Chapter 3 : Matrices

1. Introduction of Matrices
1.1. Definition : - A matrix of type (𝑚 × 𝑛) with coefficients in 𝕂 is a table with 𝑚 rows
and 𝑛 columns. The numbers comprising the matrix are called the elements of the matrix
(or also the coefficients). A matrix 𝐴 with 𝑚 rows and 𝑛 columns is called a matrix of order
(𝑚 × 𝑛) or of dimension 𝑚 × 𝑛, and A is represented as follows:

𝑎1,1 𝑎1,2 𝑎1,𝑛

𝑎2,1 𝑎2,2 ⋯ 𝑎2,𝑛
𝐴=( ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ) = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 )𝑚×𝑛
𝑎𝑚,1 𝑎𝑚,2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚,𝑛
- The set of matrices with 𝑛 rows and 𝑚 columns with coefficients in 𝕂 is denoted
ℳ𝑛,𝑚 (𝕂).

1.2. Special types of Matrices :

- Square matrix :
A matrix in which numbers of rows are equal to number of columns is called a square
matrix.
𝑎1,1 𝑎1,2 𝑎1,𝑛
𝑎2,1 𝑎2,2 ⋯ 𝑎2,𝑛
𝐴=( ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ )
𝑎𝑛,1 𝑎𝑛,2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛,𝑛
-The elements 𝑎1,1 , 𝑎2,2 , … , 𝑎𝑛,𝑛 are called diagonal elements, and their sum is called the
trace of the matrix 𝐴 and we note it 𝑡𝑟(𝐴).
Example :
2 −3 −4
𝐴 = ( 1 2 −2) is a square matrix of order 3, and 𝑡𝑟(𝐴) = −2
5 7 −6

- Diagonal matrix :
A square matrix 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ) is called a diagonal matrix if each of its non-diagonal
𝑛×𝑛

elements is zero. That is 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0 if 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗 and at least on elements 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ≠ 0.

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Chapter 3 : Matrices

Example :
𝑎1,1 0 0 1 0 0
𝐴=( 0 𝑎2,2 0 ) 𝐵 = (0 2 0)
0 0 𝑎3,3 0 0 −3

- Identity Matrix :
A diagonal matrix whose diagonal elements are equal to 1 is called identity matrix and
denoted by 𝐼𝑛 .
0 if 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗
That is 𝑎𝑖𝑗 =
1 if 𝑖 = 𝑗
Example :
1 0 0
𝐼2 = (0 1 0)
0 0 1
Upper triangular Matrix :
A square matrix said to be a Upper triangular matrix if 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0 if 𝑖 > 𝑗.
Example :
𝑎1,1 𝑎1,2 𝑎1,3 1 −3 −2
𝐴 = ( 0 𝑎2,2 𝑎2,3 ) 𝐵 = (0 2 4)
0 0 𝑎3,3 0 0 −3

Lower triangular Matrix :

A square matrix said to be a Lower triangular matrix if 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0 if 𝑖 < 𝑗.
Example :
𝑎1,1 0 0 1 0 0
𝐴 = (𝑎2,1 𝑎2,2 0 ) 𝐵=(2 2 0)
𝑎3,1 𝑎3,2 𝑎3,3 −6 2 −3
Symmetric Matrix :
A square matrix 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ) said to be a symmetric if 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑗𝑖 for all 𝑖 and 𝑗.
𝑛×𝑛

Example :
𝑎1,1 𝑎1,2 𝑎1,3 1 2 7
𝑎
𝐴 = ( 2,1 𝑎2,2 𝑎2,3 ) 𝐵 = (2 2 0)
𝑎3,1 𝑎3,2 𝑎3,3 7 0 −3
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Chapter 3 : Matrices

Skew-Symmetric Matrix :
A square matrix 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ) said to be a skew-symmetric if 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = −𝑎𝑗𝑖 for all 𝑖 and 𝑗.
𝑛×𝑛

Example :
𝑎1,1 𝑎1,2 𝑎1,3 0 −2 7
𝐴 = (𝑎2,1 𝑎2,2 𝑎2,3 ) 𝐵=(2 0 0)
𝑎3,1 𝑎3,2 𝑎3,3 −7 0 0

Zero Matrix :
A matrix whose all elements are zero is called as Zero matrix, and order 𝑚 × 𝑛 zero matrix
denoted by 0𝑚×𝑛 .
Example :
0 0
03×2 = (0 0)
0 0
2. Matrix Algebra
2.1. Equality of two matrices :
Two matrices A and B are said to be equal if :
i) They are the same order.
ii) Their corresponding elements are equal. That is if 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ) and 𝐵 = (𝑏𝑖𝑗 ) then
𝑚×𝑛 𝑛×𝑛

𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑏𝑖𝑗 for all 𝑖 and 𝑗.

2.2. Scalar multiple of a matrix :
Let 𝑘 a scalar then scalar product of matrix 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ) given denoted 𝑘𝐴 and given by
𝑚×𝑛

𝑘𝐴 = (𝑘𝑎𝑖𝑗 ) or
𝑚×𝑛

𝑘𝑎1,1 𝑘𝑎1,2 𝑘𝑎1,𝑛

⋯
𝑘𝑎 𝑘𝑎2,2 𝑘𝑎2,𝑛
𝑘𝐴 = ( 2,1 )
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
𝑘𝑎𝑛,1 𝑘𝑎𝑛,2 ⋯ 𝑘𝑎𝑛,𝑛
2.3. Addition of two matrices :
Let 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ) and 𝐵 = (𝑏𝑖𝑗 ) are two matrices with same order then sum of the two
𝑚×𝑛 𝑚×𝑛

matrices are given by

𝐴 + 𝐵 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ) + (𝑏𝑖𝑗 ) = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗 )
𝑚×𝑛 𝑚×𝑛 𝑚×𝑛

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Chapter 3 : Matrices

Example :
1 −2 3 3 0 2
Let 𝐴 = ( ) and 𝐵 = ( ).
4 5 −4 −1 1 8
Find : 5𝐵, 𝐴 + 𝐵, 4𝐴 − 2𝐵, 0𝐵.
2.4. Multiplication of two matrices :
Two matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵 are said to be confirmable for product 𝐴𝐵 if number of columns in 𝐴
equals to the number of rows in matrix 𝐵. Let 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ) and 𝐵 = (𝑏𝑖𝑗 ) be two
𝑚×𝑛 𝑛×𝑟

matrices, the product matrix 𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵, is matrix of order 𝑚 × 𝑟 where :

𝑛

𝑐𝑖𝑗 = ∑ 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝑏𝑘𝑗 = 𝑎𝑖1 𝑏1𝑗 + 𝑎𝑖2 𝑏2𝑗 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑛𝑗

𝑘=1

Example :
2 3
1 −2 3
Let 𝐴 = ( ) and 𝐵 = (−5 0).
4 5 −4
−1 2
Calculate : 𝐴𝐵, 𝐵𝐴, is 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴?
2.5. Integral power of matrices :
Let 𝐴 a square matrix of order n, and m be positive integer than we define
𝐴𝑚 = 𝐴 × 𝐴 × … × 𝐴 (𝑚 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
2.6. Preperties of the matrices :
Let 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 are three matrices and 𝛼 and 𝛽 are scalars then :
𝑖) 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶) = (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝐶 𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑤
𝑖𝑖) 𝛼(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝛼𝐴 + 𝛼𝐵 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑤
𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝛼(𝛽𝐴) = (𝛼𝛽)𝐴 𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑤
𝑖𝑣)(𝛼𝐴)𝐵 = 𝛼(𝐴𝐵) 𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑤
𝑣) 𝐴(𝐵𝐶) = (𝐴𝐵)𝐶 𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑤
𝑣𝑖) 𝐴(𝐵 + 𝐶) = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑤
2.7. Transpose :
The transpose of matrix 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ) , written 𝐴𝑡 is the matrix obtained by writing the
𝑚×𝑛

rows of A in order as columns. That is 𝐴𝑡 = (𝑎𝑗𝑖 ) .

𝑛×𝑚
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Chapter 3 : Matrices

Properties of Transpose :
𝑖) (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑡 = 𝐴𝑡 + 𝐵 𝑡
𝑖𝑖) (𝐴𝑡 )𝑡 = 𝐴
𝑖𝑖𝑖) (𝑘𝐴)𝑡 = 𝑘𝐴𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑘
𝑖𝑣) (𝐴𝐵)𝑡 = 𝐵 𝑡 𝐴𝑡
Example :
Using the following matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵. Verify the transpose properties
4 −5 −2 1 −3 2
𝐴=( 2 6 7) and 𝐵 = (−2 0 5)
−2 1 −6 −1 1 3

2.8. A symmetric matrix :

A square matrix A is said to be symmetric if 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑡
Example :
1 2 −2
𝐴=(2 2 7)
−2 7 −2

2.8. A skew-symmetric matrix :

A square matrix A is said to be skew-symmetric if 𝐴 = −𝐴𝑡
Example :
0 2 −2
𝐴 = (−2 0 −7)
2 7 0

2. Determinant
2.1. Definition :
Let 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ) be a square matrix of order 𝑛, then the number |𝐴| (𝑜𝑟 det(𝐴)) called
𝑛×𝑛

determinant of the matrix 𝐴.

- If 𝑛 = 1 then 𝐴 = (𝑎11 ) and |𝐴| = 𝑎11 .
- If 𝑛 ≥ 2 then :
𝑛

|𝐴| = ∑(−1)𝑖+𝑗 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴𝑖𝑗 ) , ∀𝑗, 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛

𝑖=1

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Chapter 3 : Matrices

𝑖) Determinant of 2 × 2 matrix
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎11 𝑎12
Let 𝐴 = (𝑎 𝑎22 ) then |𝐴| = | 𝑎21 𝑎22 | = 𝑎11 𝑎22 − 𝑎21 𝑎12
21

𝑖𝑖) Determinant of 3 × 3 matrix

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
Let 𝐴 = (𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ) then
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑎11 𝑎13 𝑎21 𝑎22
|𝐴| = |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 | = 𝑎11 |𝑎 𝑎33 | − 𝑎12 | 𝑎31 𝑎33 | + 𝑎13 |𝑎31 𝑎32 |
32
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33

The SARRUS rule:

The SARRUS rule is a rule for calculating a 3×3 determinant. It consists of writing the 3
columns of the determinant, then repeating the first two. For each of the 6 diagonals that
appear, we perform the product of the terms that appear there, then we add these
quantities by giving them a sign according to the following diagram:
+ + +
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎11 𝑎12
𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎22
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎31 𝑎32
− − −
Then
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
|𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 | = 𝑎11 𝑎22 𝑎33 + 𝑎12 𝑎23 𝑎31 + 𝑎13 𝑎21 𝑎32 − 𝑎31 𝑎22 𝑎13 − 𝑎32 𝑎23 𝑎11 − 𝑎33 𝑎21 𝑎12
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
Example :
Calculate the determinants of the following matrices
4 −5 −2 1 −3 2
𝐴=( 2 6 7 ) and 𝐵 = ( −2 0 5)
−2 1 −6 −1 1 3

Properties of the Determinant :

𝑖) The determinant of a matrix 𝐴 and its transpose 𝐴𝑡 are equal : |𝐴| = |𝐴𝑡 |.

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Chapter 3 : Matrices

𝑖𝑖) If 𝐴 is triangular matrix then |𝐴| is product of the diagonal elements.

𝑖𝑖𝑖) If 𝐴 is a square matrix of order 𝑛 and 𝑘 is a scalar then |𝑘𝐴| = 𝑘 𝑛 |𝐴|.

3.1. Singular Matrix :

If 𝐴 is square matrix of order 𝑛, is called singular matrix when |𝐴| = 0, and non-singular
otherwise.

3.2. Minor and Cofactors :

Let 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ) is a square matrix. Then 𝑀𝑖𝑗 denote a sub matrix of 𝐴 with order (𝑛 − 1) ×
𝑛×𝑛

(𝑛 − 1) obtained by deleting its 𝑖𝑡ℎ row and 𝑗𝑡ℎ column. The determinant |𝑀𝑖𝑗 | is called the
minor of the element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 of 𝐴.

The cofactor of 𝑎𝑖𝑗 denoted by 𝐴𝑖𝑗 and is equal (−1)𝑖+𝑗 |𝑀𝑖𝑗 |.

Example :
5 4 2
Let 𝐴 = (2 3 1)
3 −2 −1
𝑖) Compute determinant of 𝐴.
𝑖𝑖) Find the cofactor matrix.
3.3. Adjoin Matrix :
The transpose of the matrix of cofactors of the elements 𝑎𝑖𝑗 of 𝐴 denoted by 𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴) is called
adjoin of matrix 𝐴.
Example :
5 4 2
Find the adjoin of matrix of 𝐴 = (2 3 1)
3 −2 −1
3.4. Inverse of a Matrix :
Definition :
If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are two matrices such that 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐼, then each is said to be inverse of the
other. The inverse of 𝐴 is denoted by 𝐴−1 .

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Chapter 3 : Matrices

Theorem (Existence of the Inverse)

The necessary and sufficient condition for a square matrix 𝐴 to have an inverse is that
|𝐴| ≠ 0 (That is 𝐴 is non-singular), and we have :
1
𝐴−1 = [𝐶𝑜𝑚(𝐴)]𝑡
|𝐴|
- Inverse of a matrix if it exists is unique.
Example :
2 3 −4
Let 𝐴 = (0 −4 2 ), find 𝐴−1 .
1 −1 5

Properties of the inverse :

- If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are two non-singular matrices of order 𝑛, then 𝐴𝐵 is also non-singular and
(𝐴𝐵)−1 = 𝐵 −1 𝐴−1 .
- If 𝐴 is a non-singular matrices of order 𝑛, then (𝐴𝑡 )−1 = (𝐴−1 )𝑡 .
1
- If 𝐴 is a non-singular matrices, 𝑘 is non zero scalar, then (𝑘𝐴)−1 = 𝐴−1 .
𝑘
1
- If 𝐴 is a non-singular matrices, then |𝐴−1 | = .
|𝐴|

4. Solution of System of Linear Equation by Matrix method :

4.1. Solution of the linear system 𝑨𝑿 = 𝑩 :
We now study how to find the solution of system of 𝑛 linear equations in 𝑛 unknowns.
Consider the system of equations in unknowns 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 as :
𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1
𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2
⋮

𝑎𝑛1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑛2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏𝑛

Is called system of linear equations with 𝑛 unknowns 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 . If the constants

𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , … , 𝑏𝑛 are all zero then the system is said to be homogeneous type.
The above system can be put in the matrix from as 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵

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Chapter 3 : Matrices

𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑚 𝑥1 𝑏1

𝑎 𝑎22 … 𝑎2𝑚 𝑥 𝑏
Where : 𝐴 = ( 21 ) 𝑋 = ( ⋮2 ) 𝐵 = ( 2)
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑚 𝑥𝑚 𝑏𝑛
The matrix 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ) is called coefficient matrix, the matrix 𝑋 is called matrix of
𝑛×𝑛

unknowns and 𝐵 is called as matrix of constants, matrices 𝑋 and 𝐵 are of order 𝑛 × 1.

Theorem :
A set of values of 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 which satisfy all these equations simultaneously is called the
solution of the system.
If the system has at least one solution then the equations are said to be consistent
otherwise they are said to be inconsistent.
Theorem :
If 𝐴 be an non-singular matrix, 𝑋 be an 𝑛 × 1 matrix and 𝐵 be an 𝑛 × 1 matrix then the
system of equations 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵 has a unique solution.
4.2. Methods of solving system of linear equations :
a) Method of inversesion :
Consider the matrix system : 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵 where |𝐴| ≠ 0.
Pre multiplying 𝐴−1 , we have :
𝐴−1 (𝐴𝑋) = 𝐴−1 𝐵
𝑋 = 𝐴−1 𝐵
Thus 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵, has only one solution if |𝐴| ≠ 0 and given by 𝑋 = 𝐴−1 𝐵.
b) Cramer’s rule :
A Cramer system admits a unique solution given by :
𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑏1 … 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎 𝑎22 … 𝑏2 … 𝑎2𝑛
| 21 |
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
|𝐴𝑖 | 𝑎 𝑎𝑛2 … 𝑏𝑛 … 𝑎𝑛𝑛
𝑥𝑖 = = 𝑛1 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛
|𝐴| 𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑖 … 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎 𝑎22 … 𝑎2𝑖 … 𝑎2𝑛
| 21 |
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 … 𝑎𝑛𝑖 … 𝑎𝑛𝑛

|𝐴𝑖 | being the determinant of the matrix 𝐴𝑖 obtained by replacing the 𝑖𝑡ℎ column of 𝐴 by the
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Chapter 3 : Matrices

column of constants.
Example :
Solve the following system of linear equations :
2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 10
(𝑆) = 𝑦 + 10𝑧 = −28
3𝑦 + 16𝑧 = −42

10