Chapter- 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction and Scope of Civil Engineering Materials

1.2 Types of Civil Engineering Materials(timber, metals, ceramics, polymers, composites)
1.3 Properties of Civil Engineering Materials

A. Physical Properties:

1) Density: Mass per unit volume is termed as density. Unit is Kg/m 3. The lower densities material like
aluminum has significant properties in aircraft while higher densities material like rods makes the
foundation strong to withstand the various loads.

2)Specific Gravity: It is defined as the ratio of density of the material to density of water at 40C or ratio
of weight of certain volume of water to weight of same volume of water at 40C.

3) Opacity: It is the degree to which light is not allowed to travel through the body.

4) Porosity: The strength and durability of material depends upon the porosity of the materials. The
more is the porosity, the less is its strength and durability. It is the ratio of volume of voids present in
the material to the volume of material.

5) Water absorption capacity It is the property of material defined by the ratio of water present within
material to the dry weight of the material. It is totally depend on the porosity of the material.

6) Fire resistivity: It is the ability to resist fire. Material should be able to withstand losing their
strength. For example, petrol is an inflammable while others are combustible. Timber is an example
of combustible material but not inflammable.

B. Mechanical Properties:

1) Strength: Ability to withstand various forces which it is subjected during a test or in service.
Generally it is defined as compressive strength, tensile strength, shear strength etc.

a)Compressive Strength: It is the capacity of material or structure to withstand loads tending to

reduce size.

b)Tensile Strength: It is also the capacity of material or structure withstands load tending to elongate.

c)Shear Strength: It is the ability to withstand shearing.

2) Hardness: It is defined as resistance of material to penetration. Hard materials resist scratches or

being worn out by friction with another body.

3) Ductility: It is the ability of metal to withstand elongation or bending. Due to this property, wires
are made by drawing out through a hole.

4) Brittleness: Lack of ductility is brittleness. When a body breaks easily when subjected to shocks is
said to be brittle.

5) Elasticity: A material is said to be perfectly elastic if the whole of the stress produced by a load
disappear completely on the removal of the load, the modulus of the elasticity of Young's modulus
(E) is the proportionality constant between stress and strain.

6) Resilience: It is the ability of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically, and release
that energy upon unloading, to resist impact and socks.
7) Toughness: Toughness is the strength with which the material ruptures (damage). It is due to the
attraction which the molecules have for each other; giving them power opposes to resist tearing apart.

8) Stiffness: The property of material which is rigid and difficult to bend. The example of stiffness is
rubber band.

9) Abrasive resistance: The ability of materials or structures to resist any method of wearing down or
rubbing away by means of friction. This ability helps the material maintain its original structure and
appearance and resist mechanical wear.

10)Fatigue: Fatigue failure occurs at the point of application of highest stress. It can be caused by tool
marks or scratches during surface finish , internal voids due to shrinkage cracks and cooling in casting,
etc.

11)Creep: Creep is the slow plastic deformation of metals under constant stress or under prolonged
usually at high temperature. It can take place and leads to fracture at static stresses.

C. Thermal Properties:

1) Specific heat (Specific heat capacity): It is defined as the amount of heat per unit mass required to
raise the temperature by 10 C. The specific heat capacity of water is 1
calorie/gram0C=4.186Joule/gram0C.

2) Thermal conductivity: It is the property of material to conduct heat. Higher thermal conductivity
has higher heat transfer rate and Lower thermal conductivity has lower heat transfer rate. It is denoted
by K.

3) Thermal expansion: The ability of material to change its dimension in response to change in
temperature.

D. Electrical Properties:

1)Conductivity: Electric conductivity is that electrical property of material due to which the electric
current flows easily through the material.

Conductivity (σ) = Length of conductor (l)/ (Resistance R x Area of conductor A)

2)Electric permittivity: It is the measures of a material's ability to store an electric field in the
polarization of the medium. The SI unit is farad per meter.(F/m).

3)Dielectric strength: It means the insulating capacity of a material against high voltages. A material
having high dielectric strength can resist sufficiently high voltage field across it before it will break
down and conduct.

E. Magnetic Properties:

1)Magnetic permeability: The magnetic permeability is the measure of ability of a material to support
the formation of a magnetic field within itself. It is denoted by μ .It's SI unit is Henry per meter.
(Inductance L / length l )

2)Magnetic retentivity : The ability of a substance to retain or resist magnetization , frequently

measured as the strength of the magnetic field that remains in a sample after removal of an inducing
field. Iron is easily magnetic but has low retentivity.
1.4 Material -Environment (Temperature, humidity, rain and fire) interaction.
No any material can be used without keep in touch with environment. So, environment plays a vital
role for various types of material according to the suitable environment. Mainly the changing of
climate is the key factor. The construction material are so designed that can be overcome all the
environmental factor which are likely to be occur at any stage of the construction.

The place which occurs high and low temperature , there should need proper insulation materials.
like (Hollow bricks , mud, roof tiles, fall ceiling, slate etc)

For the humid areas, material which are strong enough to resist the moisture attack like inert materials
such as plastics, stone masonry, etc are provided.

In rainy areas, water proofing materials are used to prevent water leakage like dense concreting.
Generally, timbers are not used in exposed area. In high risk fire zone, fire resistant materials are used
like concrete, bricks, stone, etc. Metallic objects and timbers shouldn't be used in such places.

CHAPTER-2 CLAY PRODUCTS

Clay Product: Clay is a naturally occurring material that is found almost everywhere on the surface of
the earth making the soil cover or the soft ground. The material made from clay is known as clay
products. Brick is most commonly used building material for constructing walls, columns, roofs, paving
floors and a coarse aggregate for concrete work in foundation.

2.1 Constituents of Brick Earth

A good brick earth should be such that it can easily be moulded and dried without cracking and
wrapping. A good brick earth should have the following composition.

1. Alumina or clay (20% to 30%) by weight. 2. Silica or sand (35% to 50%) by weight.

3. Silt (20% to 30%) by weight. The total content of clay and Silt shall not be less than 50%.

4. Remaining ingredients which include:

a. Lime (Cao) b. Oxide of iron c. Magnesium oxide (Magnesia) d. Manganese (Mn) e. Sodium potash

The soluble materials shall not be more than 2% by weight

1. Alumina: It is the principal constituent of every kind of brick earth. It imparts plasticity to the brick
earth which is essential for proper moulding of bricks Alumina or Clay in brick earth shrinks and cracks
on drying. It also wraps and becomes very hard on burning unless mixed with sand.

2. Silica: It exists in brick earth either in chemical composition mixed with clay or sand. Sand alone is
infusible but it fuses in the presence of lime and oxide of iron at kiln temperature. Sand or silica in
brick earth prevents the shrinkage, cracking and wrapping of bricks it also makes the bricks durable.
Excess of silica makes the bricks brittle and weak.

3. Lime: A little quantity of lime present in brick earth in a finely and cause the grains of sand to melt.
It helps to bind the particles of brick earth together. It also reduces shrinkage of bricks.

4. Oxide of Iron: A small quantity of oxide of iron present in brick earth also acts as a flux (lowering
the melting point). It helps the grains of sand to melt and binds the particles of clay together. It also
provides the required red color to the bricks on burning. But excess of oxide of iron makes the bricks
dark blue.
5. Magnesia (MgO): Small quantities of magnesia in brick earth makes the brick of yellowish color and
reduces shrinkage. But excess if magnesia leads to be decay of bricks.

6. Manganese (Mn): The presence of manganese in small quantity in brick earth makes the brick still
darker or even black.

2.2 Manufacturing of Bricks

Manufacturing of bricks consists of the following 4 operations or steps.

1.Preparation of brick clay or brick earth

2.Moulding of bricks

3.Air drying of bricks

4.Burning of bricks

1.PREPARATION OF BRICK CLAY OR BRICK EARTH

In this step the soil is excavated in steps and then laid on leveled ground. Then the soil is cleaned of
impurities such as vegetation matter, stones or pebbles etc. After removing impurities it is exposed to
weather for few months. This is called the process of weathering. After completion of weathering
process the soil is blended with other material to prepare good brick earth. Then the mixed soil is
tempered by being thoroughly broken up, watered and kneaded (massage or Squeeze with hands).

2. MOULDING OF BRICKS

Bricks are moulded in many ways depending on the quality of the product to be made. Generally the
moulding is done in the following two ways

a. Hand moulding b. Machine moulding

a) Hand Moulding.

For hand moulding the tempered clay is forced in the mould in such a way that it fills all the corners
of the mould. Extra clay is removed either by wooden strike or frame with wire. Mould is then lifted
up and raw brick is left on ground.

B. Machine moulding: Machine moulding is used where large numbers of bricks are to be made.
Machines used for moulding is generally of two types.

 Plastic clay machines : In plastic clay machine the clay in plastic state is forced to rectangular
openings of a size equal to the length and breadth of the bricks and are then cut into strips of
thickness of the brick with wires in frames.

 Dry clay machines : In dry clay machines, dry clay is reduced to powder, filled dry into mould
by the machine and then are subjected to high pressure to form hard and well shaped bricks.

3. DRYING OF BRICKS

 Drying is usually done by placing the bricks in sheds with open sides so as to ensure free
circulation of air and protection from bad weather and rains. The bricks are allowed to dry till
they are left with 5 to 7 percent moisture content. The drying period usually varies from 7 to
14days. The moulded bricks are dried because of the following reasons.
  If damp bricks are directly taken to burning then, they are likely to be cracked and
distorted
 To remove maximum moisture from the brick so as to save time and fuel during burning
 To increase the strength of raw bricks so that they can be handled and stacked in greater
heights in the kiln for burning without damage.

4. BURNING OF THE BRICKS

It is the very important step in manufacture of bricks. Bricks may be burnt by two distinct methods
given below.

 Burning in a clamp or Pazawah known as clamp burning.

 Burning in a flame kiln or Bhatta known as kiln burning.

 In clamps, one batch of green bricks is heaped along with firewood, coal etc. and sealed
with clay. It is then fired slowly to intense heat which may take many days.

 Modern kilns, however, permanent structures consisting of many chambers.

 There are intermittent and continuous kilns. Moulded clay is stacked in the chambers. They
are then slowly dried and burned to high temperature and cooled.

 One cycle of loading, drying, burning, cooling and emptying may take as much as two weeks.
These processes are carried out intermittently in intermittent kilns and in cyclic order in
continuous kilns.

2.3 QUALITIES OF GOOD BRICKS: The good bricks which are to be used for the construction of
important structures should posses the following qualities :

 The bricks should be table-moulded, well burnt in kilns, copper-colored, free from cracks and with
sharp and square edges. The color should be uniform and bright.

 The bricks should be uniform in shape and should be of standard size.

 The bricks should give a clear metallic ringing sound when struck with each other.

 The bricks when broken or fractured should show a bright homogeneous and uniform compact
structure free from voids.

 The brick should not absorbs water more than 16% by weight, for first class bricks and 20% by
weight for second class bricks, when soaked in water for a period of 24 hours.

 The bricks should be sufficiently hard. No impression should be left on brick surface, when it is
scratched with finger nail.

 The bricks should not break into pieces when dropped flat on hard ground from a height of about
one meter.

 The bricks should have low thermal conductivity and they should be sound proof.

 The bricks, when soaked in water for 24 hours, should not show deposits of white salt when
allowed to dry in shade.

 No bricks should have the crushing strength below 5.50 N/mm 2.

2.4 Classification of Bricks: Based upon the physical and mechanical properties the bricks are
classified into four types such as, first class, second class, third class and fourth class.

a. First Class Bricks

 These are thoroughly burnt and are of deep red, cherry or copper color.

 The surface should be smooth and rectangular, with parallel, sharp and straight edges and
square corners.

 These should be free from flaws (defect), cracks and stones.

 These should have uniform texture.

 No impression should be left on the brick when a scratch is made by a finger nail.

 The fractured surface of the brick should not show lumps of lime.

 A metallic or ringing sound should come when two bricks are struck against each other.

 Water absorption should be 12–16% of its dry weight when immersed in cold water for 24
hours.

 The crushing strength of the brick should not be less than 10 N/mm 2. This limit varies with
different government organizations around the country.

 Uses: First class bricks are recommended for pointing exposed face work in masonry
structures, flooring and reinforced brick work.

Second Class Bricks:

 These are supposed to have the same requirements as the first class ones except that small
cracks and distortions are permitted.

 A little higher water absorption of about 16–20% of its dry weight is allowed.

 The crushing strength should not be less than 7.0 N/mm2.

 Uses: Second class are recommended for all important or unimportant hidden masonry works
and centering of reinforced brick and reinforced cement concrete (RCC) structures.

Third Class Bricks:

 These bricks are under burnt.

 They are soft and light-colored.

 They produce a dull sound when struck against each other.

 Water absorption is about 25 per cent of dry weight.

 Uses: It is used for building temporary structures.

Fourth Class Bricks:

 These bricks are over burnt.

 Badly distorted in size and shape.

  Brittle in nature.

 Uses: The ballast of such bricks is used for foundation and floors in lime concrete and road
metal.

ISI CLASSIFICATION OF BRICKS

2.5 Different Test for Brick

1) Dimensions Tolerance Test 3) Water absorption Test

2) Efflorescence Test 4) Compressive Test

Dimensions Tolerance Test

Objective. The test is performed to check whether the bricks are of required dimensions or not. It is
completed in the following manner :

(i) Take twenty bricks at random.

(ii) Remove any loose particles of clay and projecting blisters etc. from the bricks.

(iii) Arrange the bricks on a smooth level surface in a straight series in such a way that the adjoining
surfaces are in contact with each other. The arrangement will be done in accordance with the
dimension of bricks that is being checked. Thus,

 For length, bricks will be laid lengthwise.

 For width, bricks are laid on width faces.

 For height, bricks are laid on the side.

(iv) The overall length, of the brick rows, is then measured in each case. These shall be within the
specified limits for different classes of bricks. Thus, when the bricks are of standard size (240x115 x 57
mm), following limits are specified.

Water absorption test

(i) Take five whole bricks randomly.

(ii) Dry these samples to a constant weight by placing them in a ventilated oven at 110° C +- 5°C. This
may take 48 hours or more time.

(iii) The specimens are weighed individually after cooling.

(iv) The dry, weighed samples are then immersed in water, at room temperature, for 24 hours.

v) After 24 hours the samples are taken out. Each sample is wiped dry and weighed individually within
three minutes after it is taken out from the water.

(vi) Absorption value is calculated by the simple relationship.

Absorption % = w2-w1/w1 x 100, where W1 is dry weight, and W2 is weight after immersion for 24
hours.

(vii) The average of five values for the five samples shall be taken as the water absorption of the brick.

(viii) It shall be within the specified limits for the classification of bricks.

Efflorescence Test

Efflorescence is the migration of a salt to the surface of porous material, where it forms a coating.

(i ) Take five bricks at randomly.

(ii) Place each brick on end in a separate shallow flat bottom dish containing distilled water. Note that
depth of immersion of bricks should not be less than 2.5 cm in each case

(iii) Keep the above dishes (containing water and bricks) in a warm (18°C to 30°C) room which has
adequate Ventilation.(The water from the dishes will be lost due to absorption by bricks and
subsequent evaporation).

(iv) Add fresh quantity of distilled water when the bricks appear having dried.

(v) At the end of the second drying, each brick is observed for efflorescence; that is an appearance of
any white patch of salt on the surface of the brick

The efflorescence is reported only by qualitative words as follows:

a) Serious. Salt deposition is all round and quite heavy and increases with repeated wetting and drying.
Powdering of salt is prominent.

b)Heavy. Salt deposits cover more than 50 percent of the surface area. The tendency to powder is
absent.

c)Moderate. Salt deposits cover 10-50 percent surface area. The salt forms thin layers without showing
any tendency to peal off in flakes or become powdery.

d)Slight. Salt covers the surface area of less than 10 percent and forms only a very thin sticky layer.

e)Nil. There is seen no deposit of any salt even after repeated wetting.

It is required that efflorescence should not exceed than the specified degree in various classes of
bricks. For example, in Heavy Duty bricks, it is required to be nil, and for first class bricks, it shall be
only slight.

Compressive Strength of Brick

(i) Take five random bricks samples and immerse them in water for 24 hours at room temperature.

(ii) After 24 hours, take them out, allow them to drain and then clean the surplus water. ‘

(iii) Now, fill their frogs (and any other voids) by a layer of standard 1:1 mortar (1 part cement and 1
part sand).
Store these bricks under damp sacks for 24 hours (to allow setting of mortar).

(iv) Place the bricks in water for seven days. (This is to allow the mortar to harden).

(v) Take the bricks out of the water, allow the water to drain and remove the surplus water. When
surface dry, each brick is tested for compressive strength individually.

(vi) Place the brick flat-wise, with frog end facing upward, between two plywood sheets.

(vii) Brick so adjusted between the plywood sheets is placed on the bed of compressive strength of
bricks testing machine and load is applied axially and at a uniform rate of 140 kg/cm 2/minute. (This is
very important).

(viii) Note the load at which the brick fails (gets broken). This load (P) is divided by cross-sectional area
(A) of the brick gives the compressive strength (Co) Co=P/A

(ix) The arithmetic mean of the compressive strength of bricks values of all the five bricks shall be
taken as the compressive strength of that lot of bricks represented by the test samples, (and not for
all the bricks of a kiln).

(x) The brick shall be classified accordingly on the basis of the (Co) obtained as above.