ES203 Physical Geology

Semester 2, 2022

Geological Field Trip Around Viti Levu, Along Kings and Queens Highway
Field Report

Name: Eran Mar

Student ID: s11197903
Abstract

The four day field trip conducted around Viti Levu was done to identify rocks types that are
present around the island. There are three types of rocks; igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic rocks. Learning the way, the rocks were formed, helped in determining why
Viti Levu is mostly made up of intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks. This is because the
volcanic activities that occurred in the past. The rocks studied were identified by the types of
minerals, texture, and chemical composition that was present in the rock. Lastly, although
infrastructural developments, weathering, and other natural and human activities have taken
place, the rocks that were studied were determined using different techniques.

Introduction

The three main types of rocks are igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. These rocks
go through different processes that classify them into their appropriate groups. Some
processes include melting, cooling, eroding, deformations, compacting (National Georgraphic
Society, 2022). The Fiji Islands is mostly made up of extrusive and intrusive igneous rocks
(Ministry of Lands and Mineral Resources, 2015). Hence, this report discusses rock types that
were found along the Kings and Queens highway on Viti Levu, it will also discuss the
minerology, chemical compositions as well as genesis of rocks found along the highways.

To begin with, when magma cools and is solidified, igneous rocks are formed. There are two
types of igneous rocks; plutonic or intrusive, and volcanic or extrusive rocks (National
Georgraphic Society, 2022). Plutonic rocks are formed within the earth’s crust. They are
formed a slower rate over thousands or millions of years and as a result, crystals are more
visible to the naked eye, and have coarse grains. Some examples of intrusive igneous rocks
present in Fiji include granite, tonalite, gabbro, and monzonite. These rocks are mainly found
around the Yavuna area in Nadi. Hot springs typically suggest the presence of hot or cold
magma that is heating groundwater not far below the Earth's surface (Ministry of Lands and
Mineral Resources, 2015). Extrusive rocks, on the other hand, are formed when the erupted
lava still contains gases, which are trapped as it cools and give the rock a bubbly texture. It is
formed on the earth’s surface, and are mainly fine-grained rocks which means the cooled at a
much quicker rate (National Georgraphic Society, 2022). Some volcanic rocks include basalt,
breccia, and pumice. Pumice is a light rock mostly found along beaches which have been
washed up form volcanic eruptions that occur in Tonga (Ministry of Lands and Mineral
Resources, 2015).
In addition, sedimentary rocks are formed from sediments of other rocks, biological materials
including plants and animals, and chemicals. There are three different types of sedimentary
rocks, namely clastic, biological, or organic, and chemical. When weathering, or the breaking
down of rocks into smaller fragments, clastic and organic rocks are formed. These particles
are separated from their source by erosion and carried to a different area by wind, water, ice,
or biological activity. The solid rocks are then formed when these fragments settle and the
layers at the bottom become compact. Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed from chemical
precipitation such as calcium carbonate, salt, and silica. Mainly formed when the liquid
solution it was dissolved in evaporates, leaving the compound behind (National Georgraphic
Society, 2022). Some examples of clastic rocks in Fiji include sandstone, siltstone, and
mudstone. Limestone is a common chemical sedimentary rock present in Fiji mainly in
Sigatoka and the Bauxite deposits in Vanua Levu. Organic- rich limestone rocks are also
present along Cuvu in Sigatoka (Ministry of Lands and Mineral Resources, 2015).

Furthermore, when igneous and sedimentary rocks undergo high temperatures and pressure,
metamorphic rocks are produced. The process by which the composition or structure of
existing rocks is altered by the action of intense heat or pressure, or by liquids or gases
percolating through them, is referred to as metamorphism. The word "metamorphism" simply
means "changing form or shape.". The formation of new minerals, such as garnet and marble,
may take place during metamorphism. These rocks are mostly found in the southern parts of
Viti Levu where metamorphism took place 10 to 12 million years ago. (Ministry of Lands
and Mineral Resources, 2015).

In conclusion, Rocks are not always formed at the same time. In an ecological cycle, which
also includes soil and rocks, people play a significant role. Rocks and minerals are constantly
being developed as a result of the natural processes that produced the rocks we can see today.
Description of Individual Observation Points

Stop 1: Right hand side of Kings highway from Suva to Nadi. Uphill before Wailotua
village.

Coordinates: 17.6095˚S, 177.43964˚E

The rocks had large layers with large clasts where the clasts were rounded and had an average
size approximately the size of a person’s palm. There was more cementing material than
clasts present on the rocks. The rock is a clastic sedimentary rock which is matrix supported.
The texture is phaneritic.

Interpretation: Since the rock is matrix supported and has a phaneritic texture, it is said to be
a clastic sedimentary rock. The cementing material reacted with diluted hydrochloric acid
which indicates that has presence of calcite. The rock can be identified as conglomerate
which is coarse grained and matrix supported with rounded clasts.

Genesis: Conglomerates can include a variety of minerals found in the parent rock when they
are formed from igneous or metamorphic rocks. Conglomerates formed from sediments, on
the other hand, tend to include a larger proportion of minerals that are stable at the Earth's
surface than in the parent rock while still reflecting the mineralogy of their source (Selley,
2005).

Figure 1 & 2: Conglomerate rock that was identified

Stop 2: Right hand side of Kings highway from Suva to Nadi. After Nayavu village. Uphill
side.

Coordinates: 17.68599˚S, 178.35799˚E

The rock studied had inclined layers which were approximately 5cm to 10 cm in thickness. It
was seen to have alterations of sandstone and shale where each layer had sublayers thickness
more than 1cm. A fragment of the rock reacted with diluted hydrochloric acid. The rock was
slightly metamorphic. The texture was aphanitic.

Interpretation: The rock fragment reacting with diluted hydrochloric acid indicates the
presence of calcite. The rocks were identified to be in layers sandstone and shale. These
layers tell us that it is a sedimentary rock. With the presence of calcite, the rock was
identified as fine-grained calcareous sandstone.

Genesis: Most of the grains in sandstones, which are siliciclastic sedimentary rocks with clast
sizes ranging from 2 to 1/16 millimeter, are sand size. Sandstones are important for many
different reasons. They make up between 10 and 20 percent of the sedimentary rock record
on Earth in terms of volume. They have a significant impact on the landscape because they
are resistant to erosion (Schwab, 2022).

Figure 3 & 4: Fine-grained calcareous sandstone, and inclined layered rock outcrop.

Stop 3: Right hand side of Kings highway from Suva to Nadi. Uphill side.

Coordinates: 17.68598˚S, 178.37591˚E

The rocks studied had rounded clasts which were ranging from approximately 10mm to
50mm in diameter size. The clasts did not react with diluted hydrochloric acid, however it
cementing material did react. The clasts had an aphanitic texture.

Interpretation: Since the cementing material reacted with diluted hydrochloric acid, it
indicates the presence of calcite minerals. However, the high silica content in the clasts
resulted in it not reacting with the diluted hydrochloric acid. From the aphanitic texture and
dark color of the clasts, it was identified as a basaltic rock. Overall, the rock was determined
to be conglomerate.

Figure 5: Rock outcrop. Conglomerate

Stop 4: Volcanic plug near Namukulau village.

Coordinates: 17.44295˚S, 178.22638˚E

The volcanic plug was observed from afar. It is extremely fine grained with a dark color. It is
an igneous rock.

Interpretation: Since it is an aphanitic textured rock, it is determined to be volcanic. The rock

being volcanic, dark in color and aphanitic, it indicates a basaltic composition (The Editors of
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2020).

Genesis: It is evident that the Rakiraki region was a significant center of volcanic activity
given the numerous dikes and tiny plugs that erosion has exposed (Seeley & Searle, 2012).

Figure 6: Volcanic plug.

Stop 5: Left side of Kings highway from Suva to Nadi. Past Nanukulau village

Coordinates: 17.4355˚S, 178.22841˚E

The rock studied had a column like formation. It was dark colored with white spots, and had
an aphanitic texture. The white spots were identified as plagioclase. There were no clasts.

Interpretation: Since there were no clasts in the rock, it is igneous. The dark color indicates
that is mafic and has presence of basalt. The plagioclase that is present also identifies the rock
as basalt. The aphanitic texture, dark color and presence of plagioclase tell us that is rock is a
mafic volcanic rock (basalt).

Genesis: As a result of partial melting from near the surface mantle, mafic rocks, which make
up the igneous oceanic crust, are formed near mid-ocean ridge seafloor spreading centers
(Wang & Davis, 2003).

Figure 7 & 8: Basalt rock

Stop 6: Beach outcrop near Namoimada village. Along Kings highway from Suva to Nadi.

Coordinates: 17.4002˚S, 178.26112˚E

The rocks that were studied had a brownish black color. It had a few white, grey, and black
spots. It had a rough texture; however, it is aphanitic. The rock also had holes in it.
Interpretation: Since the rock is aphanitic, it is an extrusive volcanic rock which has a mafic
composition. The presence of holes is a result of gases that expand within lava (The Editors
of Encyclopaedia, 2016) and it is a secondary mineral called amygdule. The rock was
identified as a basaltic rock.

Genesis: At a depth of around 70 kilometers, basaltic magmas that make up the oceanic crust
of the Earth are formed in the asthenosphere (Jahns & Kudo, 2022).

Figure 9 & 10: Basaltic rock at beach outcrop

Stop 7: Yavuna river, left side of the bank.

Coordinates: 17.8258˚S, 177.53467˚E

Sample 1: The rock was milky white in color with translucent and green spots. It had medium
sized grains with a phaneritic texture. It is an igneous rock with a mafic composition.

Sample 2: The rock had a grey color with fine white and black crystals. It is an intrusive rock
that has a phaneritic texture.

Interpretation: Sample 1 had visible translucent whit and green spot which may indicate the
presence of plagioclase, hornblende, and quartz. Since sample 1 has a light color, it is said to
have a felsic composition. The presence of plagioclase, felsic composition, and a plutonic
nature indicated that the rock is tonalite (Haldar & Tisljar, 2014).
Interpretation: Sample 2 has a mafic composition because of its color and phaneritic texture.
The white crystals present were identified as plagioclase and the fine black crystals were
pyroxene. The rock was identified as gabbro.

Genesis: Tonalites were the only low-density, high-SiO2 rocks generated straight from
basaltic crust, which was significant in the formation of this protocontinent and earliest crust
between 3.7 and 2.9 Ga ago (Barker, et al., 1981). Gabbro is a plutonic rock that is
chemically similar to extrusive basalt and is created when molten lava trapped under the
Earth's surface cools and crystallizes (Haldar & Tisljar, 2014).

Figure 11 & 12: Samples from Yavuna river

Stop 8: Sabeto river

Coordinates: 17.73016˚S, 177.54230˚E

The rocks that were observed consisted of layers with approximately 2cm to 5cm in
thickness. The layers were greenish grey and black in color. There was also the presence of
white spots which reacted with diluted hydrochloric acid. The rock had a ductile and brittle
deformation where fragments had an aphanitic texture. There were 3 visible layers whereby
only layer 2 had a reaction with diluted hydrochloric acid. The layers differed in sizes with
layer 2 having clasts within the cementing material. Layer 3 was more phaneritic in texture.

Interpretation: There were layers that were observed which means that is a sedimentary rock.
The rock having a reaction to diluted hydrochloric acid determines the presence of calcite
within the layers. Since it was seen to have layers, it is a sedimentary type of rock with
alternating layers and compositions. Layer 1 did not react with diluted hydrochloric acid and
was identified as sandstone. Layer 2 had clasts and its cementing material reacted with
diluted hydrochloric acid and was of the same texture as layer 1 but was identified as
calcareous sandstone. Layer 3 had a sticky feeling with a phaneritic texture which indicated
mudstone. Lastly, because of the different grain sizes between the layers it is called graded
bedding.

Genesis: Some of the most noticeable potential causes of graded deposits are volcanic
eruptions, dust storms, yearly and longer climatic cycles, regeneration of topography at the
source or filling in of the sedimentary basin, and churning up of material by storm waves
(Kuenen & Migliorini, 1950).

Figure 13 & 14 & 15: Graded beddings at Sabeto river

Stop 9: Boulders at Sabeto river

Coordinates: 17.72066˚S, 177.56696˚E

The rock had presence of green, milky white, and pink spots. It is an intrusive rock with a
phaneritic texture.

Interpretation: The rock being intrusive means that it is igneous. The color of the crystals
determines the mineral composition present in the rock including hornblende, plagioclase,
and orthoclase or k-feldspar. The presence of these minerals indicate that the rock is
monzonite.

Genesis: Approximately equal proportions of K-feldspars and Na-plagioclase make up the

intermediate igneous intrusive rock known as monzonite, along with small amounts of quartz
(less than 5%) and ferromagnesian minerals (hornblende, biotite, and pyroxene) (Haldar,
2020).
 Figure 16: Monzonite at Sabeto river

Stop 10: Boulders at Sabeto river. Upstream

Coordinates: 17.72055˚S, 177.56699˚E

Layers were visible and white spots were also seen on the surface of the rock. The clasts that
were present were angular and reacted with diluted hydrochloric acid.

Interpretation: the presence of layers makes the rock a sedimentary rock. The clast having a
reaction indicates that has calcite present. The clasts also had presence of basalt and
monzonite. The layers were mostly sandstone and sediments of smaller rocks. The angular
clasts were identified as breccia and is called the Nadele volcanic breccia (Smith, 2017).

Genesis: Angular sedimentary rock fragments greater than 2 millimeters make up breccia, a
lithified sedimentary rock. Unlike a conglomerate, which is made up of rounded clasts, it is
different (The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica, 2022).
 Figure 17 & 18 & 19: Sublayers on boulders at Sabeto river

Stop 11: Korolevu Beach outcrop

The rock had a column type of structure. It was dark in color and is aphanitic in texture.

Interpretation: Since the rock is part of a beach outcrop, possible minerals that are formed
include zeolite, calcite, and quartz which are from amygdule.

Genesis: Around 570 million years ago, the rock being produced as a sequence of lava flows,
volcanic gas bubbles called vesicles resulted to these amygdule (Bentley, 2012).

Figure 20: Korolevu beach outcrop

Conclusion

The rocks that were observed were mostly intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks. This is a
result of the volcanic activities that had taken place thousands of years before. Sedimentary
rocks were also found in the boulders at the Sabeto river. Due to weathering, most of the
minerals were slightly difficult to identify because of its change in color. Moreover,
metamorphic rocks were hardly identified during the trip, because metamorphic rocks are
usually found up in the mountains. However, they can also be exposed on ground level but it
will be highly weathered and be broken down into sediments (National Georgraphic Society,
2022). Lastly it is important to study rocks as it helps determine the materials that make earth,
its structure and the systems that are related to earth.

References
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