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Caldera
A caldera (/kɔːlˈdɛrə, kæl-/[1] kawl-DERR-ə, kal-) is a large
cauldron-like hollow that forms shortly after the emptying of a
magma chamber in a volcanic eruption. An eruption that ejects
large volumes of magma over a short period of time can cause
significant detriment to the structural integrity of such a
chamber, greatly diminishing its capacity to support its own
roof, and any substrate or rock resting above. The ground
surface then collapses into the emptied or partially emptied
magma chamber, leaving a large depression at the surface
(from one to dozens of kilometers in diameter).[2] Although
sometimes described as a crater, the feature is actually a type of
sinkhole, as it is formed through subsidence and collapse
rather than an explosion or impact. Compared to the thousands
of volcanic eruptions that occur over the course of a century,
the formation of a caldera is a rare event, occurring only a few
times within a given window of 100 years.[3] Only eight
caldera-forming collapses are known to have occurred between
1911 and 2018,[3] with a caldera collapse at Kīlauea, Hawaii in
2018.[4] Volcanoes that have formed a caldera are sometimes
described as "caldera volcanoes".[5]

Etymology
The term caldera comes from Spanish caldera, and Latin
caldaria, meaning "cooking pot".[6] In some texts the English
term cauldron is also used,[7] though in more recent work the
term cauldron refers to a caldera that has been deeply eroded
to expose the beds under the caldera floor.[6] The term caldera
was introduced into the geological vocabulary by the German
geologist Leopold von Buch when he published his memoirs of
his 1815 visit to the Canary Islands,[note 1] where he first saw
the Las Cañadas caldera on Tenerife, with Mount Teide
dominating the landscape, and then the Caldera de Taburiente
on La Palma.[8][6]

Caldera formation Mount Mazama's eruption timeline,

an example of caldera formation
A collapse is triggered by the emptying of the magma chamber
beneath the volcano, sometimes as the result of a large
explosive volcanic eruption (see Tambora[9] in 1815), but also during effusive eruptions on the
flanks of a volcano (see Piton de la Fournaise in 2007)[10] or in a connected fissure system (see
Bárðarbunga in 2014–2015). If enough magma is ejected, the emptied chamber is unable to
support the weight of the volcanic edifice above it. A roughly circular fracture, the "ring fault",
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develops around the edge of the chamber. Ring fractures serve

as feeders for fault intrusions which are also known as ring
dikes.[11]: 86–89 Secondary volcanic vents may form above the
ring fracture.[12] As the magma chamber empties, the center of
the volcano within the ring fracture begins to collapse. The
collapse may occur as the result of a single cataclysmic
eruption, or it may occur in stages as the result of a series of
eruptions. The total area that collapses may be hundreds of
Animation of an analogue
square kilometers.[6] experiment showing the origin of a
volcanic caldera in box filled with
Mineralization in calderas flour

Some calderas are known to host rich ore deposits. Metal-rich

fluids can circulate through the caldera, forming hydrothermal
ore deposits of metals such as lead, silver, gold, mercury,
lithium, and uranium.[13] One of the world's best-preserved
mineralized calderas is the Sturgeon Lake Caldera in
northwestern Ontario, Canada, which formed during the
Neoarchean era[14] about 2.7 billion years ago.[15]In the San
Juan volcanic field, ore veins were emplaced in fractures
associated with several calderas, with the greatest
mineralization taking place near the youngest and most silicic Landsat image of Lake Toba, on the
intrusions associated with each caldera.[16] island of Sumatra, Indonesia (100
km/62 mi long and 30 km/19 mi
wide, one of the world's largest
Types of caldera calderas). A resurgent dome formed
the island of Samosir.

Explosive caldera eruptions

Explosive caldera eruptions are produced by a magma chamber
whose magma is rich in silica. Silica-rich magma has a high
viscosity, and therefore does not flow easily like basalt.[11]: 23–26
The magma typically also contains a large amount of dissolved
gases, up to 7 wt% for the most silica-rich magmas.[17] When
the magma approaches the surface of the Earth, the drop in
confining pressure causes the trapped gases to rapidly bubble Topographic map of Cagar Alam
Rawa Danau Caldera in Indonesia
out of the magma, fragmenting the magma to produce a
mixture of volcanic ash and other tephra with the very hot
gases.[18]

The mixture of ash and volcanic gases initially rises into the atmosphere as an eruption column.
However, as the volume of erupted material increases, the eruption column is unable to entrain
enough air to remain buoyant, and the eruption column collapses into a tephra fountain that falls
back to the surface to form pyroclastic flows.[19] Eruptions of this type can spread ash over vast
areas, so that ash flow tuffs emplaced by silicic caldera eruptions are the only volcanic product with
volumes rivaling those of flood basalts.[11]: 77 For example, when Yellowstone Caldera last erupted
some 650,000 years ago, it released about 1,000 km3 of material (as measured in dense rock
equivalent (DRE)), covering a substantial part of North America in up to two metres of debris.[20]

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Eruptions forming even larger calderas are known, such as the La Garita Caldera in the San Juan
Mountains of Colorado, where the 5,000 cubic kilometres (1,200 cu mi) Fish Canyon Tuff was
blasted out in eruptions about 27.8 million years ago.[21][22]

The caldera produced by such eruptions is typically filled in with tuff, rhyolite, and other igneous
rocks.[23] The caldera is surrounded by an outflow sheet of ash flow tuff (also called an ash flow
sheet).[24][25]

If magma continues to be injected into the collapsed magma chamber, the center of the caldera
may be uplifted in the form of a resurgent dome such as is seen at the Valles Caldera, Lake Toba,
the San Juan volcanic field,[7] Cerro Galán,[26] Yellowstone,[27] and many other calderas.[7]

Because a silicic caldera may erupt hundreds or even thousands of cubic kilometers of material in a
single event, it can cause catastrophic environmental effects. Even small caldera-forming
eruptions, such as Krakatoa in 1883[28] or Mount Pinatubo in 1991,[29] may result in significant
local destruction and a noticeable drop in temperature around the world. Large calderas may have
even greater effects. The ecological effects of the eruption of a large caldera can be seen in the
record of the Lake Toba eruption in Indonesia.

At some points in geological time, rhyolitic calderas have appeared in distinct clusters. The
remnants of such clusters may be found in places such as the Eocene Rum Complex of
Scotland,[23] the San Juan Mountains of Colorado (formed during the Oligocene, Miocene, and
Pliocene epochs) or the Saint Francois Mountain Range of Missouri (erupted during the
Proterozoic eon).[30]

Valles
For their 1968 paper[7] that first introduced the concept of a
resurgent caldera to geology,[6] R.L. Smith and R.A. Bailey
chose the Valles caldera as their model. Although the Valles
caldera is not unusually large, it is relatively young (1.25
million years old) and unusually well preserved,[31] and it
remains one of the best studied examples of a resurgent
caldera.[6] The ash flow tuffs of the Valles caldera, such as the
Bandelier Tuff, were among the first to be thoroughly
characterized.[32]

Toba Valle Caldera, New Mexico

About 74,000 years ago, this Indonesian volcano released
about 2,800 cubic kilometres (670 cu mi) dense-rock
equivalent of ejecta. This was the largest known eruption during the ongoing Quaternary period
(the last 2.6 million years) and the largest known explosive eruption during the last 25 million
years. In the late 1990s, anthropologist Stanley Ambrose[33] proposed that a volcanic winter
induced by this eruption reduced the human population to about 2,000–20,000 individuals,
resulting in a population bottleneck. More recently, Lynn Jorde and Henry Harpending proposed
that the human species was reduced to approximately 5,000–10,000 people.[34] There is no direct

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evidence, however, that either theory is correct, and there is no evidence for any other animal
decline or extinction, even in environmentally sensitive species.[35] There is evidence that human
habitation continued in India after the eruption.[36]

Non-explosive calderas
Some volcanoes, such as the large shield volcanoes Kīlauea and
Mauna Loa on the island of Hawaii, form calderas in a different
fashion. The magma feeding these volcanoes is basalt, which is
silica poor. As a result, the magma is much less viscous than
the magma of a rhyolitic volcano, and the magma chamber is
drained by large lava flows rather than by explosive events. The Satellite photograph of the summit
resulting calderas are also known as subsidence calderas and caldera on Fernandina Island in the
can form more gradually than explosive calderas. For instance, Galápagos archipelago
the caldera atop Fernandina Island collapsed in 1968 when
parts of the caldera floor dropped 350 metres (1,150 ft).[38]

Extraterrestrial calderas
Since the early 1960s, it has been known that volcanism has Oblique aerial photo of Nemrut
occurred on other planets and moons in the Solar System. Caldera, Van Lake, Eastern Turkey
Through the use of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft, volcanism
has been discovered on Venus, Mars, the Moon, and Io, a
satellite of Jupiter. None of these worlds have plate tectonics,
which contributes approximately 60% of the Earth's volcanic
activity (the other 40% is attributed to hotspot volcanism).[39]
Caldera structure is similar on all of these planetary bodies,
though the size varies considerably. The average caldera
diameter on Venus is 68 km (42 mi). The average caldera
diameter on Io is close to 40 km (25 mi), and the mode is 6 km
(3.7 mi); Tvashtar Paterae is likely the largest caldera with a Sollipulli Caldera, located in central
diameter of 290 km (180 mi). The average caldera diameter on Chile near the border with
Mars is 48 km (30 mi), smaller than Venus. Calderas on Earth Argentina, filled with ice. The
volcano is in the southern Andes
are the smallest of all planetary bodies and vary from 1.6–
Mountains within Chile's Parque
80 km (1–50 mi) as a maximum.[40]
Nacional Villarica.[37]

The Moon
The Moon has an outer shell of low-density crystalline rock that is a few hundred kilometers thick,
which formed due to a rapid creation. The craters of the Moon have been well preserved through
time and were once thought to have been the result of extreme volcanic activity, but are currently
believed to have been formed by meteorites, nearly all of which took place in the first few hundred
million years after the Moon formed. Around 500 million years afterward, the Moon's mantle was
able to be extensively melted due to the decay of radioactive elements. Massive basaltic eruptions
took place generally at the base of large impact craters. Also, eruptions may have taken place due
to a magma reservoir at the base of the crust. This forms a dome, possibly the same morphology of

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a shield volcano where calderas universally are known to form.[39] Although caldera-like structures
are rare on the Moon, they are not completely absent. The Compton-Belkovich Volcanic Complex
on the far side of the Moon is thought to be a caldera, possibly an ash-flow caldera.[41]

Mars
The volcanic activity of Mars is concentrated in two major provinces: Tharsis and Elysium. Each
province contains a series of giant shield volcanoes that are similar to what we see on Earth and
likely are the result of mantle hot spots. The surfaces are dominated by lava flows, and all have one
or more collapse calderas.[39] Mars has the tallest volcano in the Solar System, Olympus Mons,
which is more than three times the height of Mount Everest, with a diameter of 520 km (323
miles). The summit of the mountain has six nested calderas.[42]

Venus
Because there is no plate tectonics on Venus, heat is mainly lost by conduction through the
lithosphere. This causes enormous lava flows, accounting for 80% of Venus' surface area. Many of
the mountains are large shield volcanoes that range in size from 150–400 km (95–250 mi) in
diameter and 2–4 km (1.2–2.5 mi) high. More than 80 of these large shield volcanoes have summit
calderas averaging 60 km (37 mi) across.[39]

Io
Io, unusually, is heated by solid flexing due to the tidal influence of Jupiter and Io's orbital
resonance with neighboring large moons Europa and Ganymede, which keep its orbit slightly
eccentric. Unlike any of the planets mentioned, Io is continuously volcanically active. For example,
the NASA Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft detected nine erupting volcanoes while passing Io
in 1979. Io has many calderas with diameters tens of kilometers across.[39]

List of volcanic calderas

Africa
Ngorongoro Crater (Tanzania)
Menengai Crater (Kenya)
Mount Elgon (Uganda/Kenya)
Mount Fogo (Cape Verde)
Mount Longonot (Kenya)
Mount Meru (Tanzania)
Erta Ale (Ethiopia)
Nabro Volcano (Eritrea)
Mallahle (Eritrea)
See Europe for calderas in the Canary Islands
Americas
Argentina
Aguas Calientes, Salta Province
Caldera del Atuel, Mendoza Province
Galán, Catamarca Province

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Bolivia
Pastos Grandes
United States
Mount Aniakchak (Aniakchak National Monument
and Preserve) (Alaska)
Cochetopa Caldera (Colorado)
Crater Lake on Mount Mazama (Crater Lake
National Park, Oregon)
Mount Katmai (Alaska)
Kīlauea (Hawaii) Crater Lake, Oregon, formed around
Mauna Loa (Hawaii) 5,680 BC
La Garita Caldera (Colorado)
Long Valley (California)
Henry's Fork Caldera (Idaho)
Island Park Caldera (Idaho, Wyoming)
Newberry Volcano (Oregon)
McDermitt Caldera (Oregon)
Medicine Lake Volcano (California)
Mount Okmok (Alaska)
Valles Caldera (New Mexico)
Aniakchak-caldera, Alaska
Yellowstone Caldera (Wyoming)
Canada
Silverthrone Caldera (British Columbia)
Mount Edziza (British Columbia)
Bennett Lake Volcanic Complex (British Columbia/Yukon)
Mount Pleasant Caldera (New Brunswick)
Sturgeon Lake Caldera (Ontario)
Mount Skukum Volcanic Complex (Yukon)
Blake River Megacaldera Complex (Quebec/Ontario)
New Senator Caldera (Quebec)
Misema Caldera (Ontario/Quebec)
Noranda Caldera (Quebec)
Colombia
Arenas crater caldera, Nevado del Ruiz volcano, Caldas Department
Laguna Verde caldera, Azufral volcano, Narino Department
Mexico
La primavera Caldera (Jalisco)
Amealco Caldera (Querétaro)
Las Cumbres Caldera (Veracruz-Puebla)
Los Azufres Caldera (Michoacán)
Los Humeros Caldera (Veracruz-Puebla)
Mazahua Caldera (Mexico State)
Chile
Chaitén

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Cordillera Nevada Caldera

Laguna del Maule
Pacana Caldera
Sollipulli
Ecuador
Pululahua Geobotanical Reserve
Cuicocha
Quilotoa
Fernandina Island, Galápagos Islands
Sierra Negra (Galápagos)
Chacana Caldera
El Salvador
Lake Ilopango
Lake Coatepeque
Guatemala
Lake Amatitlán
Lake Atitlán
Xela Coatepeque Caldera, El Salvador
Barahona crater lake
Other
Masaya (Nicaragua)
Asia
East Asia

大墈头) (Shanhuyan Village, Taozhu Town, Linhai, Zhejiang, China)

Dakantou Caldera (
Ma'anshan Caldera (马鞍山) (Shishan Town (石山镇), Xiuying, Hainan, China)
Yiyang Caldera (宜洋) (Shuangxi Town (双溪镇宜洋村), Pingnan County, Fujian, China)
Aira Caldera (Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan)
Kussharo (Hokkaido, Japan)
Kuttara (Hokkaido, Japan)
Mashū (Hokkaido, Japan)
Aso Caldera, Mount Aso (Kumamoto Prefecture, Japan)
Kikai Caldera (Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan)
Towada (Aomori Prefecture, Japan)
Tazawa (Akita Prefecture, Japan)
Hakone (Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan)
Mount Halla (Jeju-do, South Korea)
Heaven Lake (Baekdu Mountain, North Korea/Changbai Mountains, China)
Southeast Asia
Apolaki Caldera (Benham Rise, Philippines)
Corregidor Caldera (Manila Bay, Philippines)
Mount Pinatubo (Luzon, Philippines)
Taal Volcano (Luzon, Philippines)
Laguna Caldera (Luzon, Philippines)

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Irosin Caldera (Luzon, Philippines)

Batur (Bali, Indonesia)
Krakatoa (Sunda Strait, Indonesia)
Lake Maninjau (Sumatra, Indonesia)
Lake Toba (Sumatra, Indonesia)
Mount Rinjani (Lombok, Indonesia)
Mount Tondano (Sulawesi, Indonesia)
Mount Tambora (Sumbawa, Indonesia) Mount Pinatubo, Philippines
Tengger Caldera (Java, Indonesia)
Southwest Asia
Derik (Mardin, Turkey)
Nemrut (volcano) (Turkey)
Russia
Akademia Nauk (Kamchatka Peninsula)
Golovnin (Kuril Islands)
Karymsky Caldera (Kamchatka Peninsula)
Karymshina (Kamchatka Peninsula)
Khangar (Kamchatka Peninsula)
Ksudach (Kamchatka Peninsula)
Kurile Lake (Kamchatka Peninsula) Caldera of the island
Pauzhetka caldera (hosts Kurile Lake caldera, Yankicha/Ushishir, Kuril Islands
Kamchatka Peninsula) [43]

Lvinaya Past (Kuril Islands)

Tao-Rusyr Caldera (Kuril Islands)
Uzon (Kamchatka Peninsula)
Zavaritski Caldera (Kuril Islands)
Yankicha/Ushishir (Kuril Islands)
Chegem Caldera (Kabardino-Balkarian Republic, North Caucasus)
Europe
Banská Štiavnica (Slovakia)
Bakuriani/Didveli Caldera (Georgia)
Samsari (Georgia)
Santorini (Greece)
Nisyros (Greece)
Askja (Iceland)
Grímsvötn (Iceland)
3D CGI aerial spinning view over
Bárðarbunga (Iceland) Santorini, Greece
Katla (Iceland)
Krafla (Iceland)
Phlegraean Fields (Italy)
Lake Bracciano (Italy)
Lake Bolsena (Italy)
Mount Somma which contains Mount Vesuvius (Italy)
Las Cañadas (Tenerife, Spain)
Glen Coe (Scotland)
Scafell Caldera (Lake District, England)[44]
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Laacher See (Germany)

Lagoa das Sete Cidades & Furnas (São Miguel, the
Azores, Portugal)
Caldeira do Faial (Faial, Portugal)
Caldeirão do Corvo (Corvo, Portugal)
Oceania
Cerberean Cauldron (Australia)[45] Aerial view of the Laacher See,
Dakataua (Papua New Guinea) Germany

Kapenga (New Zealand)

Kilauea (Hawaii, US)
Lake Ohakuri (New Zealand)
Lake Okataina (New Zealand)
Lake Rotorua (New Zealand)
Lake Taupo (New Zealand)
Maroa (New Zealand)
Moku‘āweoweo Caldera on Mauna Loa (Hawaii, US)
Mount Warning (Australia)
View of the Phlegraean Fields near
Prospect Hill (Australia) Naples, Italy
Rano Kau (Easter Island, Chile)
Reporoa caldera (New Zealand)
Antarctica
Deception Island
Kemp Caldera
Indian Ocean
Cirque de Mafate, Cirque de Salazie, Enclos Fouqué,
and Cirque de Cilaos on Réunion Caldeira do Faial on the Caldeira
Volcano, Faial Island, Azores

Extraterrestrial volcanic calderas

Mars
Olympus Mons caldera
Venus
Maat Mons caldera

Erosion calderas
Satellite photo of Lake Taupo
Americas
Guaichane-Mamuta (Chile)
Mount Tehama (California, US)
Europe
Caldera de Taburiente (Spain)
Oceania
Tweed Valley (New South Wales, Queensland, Australia)
Asia
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Chegem Caldera (Kabardino-Balkarian Republic, Northern Caucasus Region, Russia)

Taal volcano (Philippines) Batangas Province

See also
Complex volcano – Landform of more than one related volcanic centre
Maar – Low-relief volcanic crater
Somma volcano – Volcanic caldera that has been partially filled by a new central cone
Supervolcano – Volcano that has erupted 1000 cubic km of lava in a single eruption
Volcanic Explosivity Index – Qualitative scale for explosiveness of volcanic eruptions

Explanatory notes
1. Leopold von Buch's book Physical Description of the Canary Isles was published in 1825.

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2012.09.007).

Further reading
Clough, C. T.; Maufe, H. B.; Bailey, E. B. (1909). "The Cauldron-Subsidence of Glen Coe, and
the Associated Igneous Phenomena" (https://zenodo.org/record/2346903). Quarterly Journal of
the Geological Society. 65 (1–4): 611–78. doi:10.1144/GSL.JGS.1909.065.01-04.35 (https://do
i.org/10.1144%2FGSL.JGS.1909.065.01-04.35). S2CID 129342758 (https://api.semanticschola
r.org/CorpusID:129342758).
Gudmundsson, Agust (2008). "Magma-Chamber Geometry, Fluid Transport, Local Stresses
and Rock Behaviour During Collapse Caldera Formation". Caldera Volcanism: Analysis,
Modelling and Response. Developments in Volcanology. Vol. 10. pp. 313–349.
doi:10.1016/S1871-644X(07)00008-3 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1871-644X%2807%290000
8-3). ISBN 978-0-444-53165-0.
Kokelaar, B. P; and Moore, I. D; 2006. Glencoe caldera volcano, Scotland.
ISBN 9780852725252. Pub. British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottinghamshire. There is an
associated 1:25000 solid geology map.
Lipman, P; 1999. "Caldera". In Haraldur Sigurdsson, ed. Encyclopedia of Volcanoes. Academic
Press. ISBN 0-12-643140-X
Williams, Howell (1941). "Calderas and their origin" (https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.
39015027553265&view=1up&seq=291). University of California Publications Bulletin of the
Department of Geological Sciences. 25: 239–346.

External links
USGS page on calderas (https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/images/pglossary/caldera.php)
List of Caldera Volcanoes (https://web.archive.org/web/20110717230952/http://www.volcanod
b.com/search.php?type=Caldera)
Collection of references on collapse calderas (https://web.archive.org/web/20070630233550/ht
tp://eis.bris.ac.uk/~gljhg/Workgroup/Workgroup_files/Edited-list-publications_calderas-71206.p
df) (43 pages)
The Caldera of the Tweed Volcano – Australia (http://www.bigvolcano.com.au/natural/wollum.ht
m)
Largest Explosive Eruptions: New results for the 27.8 Ma Fish Canyon Tuff and the La Garita
caldera, San Juan volcanic field, Colorado (https://web.archive.org/web/20051216160300/htt
p://host.uniroma3.it/progetti/cev/Web%20CEV%20folder/lagarita.html)
Supervolcanoes (https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/1999/supervolcanoes_script.shtml)
Time-lapse video of Kīlauea caldera collapse, 2018 (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mIK6l
5vNT8o)

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