Therefore to evaluate the overall efficiency of PV inverter, the MPPT efficiency of
PV inverter should be tested [14]. The Table 1 below, shows the summary of the above issues.

Table 1. Summary of the issues.

The issue Author’s comment

Faulty installation Expert worker must install the device using the installation manual and must check with particular
tests
Overheating There must be a proper cooling or ventilation system in the Inverter. Preventive maintaining
program must be there
Isolation Fault It is essential to confirm that the high quality DC cables are being used and correctly installed.
Maintenance must be carried out with the appropriate safety standards.
Not restarting It is better to make of high quality monitoring system for 24/7 to detect the faults and errors as
after a grid fault quickly as possible.
Finding of It is better to find a way to maximize the efficiency of finding the MPPT and to catch the most
optimum MPPT optimum supply voltage from PV strings.

3. Development of the smart inverter

When considering the above issues, it indicates that the normal PV inverters do not have the
flexibility to manage large volumes of renewable energy and manage system reliability. Most
conventional inverters automatically are disconnected from the network at specific voltages or

AIMS Energy Volume 7, Issue 6, 971–988.

 975

frequencies. IEEE 1547 standard gives the requirements for full disconnection of the inverter in
some voltage variations. If there is a drop or spike in voltage that reaches this margin, the inverter
will cut off from the system. This looks like an error to the defense [15] equipment installed on the
feeder and the result is a systemic power outage. The smart inverters are flexible for these conditions
which can prevent these problems. When the conventional inverters get shut off, the smart inverters
can continue to allow power to flow. Smart inverters are remotely programmable components that
allow to control the ramp rates, inputs and outputs of the converter, accurately. Moreover, they won’t
just cut out like traditional inverters since their thresholds are adjustable.
Smart inverters let two-way communication with utility control centers. In addition, advanced
capabilities such as voltage and frequency sensors allow smart inverters to detect grid abnormalities
and send the feedback to utility operators. The Figure 3 below, shows a general block diagram of
smart PV inverter system.

Figure 3. General block diagram of smart PV inverter.

4. IEEE 1547 standard on smart inverters

IEEE Standard 1547 was cited in the U.S. Federal Energy Policy Act of 2005, under Section 1254
Interconnection Services, stating “Interconnection services shall be offered based upon the standards
developed by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Standard 1547 for Interconnecting
Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems, as they may be amended from time to time.” As
shown in the Figure 4, there is a series of standards IEEE 1547 which addressed the standards for
Grid integration of DERs [16].
From the series of standard, IEEE Standard 1547 (2003) was the first about DER
interconnection. Likewise the standard delivers requirements are applicable to the performance,
procedure, testing, safety considerations, and maintenance of the interconnection. The IEEE 1547
necessities are universally needed for interconnection of DER, including synchronous and induction
machines, and power inverters and converters.
Under the IEEE 1547.8 it addresses the advanced controls and communications for inverters
supporting the grid and best practices focusing on the multiple inverters and micro-grids, and
provides information for the behavior of DER and interactions with grid equipment (both operational
and safety associated, including unintentional islanding) and interconnection system reaction to

AIMS Energy Volume 7, Issue 6, 971–988.

 976

abnormal circumstances [17].

Figure 4. IEEE 1547 series of standards [16].

5. Functions of smart inverters

Considering the smart inverter functions and requirements to full fill common problems of the
inverters, it can be defined in two sections as, functions for power system stabilization and
communication based functions to improve the user friendliness. Figure 5 shows the sub functions of
both categories.

Figure 5. Two main categories.

AIMS Energy Volume 7, Issue 6, 971–988.

 977

5.1. Functions for power system stabilization

The smart inverters came into play with some additional smartness by adding some functions to
supply a smooth service. In order to reach higher power system stability, efficiency [18] and
reliability, and to improve the control [19] algorithms it is valuable to arm the inverters with “smart”
features. According to several researches [20] they had identified seven high-priority inverter
functions which are listed in Figure 6 that can stable the power system.
The seven functions are:

Figure 6. Seven functions.

5.1.1. Connect/Disconnect from grid

This function provides two options for an inverter to cease operation and disconnect from the
grid. The first is to set the power output to zero. This is also known as, a virtual disconnect. The
second is the physical operation of a switch to isolate the inverter from the grid. This can be referred
to as a physical disconnect.

Figure 7. Connect/ Disconnect mechanism.

This function is not related to intentional islanding nor separating a customer from the grid. It

AIMS Energy Volume 7, Issue 6, 971–988.

 978

refers to the management of a switch, or virtual switch that separates at the DER from the grid while
leaving customers linking to the grid. In reference to the example diagram in Figure 7, this function
relates to the operation of the “Local DER Switch,” not the “Grid Switch.” The Table 2 below,
further explains this relationship [21].

Table 2. Description of commands on inverters that support both virtual and physical disconnects.
Virtual State Physical State Action from DER
Connect Connect Connect to the grid and energize.

Connect Disconnect Perform a physical disconnect but may remain energized and provide
active and reactive power to devices.
Disconnect Connect Perform a virtual disconnect but may remain physically connected to the
grid.
Disconnect Disconnect Set both active and reactive power to zero but also operate disconnect
switch to provide galvanic isolation.

5.1.2. Power output adjustment

Table 3. Sample researches.

Author Functions Description
under consideration
[12] J. W. Smith et al., var management The volt/var control technique has been modeled using “OpenDSS”
2011 software with simulated in a real feeder model and got the results
successfully. The test circuit is a real distribution circuit of 12kV
[22] B. Arbab-Zavar et Plug and Play Concepts which helps to minimizing communication requirements
al., 2019 Self-Awareness for its usual operation are described
Cooperativeness Recommend an architecture to connect the components to the cloud
Adaptability with adding some qualities such as reliable, fast, secure,
Autonomy bidirectional etc.
[25] H. Wang et al., Power control A flexible power controller, which can be flexibly change from one
2016 to another mode during operation is developed.
It based on the single-phase PQ theory (for 1-3 kW system).
[26] M. Bouzguenda et Energy conversion Based on separating the DC source from the grid when the zero
al., 2011 voltage takes place to minimize the generated leakage current.
(for minimum leakage current level of 30mA within the German
standards)
[27] H. Liang et al., Power sharing and Proposed a power distribution based control strategy combines the
2013 control information of the total real power and reactive power generation of
Communication all DG units. (using droop control method)
(autonomy) Two kinds of investigative models are developed with respect to
negligible and non-negligible communication delays.
(by increasing the Communication delay from 0 to 50 ms)

AIMS Energy Volume 7, Issue 6, 971–988.

 979

This is a main function of an inverter which includes two kinds of powers as active and reactive
power. PV panel can be categorized as a DC power source. There is no reactive power connected
with PV itself. Therefore, the only intention of the inverter input side will be to extract the maximum
active power from the PV, and such control will be known as MPPT [22]. The inverter output side is
dealing with the AC powers. That means active and reactive power components are there since active
reactive power (apparent power) is only dealing with the AC side.
Grid frequency increases as a result of excessive generation and or insufficient load. Therefore,
its active power output is changed relative to grid frequency. The desired response of the inverter is
to reduce active power output when the frequency is high. Likewise, it is desired for the inverter to
increase active power output as frequency decreases.
PV inverters typically have a maximum commanded power limit and are only able to provide an
over-voltage response if the inverter is already at full active power output. Inverter should have the
capability to provide voltage support to the grid via adjustment of the inverter’s active power output,
which changes in grid voltage [23].
Other than the pure active power, the system has a reactive power component also. When
considering the inverter circuits, the inverters will remain purposeless during night hours when the
renewable sources are not available. This decreases the efficient use of these inverters. One way to
rise the productive operation of these inverters is to generate reactive power in each time when the
renewable sources are not existing by operating them as VAR compensators. As the number of
grid-tied inverters rises, their usage part as VAR compensators will support to reduce the necessity of
additional capacity banks as well as in the grid voltage regulation.
There are several special designed active filter inverters in the market [24]. But they are not
appropriate for grid-tie uses. It will be very supportive to allow current grid-tied inverters to operate
in reactive power generation mode [25] when there is no active power input from PVs, which
typically powers the control circuit, pays for the inverter internal fatalities, and keeps a regulated DC
bus voltage. In the absence of activated power, the difficulty is to charge the DC bus and to keep it
regulated within the certain limitations while injecting the preferred level of reactive power into the
power grid [26,27]. For the inverter to operate in reactive power mode, it must compensate for its
internal power losses and maintain its DC bus voltage within the appropriate range [28]. When the
renewable source does not exist the inverter has to absorb little active power from the grid to pay for
the inverter’s internal losses, adjust the DC bus voltage to keep it within limits, as well as to keep the
grid connection and operate the inverters in VAR mode. Other than the active power generation this
extends the use of PV inverters and help to improve the grid stability and voltage regulation [29].

5.1.3. Var management

Under Var management, there are few Var control methods [30,31]. They are [20]
A. Unity Power Factor, Q = 0
The inverter is designed to function with a unity power factor, with partial or without
re-injection of reactive power to the grid.
B. Fixed Power Factor, Q(P)
The inverter function with a moderately leading power factor. It provides a regulation to reduce
the voltage deviations attributable to active power output variations.
C. Variable Power Factor, Q(P,R/X)

AIMS Energy Volume 7, Issue 6, 971–988.

 980

This method lets the inverter to flow the reactive power back into the grid by operating with a
variable power factor.
D. Volt/Var Control
This technique would allow the inverter to reply with a customized var reply, intended by the
local utility, by monitoring its own terminal voltage [32,33].
Each of these volt/var functions can be considered as a “Mode”. The following modes have
been recognized as a preliminary set for large collections of inverters. With a single transmission
instruction from the utility the inverters can be switched between these modes.
1) PV1 – Normal Energy preservation Mode
This mode is used as the normal state of operation for an inverter. (Inverters have one volt/var
characteristic during on-peak hours and a different one during off-peak hours.)
2) PV2 – Maximum Var Sustenance Mode
Provide support for reactive power needs. This directs the distributed inverters to generate as
many capacitive vars as possible.
3) PV3 – The Static Var Mode
Proposed to be used in cases where var generation does not differ with local voltage.
4) PV4 – The Passive Var Mode
This one is same as the PV3, with the exception that the percent var settings are assumed to be
zero. The PV inverter volt/var control function can provide suitable voltage support for voltage
deviations in primary and secondary sides due to variations in PV output [34]. Voltage deviations
caused by usual load variations also can be reduced as well [20].

5.1.4. Storage management

Many number of control methods have been identified for this function. Main part of this
function is charging and discharging management. Energy storage has been suggested as the solution
to the power imbalance issue of power generation and load demand in view of the emergence of
power grids with irregular renewable energy sources. Unlike conventional control of grid connected
power inverters for injecting power in to the grid, the storage management control scheme puts the
stability of the power grid as a high priority while maintaining its normal bi-directional power flow
functions. The function mainly consists of the arrangement in battery’s monitoring, management of
charging and discharging, and output power control.
With the automatic charging and discharging approach meshed in the active power control loop,
many bidirectional [35] Energy sources with limited energy storage capacities can be used with this
function. With the help of this function distributed devices it can play an important role to provide
active and reactive power compensation for enlightening the stability of the power grid [36].

5.1.5. Event/History logging

This function indicated a high priority on the need for a common method for event logging and
reporting. For a system, it is important to monitor the behaviors or inverters and to record abnormal
conditions and events.
All event log entries will contain the following 5 fields [21]:
a) Date and time stamp:

AIMS Energy Volume 7, Issue 6, 971–988.

 981

The accuracy of this function is determined by the frequency of time synchronization and the
essential accuracy in keeping time of the PV system.
b) Data Reference:
The reference to the data point that activated the event log entry. For example, if the event is a
voltage associated event, the Data reference will be to that data object. Same as if the event is a PV
Mode event, the data reference will be the particular PV data object.
c) Value:
Value field refers for activating the event, including commands, record the changes of
monitored values, quality code changes, etc.
d) Event Code:
This field is to exclusively identify event type.
e) Optional Text Field:
This contains the text of supportive information to the system. This text field can be used to
offer additional specifics about the event.
The Event Code standard contains many codes for logging, with only a small fraction relevant
to PV and Storage systems.

5.1.6. Status reporting/reading

This function allows the operating mode, status, and set points to be available to verify
operation [37]. With increasing the penetration of DERs, it will increase the number of devices that
are owned and controlled by consumers and third parties. Therefore the system can be disclosed to
some cyber security issues and have to conform that the system is still authentic and safe with a high
DER penetration. The control architectures with the communication [9] network implementation
directly determine extent of cyber-attacks coming through the network. The smart inverter
architecture must be enhanced to monitor the local system status in order to identify the attacks and
hazards at the physical device layer. Therefore the cyber hazards can be sensed at an early stage. Also
they can estimate the local voltage and current [38] to sense system variances. In this function, the
directories of power quality, unbalanced voltages/currents, and other occasions, will be intended to
detect the cyber-attacks [39].

5.1.7. Time adjustment

The ability to set the time in the DER device was considered as a main requirement, in order to
support the scheduling of functions, and the time-stamping and logging of events.
Researches indicated that time-adjustment is generally supported by the specific communication
protocols. Therefore as a recommended method for time-adjustment for distributed smart inverters is
to apply the native time adjustment mechanism of the specific communication protocol being applied.
As examples, the “DNP3” and the “ZigBee Smart Energy Profile 1.0” protocols have defined
time-setting mechanisms that can be used for synchronizing smart inverter devices [21]. The Table 4
below, shows the technical possibilities and the practical issues of above functions.

AIMS Energy Volume 7, Issue 6, 971–988.

 982

Table 4. Technical possibilities and practical issues 1.

Smart Inverter Technical possibilities and practical issues
Functions
Connect/ Should have the ability to disconnect physically and virtually in overload or malfunctioning
Disconnect from Grid situations
Power Output Should have the ability to change the mode according to the active power and reactive
Adjustment power components in day and night.
VAR Management Should have ability to change among the volt/VAR characteristic “Modes” according to the
situation and respond with a custom VAR response
Storage Management A battery management system should be used for charging/discharging management, and
(Charging/Discharging) output power control.
Event/History Logging There must be a set of uniform event codes and a common way to log and report the events.
Status Reporting The device must be improved to monitor the status of the local system in order to detect the
/Reading cyber threats at an early stage.
Time Adjustment A specific communication protocol must be there as the time-adjustment mechanism for
synchronizing smart inverter devices

5.2. Communication based functions to improve the user friendliness

When comparing with the components in a grid system, one of the most important objectives is
the control [40] of power inverters. These inverters implement interfaces between the DGs and the
grid bus. In smart inverter development an explanation of “smartness” states to minimizing the
requirement of communication. At the same time, being equipped with communication protocols also
indicates “smartness” since the necessity of communication cannot be neglected. As well as these
advantages, there is a main disadvantage regarding security that can effect the communication and
monitoring improvements. Mainly, the privacy issues can spring up with these developments. A
“smart inverter” should provide some features as shown in the Figure 8 below.

Figure 8. Communication based functions.

5.2.1. Plug and play

Plug-and-play (PnP) is the ability for a smart inverter to add for a power system and operate

AIMS Energy Volume 7, Issue 6, 971–988.

 983

automatically without separate technical configuration. The PnP operation ensures in system benefits
of scalability, interoperability, resilience, and reliability. PnP can be implemented at the power
converters [41] with flexible hardware structures and the smart inverters for power grids in the
purpose of distributing frequency/voltage regulation [42].
Plug and play means that a distributed power supply can access to the grid directly without
control and defend units. Management technology will be needed when distributed power with the
function of “plug and play” accesses to the grid. It consists of the control strategy of the system
change, energy management, quality of power maintenance etc. Related technology of the inverter is
difficult to implement in the short term because of the level of development and the limits of the
current standards. The power output of the inverters can always be set aside in the rating working
point. Therefore, each component can be controlled by itself according to the operational situation of
the system by implementing the technology of “Plug and Play” Control [43].

5.2.2. Self-awareness

Self-awareness becomes a significant function for decentralized systems to realize advanced

levels of autonomous behavior [44]. For smart inverters, self-awareness aims to improve the
operative reliability and predicting the lifetime, thus enabling fail-safe or maintenance actions and
effectively avoiding terrible accident in systems using power electronics. Additionally, it is expected
that future smart inverters own certain degree of intelligence, as knowledge of its role or status
within its environment and the likely effect of possible future actions [42].

Table 5. Sample researches.

Author Functions under Description
consideration
[28] V. T. Dao et al., Volt-var Use the forecast statistics of solar panels and load demand of
2018 Volt-watt. the day to regulate appropriate parameters for each function.
(using the PV generation of 43 houses)
Smart inverter optimization problem with optimization of loss
decrease and exploitation is formulated and presented through
simulations.
[29] X. Zhao., 2018 Reactive control Feasible approaches to implement these functions are
Fault ride-through examined and tested in a single-phase PV system developed by
Harmonic compensation the authors. ( Power rating of 5kW )
Mentioned about the challenges which gives to the distribution
network by increasing installation of DG elements into the
grid.
[30] E. Ortjohann et al., Frequency and voltage The proposed control approach is verified in a FPGA-based 25
2014 stabilization at asymmetrical kVA smart grid inverter module.
loads By using the symmetrical components, the asymmetrical
three-phase currents and voltages are stated in three
symmetrical reference frames.

AIMS Energy Volume 7, Issue 6, 971–988.

 984

5.2.3. Adaptability

The adaptability is another critical characteristic of a smart inverter. A smart inverter, to be able
to adapt itself to the variations of the system in the operating conditions. This means the capability to
evaluate the parameters, mostly the impedance of the grid, and synchronization in terms of frequency.
Unintended islanding is one of the most remarkable functioning problems of grid system. This
happens mainly due to grid failure, and the inverters are required to be included with islanding
recognition algorithms in order to self-adapt, depending on the situation. Fault Tolerance and
Islanding Detection are also categorized in this category [45].

5.2.4. Autonomy

Outline of this function is the system being smart enough to decide its own operation mode.
Autonomous behavior is an elementary property for a distributed system. Furthermore, smart inverter
with autonomous operation can be necessary in case of limited or no communication, or if desired
for reliability [42]. One common situation is autonomous load power sharing using droop methods [46]
when multiple inverters operate in parallel. For autonomous operation, smart inverters shall achieve
skills such as dynamic grid feeding, dynamic grid creating, black start, seamless power transfer, and
the power quality enhancement. Other autonomous functions in [47] are required by the power utility
for distributed generations.

5.2.5. Cooperativeness

The meaning of this function is the ability of an inverter requires to be able to function in
cooperatively and together with other inverters in a grid. All the inverters are essential to take some
responsibility to regulate and rectify the unbalances and conflicts standing in the system. Their
process should be in alignment with other neighboring components, when they are in operation.
Therefore further disturbances will be introduced to the system. Furthermore, there are other aspects
which lie in this category such as ramp rate control for renewable energy sources, reactive power and
harmonic current sharing and soft start capability [45]. The Table 6 below, summarises the technical
possibilities and practical issues of above functions. The Table 7 below, shows the comparing
between traditional inverters and smart inverters considering the smart functions.

Table 6. Technical possibility and practical issues 2.

Smart Inverter Technical possibility and practical issues
Functions
Plug and Play A safety and high speed communication protocol is needed
Self–Awareness Detection algorithm must be used to get certain degree of intelligence
Adaptability Feedback control method must be used. Required extra hardware and other devices to the
moderation process
Autonomy When there is limited or no communication, autonomy operation is necessary for system
reliability.
Cooperativeness Requirement of Communication is more than the other functions since it has to communicate in
between inverters

AIMS Energy Volume 7, Issue 6, 971–988.

 985

Table 7. Comparing of functions.

Smart Functions Traditional inverters Smart inverters
Plug and play NO YES
Autonomy NO YES
Adaptability NO YES
Self-awareness NO YES
Cooperativeness NO YES
Physical and Virtual Connect/ Disconnect NO YES
Reactive power output at night NO YES
Dynamic Power factor NO YES
Dynamic battery charging management NO YES
Pre identification of attacks and hazards NO YES
Time scheduling NO YES

6. Conclusions

As the high penetration level of the DGs the traditional inverters are being converted to the
smart inverters by adding some additional functions to make the inverter smart. In order to state a
device as smart, it has to represent several potentials and characteristics mostly depending on its
application and operation. So that in order to standardize these smartness process, IEEE has given
some series of standards called IEEE 1547 which have been described above.
This paper discusses, currently available smart functions for inverters to get rid of some issues
smartly. In this study, the features have been described for inverters, which are used as interfaces for
DGs in power grids. As a brief summary of the concepts addressed above it can be identified that
smartness of an inverter in a power grid, should have both ability to stabilize the power system by
improving the power quality [33] as well as the improving the user friendliness by minimizing the
communication requirements. There are some different functions to improve the power system
stabilization as addressed above. Improving the user-friendliness mostly relates to minimizing
communication necessities for its normal operation.
Furthermore by improving these functions further for smart inverts, it will help the world
energy demand by getting the maximum usage of the renewable resources with the highest
efficiency.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest in this paper.

References

1. From Smart Meters to Smart Inverters: How DVI Is Optimizing the Distributed Grid
Greentechmedia.com, 2018. Available from: https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/
DVIs-grid-edge-vision-from-smart-meters-to-smart-inverters.
2. Enayati B (2018) Impacts of the IEEE 1547, standard of DER interconnections, on smart
inverters. National Grid: 1–13.

AIMS Energy Volume 7, Issue 6, 971–988.

 986

3. Liu YJ, Lan PH, Lin HH (2014) Grid-connected PV inverter test system for solar photovoltaic
power system certification. IEEE Power Energy Soc Gen Meet: 1–5.
4. Peng W. General Application of Smart inverters in Distribution and Smart Grid. University of
Nevada, Las Vegas, August 2015.
5. De Muro AG, Rodriguez-Seco JE, Zabala E, et al. (2009) Inverter interconnection tests
performed in the LABEIN-Tecnalia microgrid involved in the DERlab round-robin testing
activity. 2009 10th International Conference on Electrical Power Quality and Utilisation, Lodz,
Poland.
6. Jamal H, Albatran S, Smadi IA (2016) Optimal design of output LC filter and cooling for
three-phase voltage-source inverters using teaching-learning-based optimization. 2016 IEEE
Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE), Milwaukee, USA.
7. Formica TJ, Khan HA, Pecht MG (2017) The effect of inverter failures on the return on
investment of solar photovoltaic systems. IEEE Access 5: 21336–21343.
8. Kabalci E (2017) A smart monitoring infrastructure design for distributed renewable energy
systems. Energ convers manage 90: 336–346.
9. Moreno-García IM, Moreno-Munoz A, Domingo-Perez F, et al. (2012) Smart grid inverter
interface: statistical approach applied to event detection. 2012 IEEE International Workshop on
Applied Measurements for Power Systems (AMPS) Proceedings, Aachen, Germany.
10. Abella MA, Chenlo F (2004) Choosing the right inverter for grid-connected PV systems. Renew
Energ World 7: 132–147.
11. Pal D, Bajpai P (2016) Active and reactive power control in three phase solar PV inverter using
modified IC method. 2016 21st Century Energy Needs-Materials, Systems and Applications
(ICTFCEN), Kharagpur, India.
12. Jia Y, Wu R (2016) Voltage source grid-connected pv inverters based on mppt and droop control.
2016 IEEE 2nd Annual Southern Power Electronics Conference (SPEC), Auckland, New
Zealand.
13. Notton G, Lazarov V, Stoyanov L (2010) Optimal sizing of a grid-connected PV system for
various PV module technologies and inclinations, inverter efficiency characteristics and
locations. Renew Energ 35: 541–554.
14. Dong Y, Dong W, Xu L, et al. (2015) Investigation of PV inverter MPPT efficiency test platform.
International Conference on Renewable Power Generation (RPG), 1–4.
15. Yazdanpanahi H, Li YW, Xu W (2012) A new control strategy to mitigate the impact of
inverter-based DGs on protection system. IEEE T Smart grid 3: 1427–1436.
16. Basso T (2015) IEEE 1547 standards for grid integration of distributed energy resources. IEEE
PES Seattle Chapter Meeting, 5–18.
17. Basso T (2014) IEEE 1547 and 2030 standards for distributed energy resources interconnection
and interoperability with the electricity grid. National Renewable Energy Lab, Golden, CO
(United States).
18. González R, Gubía E, López J, et al. (2008) Transformerless single-phase multilevel-based
photovoltaic inverter. IEEE T Ind Electron 55: 2694–2702.
19. Dissanayaka D, Fernando CTJ, Abeyratne SG (2011) Smart meter based inverter controlling
network for demand response applications in smart grids. 2011 6th International Conference on
Industrial and Information Systems, Kandy, Sri Lanka.

AIMS Energy Volume 7, Issue 6, 971–988.

 987

20. Smith JW, Sunderman W, Dugan R, et al. (2011) Smart inverter volt/var control functions for
high penetration of PV on distribution systems, Phoenix, USA.
21. Electric Power Research Institute (2016) Common Functions for Smart Inverters: 4th Edition.
Available from: https://www.epri.com/#/pages/product/000000003002008217/.
22. Sachin J, Vivek A (2007) A single-stage grid connected inverter topology for solar PV systems
with maximum power point tracking. IEEE T Power Electron 22: 1928–1940.
23. Bobruk J (2017) What are “smart” inverters? Presented at Smart Inverters 101, ISEA Business
Member Webinar: 5–39. Available from: https://www.illinoissolar.org/resources/Documents/ISEA%
20Smart%20Inverter%20Webinar.pptx.
24. Miñambres-Marcos V, Romero-Cadaval E, Guerrero-Martí nez M Á, et al. (2012) Three-phase
single stage photovoltaic inverter with active filtering capabilities. IECON 2012-38th Annual
Conference on IEEE Industrial Electronics Society, Montreal, Canada.
25. Kumar N, Saha TK, Dey J (2014) Cascaded two level inverter based grid connected
photovoltaic system: Modelling and control. 2014 IEEE International Conference on Industrial
Technology (ICIT), Busan, South Korea.
26. Schonardie MF, Ruseler A, Coelho RF, et al. (2010) Three-phase grid-connected PV system with
active and reactive power control using dq0 transformation. 2010 9th IEEE/IAS International
Conference on Industry Applications-INDUSCON 2010, Sao Paulo, Brazil.
27. Jafari M, Olowu TO, Sarwat AI (2018) Optimal smart inverters volt-var curve selection with a
multi-objective volt-var optimization using evolutionary algorithm approach. 2018 North
American Power Symposium, Fargo, USA.
28. Wang Z, Ren L, Gong C, et al. (2015) The control strategy of interleaved full-bridge inverter
with a common DC-bus. 2015 IEEE 10th Conference on Industrial Electronics and Applications.
Auckland, New Zealand.
29. Maknouninejad A, Kutkut N, Batarseh I, et al. (2011) Analysis and control of PV inverters
operating in VAR mode at night, Anaheim, USA.
30. Chakraborty S, Hoke A, Lundstrom B (2015) Evaluation of multiple inverter volt-var control
interactions with realistic grid impedances. 2015 IEEE Power and Energy Society General
Meeting, Denver, USA.
31. Braslavsky JH, Collins LD, Ward JK (2017) Voltage stability in a grid-connected inverter with
automatic Volt-Watt and Volt-VAR functions. IEEE T Smart Grid 10: 84–94.
32. Ding F, Nguyen A, Walinga S, et al. (2017) Application of autonomous smart inverter volt-var
function for voltage reduction energy savings and power quality in electric distribution systems.
2017 IEEE Power and Energy Society Innovative Smart Grid Technologies Conference,
Washington, USA.
33. Kraiczy M, York B, Bello M, et al. (2018) Coordinating smart inverters with advanced
distribution voltage control strategies. 2018 IEEE Power and Energy Society General Meeting,
Portland, USA.
34. Kashani MG, Mobarrez M, Bhattacharya S (2018) Smart inverter volt-watt control design in
high PV-penetrated distribution systems. IEEE T Ind Appl 55: 1147–1156.
35. Kerekes T, Teodorescu R, Rodríguez P, et al. (2009) A new high-efficiency single-phase
transformerless PV inverter topology. IEEE T Ind Electron 58: 184–191.
36. Yang T, Mok KT, Tan SC, et al. (2016) Electric springs with coordinated battery management
for reducing voltage and frequency fluctuations in microgrids. IEEE T Smart Grid 9: 1943–1952.

AIMS Energy Volume 7, Issue 6, 971–988.

 988

37. Brian S, Aminul H, Lindsey R, et al. (2016) Smart grid ready PV inverters with utility
communication. Electric Power Research Institute 1–56.
38. Liang Z, Alesi L, Zhou X, et al. (2010) Digital controller development for grid-tied photovoltaic
inverter with model based technique. 2010 Twenty-Fifth Annual IEEE Applied Power
Electronics Conference and Exposition, Palm Springs, USA.
39. Qi J, Hahn A, Lu X, et al. (2016) Cybersecurity for distributed energy resources and smart
inverters. IET Cyber-Physical Syst Theory Appl 1: 28–39.
40. Ortjohann E, Lingemann M, Mohd A, et al. (2018) A general architecture for modular smart
inverters. 2008 IEEE International Symposium on Industrial Electronics, Cambridge, UK.
41. Xue Y, Chang L, Song P (2004) Recent developments in topologies of single-phase buck-boost
inverters for small distributed power generators: an overview. The 4th International Power
Electronics and Motion Control Conference, Xi'an, China.
42. Xue Y, Guerrero JM (2015) Smart inverters for utility and industry applications. Proceedings of
PCIM Europe 2015; International Exhibition and Conference for Power Electronics, Intelligent
Motion, Renewable Energy and Energy Management, Nuremberg, Germany.
43. Zeng B, Kong XY, Zhang YS, et al. (2015) Study on plug and play access control for distributed
generation in microgrid. 2015 International Conference on Electrical, Automation and
Mechanical Engineering, Atlantis Press.
44. Mitchell M (2005) Self-awareness and control in decentralized systems. AAAI Spring
Symposium: Metacognition in Computation, Portland, USA.
45. Arbab-Zavar B, Palacios-Garcia EJ, Vasquez JC, et al. (2019) Smart inverters for microgrid
applications: a review. Energies 12: 840.
46. Nutkani IU, Loh PC, Wang P, et al. (2014) Autonomous droop scheme with reduced generation
cost. IEEE T Ind Electron 61: 6803–6811.
47. CPUC Smart Inverter Working Group (2014) Recommendations for updating the technical
requirements for inverters in distributed energy resources: 5–72. Available from:
https://www.cpuc.ca.gov/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id=3189.
48. Yang Y, Blaabjerg F, Wang H, et al. (2016) Power control flexibilities for grid-connected
multi-functional photovoltaic inverters. IET Renew Power Gen 10: 504–513.
49. Bouzguenda M, Gastli A, Al Badi AH, et al. (2011) Solar photovoltaic inverter requirements for
smart grid applications. 2011 IEEE PES Conference on Innovative Smart Grid
Technologies-Middle East, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
50. Liang H, Choi BJ, Zhuang W, et al. (2013) Stability enhancement of decentralized inverter
control through wireless communications in microgrids. IEEE T Smart Grid 4: 321–331.
51. Ishii H, Hayashi Y (2017) Optimal smart functions of large-scale PV inverters in distribution
systems. 2017 IEEE Innovative Smart Grid Technologies-Asia, Auckland, New Zealand.
52. Zhao X, Chang L, Shao R, et al. (2018) Power system support functions provided by smart
inverters—A review. CPSS T Power Electron Appl 3: 25–35.
53. Kortenbruck J, Ortjohann E, Leksawat S, et al. (2014) Advanced control functions for smart grid
inverter under asymmetrical conditions. 3rd Renewable Power Generation Conference, Naples, Italy.

© 2019 the Author(s), licensee AIMS Press. This is an open access

article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0)

AIMS Energy Volume 7, Issue 6, 971–988.