220 !

CHAPTER 7

' 7.1 Introduction

In the previous chapter we studied the propagation of electromagnetic
waves on transmission lines and in waveguides. That is, we looked at the
“wired” part of wireless communication. In this chapter we consider the
“wireless” part. Waves propagate through space as transverse electromagnetic
(TEM) waves. This means that the electric field, the magnetic field, and the
direction of travel of the wave are all mutually perpendicular. The sketch in
Figure 7.1 is an attempt to represent this three-dimensional process in two
dimensions. The polarization of a wave is the direction of the electric field
vector. Polarization may be horizontal or vertical and can also be circular or
elliptical if the electric field vector rotates as it moves through space.
Radio waves are generated by electrons moving in a conductor, or set of
conductors, called an antenna. Antennas are the subject of the next chapter.
Once launched, electromagnetic waves can travel through free space
and through many materials. Any good dielectric will pass radio waves; the
material does not have to be transparent to light. The waves do not travel
well through lossy conductors, such as seawater, because the electric fields
cause currents to flow that dissipate the energy of the wave very quickly.
Radio waves reflect from good conductors, such as copper or aluminum.
The speed of propagation of radio waves in free space is the same as that
of light, approximately 300 × 106 m/s. In other media, the velocity is lower.

FIGURE 7.1
Transverse
electromagnetic
waves
 RADIO PROPAGATION ! 221

The propagation velocity is given by

c
vp = (7.1)
∈r
where
v p = propagation velocity in the medium
c = 300 × 10 6 m/s, the propagation velocity in free space
∈ r = the relative permittivity (dielectric constant) of the medium
This is the same equation given in Chapter 6 for the velocity of signals
along a coaxial cable. One way of thinking of such a line is to imagine an
electromagnetic wave propagating through the dielectric, guided by the
conductors. It should be no surprise that the wave equation in Chapter 6
also applies to waves in free space and dielectrics. Radio waves are refracted
as they pass from one medium to another with a different propagation veloc-
ity, just as light is.

' 7.2 Free-Space Propagation

The simplest source of electromagnetic waves would be a point in space.
Waves would radiate equally from this source in all directions. A wavefront,
that is, a surface on which all the waves have the same phase, would be the
surface of a sphere. Such a source is called an isotropic radiator and is
shown in Figure 7.2. Of course, an actual point source is not possible, but the
approximation is good at distances that are large compared with the dimen-
sions of the source. This is nearly always true of radio propagation.
If only a small area on the sphere shown in Figure 7.2 is examined and
if the distance from the center of the sphere is large, the area in question

FIGURE 7.2
Isotropic
radiator
222 ! CHAPTER 7

resembles a plane. In the same way, we experience the earth as flat, though
we know it is roughly spherical. Consequently, waves propagating in free
space are usually assumed to be plane waves, which are often simpler to deal
with than spherical waves.
There is no loss of energy as radio waves propagate in free space, but
there is attenuation due to the spreading of the waves. If a sphere were
drawn at any distance from the source and concentric with it, all the energy
from the source would pass through the surface of the sphere. Since no en-
ergy would be absorbed by free space, this would be true for any distance, no
matter how large. The energy would be spread over a larger surface as the dis-
tance from the source increased.
Since an isotropic radiator radiates equally in all directions, the power
density, in watts per square meter, is simply the total power divided by the
surface area of the sphere. Put mathematically,
Pt
PD = (7.2)
4πr 2
where
P D = power density in W/m 2
P t = transmitted power in W
r = distance from the antenna in meters
Not surprisingly, this is the same “square-law” attenuation that applies
to light and sound, and, in fact, to any form of radiation. It is important to
realize that this attenuation is not due to any loss of energy in the medium,
but only to the spreading out of the energy as it moves farther from the
source. Any actual losses will be in addition to this.

EXAMPLE 7.1 Y
A power of 100 W is supplied to an isotropic radiator. What is the power den-
sity at a point 10 km away?

SOLUTION
From Equation (7.2),
Pt
PD =
4 π r2
100 W
=
4 π(10 × 103 m)2

= 79.6 nW/m2
X
 RADIO PROPAGATION ! 223

Real antennas do not radiate equally in all directions, of course. Equa-

tion (7.2) can easily be modified to reflect this, if we define antenna gain as
follows:
PDA
Gt = (7.3)
PDI

where
G t = transmitting antenna gain
P DA = power density in a given direction from the real antenna
P DI = power density at the same distance from an isotropic
radiator with the same P t
Antennas are passive devices and do not have actual power gain. They
achieve a greater power density in certain directions at the expense of re-
duced radiation in other directions. In this capacity, an antenna resembles
the reflector in a flashlight more than it does an amplifier. The ways in
which antennas can be constructed will be examined in the next chapter.
Now we can modify Equation (7.2) to include antenna gain:
PG
PD = t t
(7.4)
4 π r2

Usually, antenna gain is specified in dBi, where the “i” indicates gain
with respect to an isotropic radiator. The gain must be converted to a power
ratio to be used with Equation (7.4).
We can define the effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) of a transmitting
system in a given direction as the transmitter power that would be needed,
with an isotropic radiator, to produce the same power density in the given
direction. Therefore, it is apparent that

EIRP = P t G t (7.5)
and Equation (7.4) can be modified for use with EIRP.
EIRP
PD = (7.6)
4 π r2

The use of Equation (7.4) or Equation (7.6) in a given problem depends

on whether the transmitter power and antenna gain are specified separately
or combined into one EIRP rating.

EXAMPLE 7.2 Y
The transmitter of Example 7.1 is used with an antenna having a gain of
5 dBi. Calculate the EIRP and the power density at a distance of 10 km.
224 ! CHAPTER 7

SOLUTION
First convert the gain to a power ratio.
 5
Gt = log −1  
 10 
= 316
.
This means that the EIRP in the given direction is about three times the ac-
tual transmitter power. More precisely,

EIRP = GtPt = 3.16 × 100 W = 316 W

The power density is

EIRP
PD =
4 π r2
316
=
4 π(10 × 103 )2

= 251.5 nW/m2
X
The strength of a signal is more often given in terms of its electric field
intensity than power density, perhaps because the former is easier to mea-
sure. There is a simple relationship between electric field intensity and
power density. Power density is analogous to power in a lumped-constant
system, and electric field intensity is the equivalent of voltage. The familiar
equation from basic electricity:
V2
P =
R
becomes
E2
PD =
Z
where
E = electric field intensity in volts per meter
Z = characteristic impedance of the medium in ohms
The characteristic impedance of free space is 377 Ω so, in free space,
E2
PD = (7.7)
377
 RADIO PROPAGATION ! 225

It is quite easy to find a direct relationship between EIRP, distance, and

electric field strength. First we rearrange Equation (7.7) so that E is the un-
known:

E = 377PD (7.8)

Now we can substitute the expression for PD found in Equation (7.6) into this
equation to get:

377 EIRP (7.9)

E =
4 π r2

30EIRP
=
r

EXAMPLE 7.3 Y
Find the electric field intensity for the signal of Example 7.2, at the same dis-
tance (10 km) from the source.

SOLUTION
There are two ways to do this. Since PD is already known, we could use Equa-
tion (7.8):

E = 377PD

= . × 10−9
377 × 2515

= 9.74 mV/m

Alternatively we could begin again with Equation (7.9):

30EIRP
E =
r

30 × 316
=
10 × 103

= 9.74 mV/m
X
226 ! CHAPTER 7

Receiving A receiving antenna absorbs some of the energy from radio waves that pass
Antenna Gain and it. Since the power in the wave is proportional to the area through which it
Effective Area passes, a large antenna will intercept more energy than a smaller one (other
things being equal) because it intercepts a larger area. Antennas are also
more efficient at absorbing power from some directions than from others.
For instance, a satellite dish would not be very efficient if it were pointed at
the ground instead of the satellite. In other words, receiving antennas have
gain, just as transmitting antennas do. In fact, the gain is the same whether
the antenna is used for receiving or transmitting.
The power extracted from the wave by a receiving antenna depends both
on its physical size and on its gain. The effective area of an antenna can be
defined as

Pr
Ae ƒƒ = (7.10)
PD

where
A eƒƒ = effective area of the antenna in m 2
P r = power delivered to the receiver in W
P D = power density of the wave in W/m 2

Equation (7.10) simply tells us that the effective area of an antenna is the
area from which all the power in the wave is extracted and delivered to the
receiver. Combining Equation (7.10) with Equation (7.4) gives

Pr = Ae ƒƒ PD (7.11)
Ae ƒƒ PG
= t t

4 π r2

It can be shown that the effective area of a receiving antenna is

λ2G r
Ae ƒƒ = (7.12)
4π
where
G r = antenna gain, as a power ratio
λ = wavelength of the signal

Path Loss Combining Equations (7.11) and (7.12) gives an expression for the receiver
power in terms of antenna gain, which is much more commonly found in
specifications than is effective area.
 RADIO PROPAGATION ! 227

Ae ƒƒ PG
Pr = t t
(7.13)
4 π r2

λ2G r PG
= t t

(4 π )(4 π r 2 )

λ2 PG
t t Gr
=
16π 2r 2

While accurate, this equation is not very convenient. Gain and attenua-
tion are usually expressed in decibels rather than directly as power ratios;
the distance between transmitter and receiver is more likely to be given in
kilometers than meters; and the frequency of the signal, in megahertz,
is more commonly used than its wavelength. It is quite easy to perform the
necessary conversions to arrive at a more useful equation. The work in-
volved is left as an exercise; the solution follows.

P r = P t + G t + G r − (32.44 + 20 log d + 20 log ƒ) (7.14)

where
P r = received power in dBm
P t = transmitted power in dBm
G t = transmitting antenna gain in dBi
G r = receiving antenna gain in dBi
d = distance between transmitter and receiver, in km
ƒ = frequency in MHz

Note that Pt and Pr are the power levels at the transmitting and receiving
antennas, respectively. Attenuation due to transmission-line losses or mis-
match is not included; these losses (in decibels) can be found separately and
subtracted from the result for P r given above to give the actual received
power.
Sometimes it is convenient to have an expression for the free-space at-
tenuation, often called path loss, that is independent of antenna gain. This
is easily obtained by extracting the loss part of Equation (7.14), thereby con-
verting Equation (7.14) into two equations:
P r = P t + G t + G r − L ƒs (7.15)
L ƒs = 32.44 + 20 log d + 20 log ƒ (7.16)

where

L ƒs = free-space loss in decibels

228 ! CHAPTER 7

Using Equation (7.15) allows us to construct a diagram of a radio link, show-

ing all the power levels, gains, and losses, and then merely add and subtract
to find the received power. It also allows for the use of a different expression
for path loss, necessary if the medium is not free space. The following exam-
ples show the use of path loss in calculating received signal strength.
First let us consider a very straightforward application. Then look at
Example 7.5, which is a little more complex, involving transmission-line
loss and mismatch.

EXAMPLE 7.4 Y
A transmitter has a power output of 150 W at a carrier frequency of 325 MHz.
It is connected to an antenna with a gain of 12 dBi. The receiving antenna is
10 km away and has a gain of 5 dBi. Calculate the power delivered to the
receiver, assuming free-space propagation. Assume also that there are no
losses or mismatches in the system.

SOLUTION
In all problems of this sort, it is a good idea to begin by sketching the system.
This example can be done easily enough without such a sketch, but many
real-world situations are more complex. See Figure 7.3 for the setup.

FIGURE 7.3

The next step is to convert the transmitter power into dBm:

 Pt 
Pt(dBm) = 10 log  
 1 mW 

 150 W 
= 10 log  
 0.001 W 

= 51.8 dBm
 RADIO PROPAGATION ! 229

Marking the transmitter power and antenna gains on the sketch shows
us that the only missing link is the path loss. We can find this from Equa-
tion (7.16).

Lƒs = 32.44 + 20 log d + 20 log ƒ

= 32.44 + 20 log 10 + 20 log 325
= 102.7 dB

Now we can easily find the received power from Equation (7.15).

Pr = Pt + Gt + Gr − Lƒs
= 51.8 + 12 + 5 − 102.7
= −33.9 dBm

EXAMPLE 7.5 Y
A transmitter has a power output of 10 W at a frequency of 250 MHz. It is
connected by 20 m of a transmission line having a loss of 3 dB/100 m to an
antenna with a gain of 6 dBi. The receiving antenna is 25 km away and has a
gain of 4 dBi. There is negligible loss in the receiver feedline, but the receiver
is mismatched: the antenna and line are designed for a 50 Ω impedance, but
the receiver input is 75 Ω. Calculate the power delivered to the receiver,
assuming free-space propagation.

SOLUTION
We begin with the sketch of Figure 7.4. A glance at the sketch shows what
needs to be done. First, as in the previous example, we convert the transmit-
ter power to dBm.
 Pt 
Pt(dBm) = 10 log  
 1 mW 

 10 W 
= 10 log  
 0.001 W 

= 40 dBm

FIGURE 7.4
230 ! CHAPTER 7

Next, it is necessary to find the loss at each stage of the system. If all the
losses are in decibels, it will only be necessary to add them to get the total loss.
We use Equation (7.16) to find the path loss.

Lƒs = 32.44 + 20 log d + 20 log ƒ

= 32.44 + 20 log 25 + 20 log 250
= 108.3 dB
For the transmitter feedline, the loss is
3 dB
Ltx = 20 m × = 0.6 dB
100 m
The receiver feedline is lossless, but some of the power reflects from the
receiver back into the antenna due to the mismatch. This power will be
reradiated by the antenna, and will never reach the receiver. Therefore, for
our purposes it is a loss. Remember from Chapter 6 that the proportion of
power reflected is the square of the reflection coefficient and the reflection
coefficient is given by
ZL − Z0
Γ =
ZL + Z0

75 − 50
=
75 + 50

= 0.2

Γ2 = 0.22

= 0.04
The proportion of the incident power that reaches the load is

1 − Γ2 = 0.96

In decibels, the loss due to mismatch is

Ltx = − 10 log 0.96

= 0.177 dB
Now we can easily find the received signal strength. We start with the
transmitter power in dBm, add all the gains, and subtract all the losses (in
dB) to get the result. Thus we find that

Pr = Pt − Ltx + Gt − Lƒs + Gr − Lrx

= 40 − 0.6 + 6 − 108.3 + 4 − 0.177
= −59.1 dBm
X