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CMP 446 Basic Search Strategies - Module 2 - B Uninformed Search Strategies

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16 views20 pages

CMP 446 Basic Search Strategies - Module 2 - B Uninformed Search Strategies

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geehustle06
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© © All Rights Reserved
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CMP 446 BASIC SEARCH

STRATEGIES
DR. S.A. AREKETE
COURSE CONTENTS
• Problem spaces (states, goals and operators), problem solving by
search, Factored representation (factoring state into variables),
Uninformed search (breadth-first, depth-first, depth-first with
iterative deepening), Heuristics and informed search (hill-
climbing, generic best-first, A*), Space and time efficiency of
search, Two-player games (Introduction to mini-max search),
Constraint satisfaction (backtracking and local search methods),
Review of propositional and predicate logic (cross-reference
DS/Basic Logic), Resolution and theorem proving (propositional
logic only), Forward chaining, backward chaining, Review of
probabilistic reasoning, Bayes theorem
Work Plan
Week# Topics Activity/Assignments

1 Problem spaces (states, goals and operators), problem solving by search, Factored
representation (factoring state into variables)
2-4 Uninformed search (Random Search, Generate and test breadth-first, depth-first, depth-first Assignment 1
with iterative deepening)
5-6 Heuristics and informed search (hill-climbing, generic best-first, A*), Space and time
efficiency of search, Two-player games (Introduction to mini-max search)
7 Continuous Assessment Test 1

8 Student Presentations

9 Space and time efficiency of search, Two-player games (Introduction to mini-max search), Assignment 2
Constraint satisfaction (backtracking and local search methods)
10 Constraint satisfaction (backtracking and local search methods), Review of propositional and
predicate logic (cross-reference DS/Basic Logic),
11-12 Resolution and theorem proving (propositional logic only), Forward chaining, backward Assignment 3
chaining, Review of probabilistic reasoning, Bayes theorem

13 Revision
Other Uninformed Search
Algorithms
Depth-Limited Search (DLS)

• Depth-Limited Search (DLS) is a modification of depth-first


search that minimizes the depth that the search algorithm may
go.
• In addition to starting with a root and goal node, a depth is
provided that the algorithm will not descend below.
• Any nodes below that depth are omitted from the search.
• This modification keeps the algorithm from indefinitely cycling
by halting the search after the pre-imposed depth.
• Figure 2.12 illustrates this search with a depth of two (no nodes
deeper than level two are searched).
Depth-Limited Search (DLS)
Depth-Limited Search (DLS)

• While the algorithm does remove the possibility of infinitely looping


in the graph, it also reduces the scope of the search.
• If the goal node had been one of the nodes marked ‘X’, it would not
have been found, making the search algorithm incomplete.
• The algorithm can be complete if the search depth is that of the tree
itself (in this case d is three).
• The technique is also not optimal since the first path may be found to
the goal instead of the shortest path.
• The time and space complexity of depth-limited search is similar to
DFS, from which this algorithm is derived.
• Space complexity is O(bd) and time complexity is O(bd), but d in this
case is the imposed depth of the search and not the maximum depth
of the graph.
Iterative Deepening Search (IDS)

• Iterative Deepening Search (IDS) is a derivative of DLS and combines


the features of depth-first search with that of breadth-first search.
• IDS operates by performing DLS searches with increased depths until
the goal is found.
• The depth begins at one, and increases until the goal is found, or no
further nodes can be enumerated (see Figure 2.13).
• As shown in Figure 2.13, IDS combines depth-first search with
breadth-first search.
• By minimizing the depth of the search, we force the algorithm to also
search the breadth of the graph.
• If the goal is not found, the depth that the algorithm is permitted to
search is increased and the algorithm is started again.
Iterative Deepening Search (IDS)
Bidirectional Search

• The Bidirectional Search algorithm is a derivative of BFS.


• It operates by performing two breadth-first searches
simultaneously, one beginning from the root node and the other
from the goal node.
• When the two searches meet in the middle, a path can be
reconstructed from the root to the goal.
• The searches meeting is determined when a common node is
found (a node visited by both searches, see Figure 2.15).
• This is accomplished by keeping a closed list of the nodes visited.
Bidirectional Search..
Bidirectional Search..
Bidirectional Search..

• Bidirectional search is an interesting idea, but requires that we


know the goal that we’re seeking in the graph, a situation that is
not always practical, which limits the application of the
algorithm.
• When it can be determined, the algorithm has useful
characteristics.
• The time and space complexity for bidirectional search is
O(bd/2), since we’re only required to search half of the depth of
the tree.
• Since it is based on BFS, bidirectional search is both complete
and optimal.
Uniform-Cost Search (UCS)

• BFS has the advantage of being able to find the shallowest


solution.
• But consider the edge having a cost associated with it.
• The shallowest solution may not be the best, and a deeper
solution with a reduced path cost would be better (for example,
see Figure 2.16).
• Uniform-Cost Search (UCS) can be applied to find the least-cost
path through a graph by maintaining an ordered list of nodes in
order of descending cost.
• This allows us to evaluate the least cost path first
Uniform-Cost Search (UCS)..
Uniform-Cost Search (UCS)..

• The algorithm for UCS uses the accumulated path cost and a priority
queue to determine the path to evaluate.
• The priority queue is sorted from least cost to greatest and contains
the nodes to be evaluated.
• As node children are evaluated, we add their cost to the node with
the aggregate sum of the current path.
• This node is then added to the queue, and when all children have
been evaluated, the queue is sorted in order of ascending cost.
• When the first element in the priority queue is the goal node, then
the best solution has been found.
Uniform-Cost Search (UCS)..
Uniform-Cost Search (UCS)..

• The UCS algorithm is easily demonstrated using our example


graph in Figure 2.16.
• Figure 2.17 shows the state of the priority queue as the nodes
are evaluated.
• At step one, the initial node has been added to the priority
queue, with a cost of zero.
• At step two, each of the three connected nodes are evaluated
and added to the priority queue.
• When no further children are available to evaluate, the priority queue is
sorted to place them in ascending cost order.
Uniform-Cost Search (UCS)..

• At step three, children of node C are evaluated.


• In this case, we find the desired goal (E), but since its accumulated
path cost is eight, it ends up at the end of the queue.
• For step four, we evaluate node D and again find the goal node.
• The path cost results in seven, which is still greater than our B node in
the queue.
• Finally, at step five, node B is evaluated.
• The goal node is found again, with a resulting path cost of six.
• The priority queue now contains the goal node at the top, which
means at the next iteration of the loop, the algorithm will exit with a
path of A->B->E (working backwards from the goal node to the initial
node).
Uniform-Cost Search (UCS)..

• To limit the size of the priority queue, it’s possible to prune entries that are
redundant.
• For example, at step 4 in Figure 2.17, the entry for E(8) could have been
safely removed, as another path exists that has a reduced cost (E(7)).
• The search of the graph is shown in Figure 2.18, which identifies the path
cost at each edge of the graph.
• The path cost shown above the goal node (E) makes it easy to see the least-
cost path through the graph, even when it’s not apparent from the initial
node.
• UCS is optimal and can be complete, but only if the edge costs are non-
negative (the summed path cost always increases).
• Time and space complexity are the same as BFS, O(bd) for each, as it’s
possible for the entire tree to be evaluated.

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