INDIAN FOREIGN POLICY

INDIAN FOREIGN POLICY

“A country that demands moral perfection in its foreign policy will achieve neither perfection nor
security” ― Henry Kissinger

Syllabus:
Indian Foreign Policy: Determinants of foreign policy; institutions of policy-making; continuity and
change.

WHAT IS FOREIGN POLICY?

A country’s foreign policy includes all of the policies it develops to pursue its national
interests as it interacts with other countries. A foreign policy is a set of pre-established strategies
designed and implemented systematically to secure goals of national interest by managing a
country’s relationships with other nations.
According to C.C Rodee ,foreign policy involves the formulation and implementation of a
group of principles which shape the behaviour pattern of a state while negotiating with (contacting)
other states to protect or further its vital interests. Former National Security Adviser & Foreign
Secretary Shivshankar Menon defines Foreign Policy as ‘Minimaxing’ i.e. minimizing risks and
maximizing benefits.

OBJECTIVE OF INDIAN FOREIGN POLICY

• Preserve India's territorial integrity and independence in foreign policy.
• Protect national boundaries from foreign aggression.
• Promote international peace and security.
• Recognize the correlation between global peace and development.
• Emphasize disarmament and avoid military alliances.
• Prioritize economic development of India.
• Strengthen democracy and freedom.
• Seek financial resources and technology for development.
• Secure national interests, including:
• Protection from traditional and non-traditional threats.
• Create a favorable external environment for inclusive development.
• Influence global opinion on issues like terrorism, climate change, and disarmament.
• Engage and protect the Indian Diaspora.
MEA S. Jaishankar's objectives for Indian Foreign Policy:
• Address key challenges through broad engagement.
• Manage global contradictions and leverage them.
• Advance national interests in a multipolar world and contribute to global
well-being.
Major foreign policy objectives include:
• Protecting territorial integrity and countering cross-border terrorism.
• Ensuring energy, food, and cyber security.
• Building world-class infrastructure.
• Promoting non-discriminatory global trade.
• Advocating equitable global responsibility for environmental protection.
• Reforming global governance institutions to reflect contemporary realities.
• Pursuing disarmament, regional stability, and international peace.

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FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND FEATURES OF INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY

• According to Ambassador Achal Malhotra, in the present dynamic and complex world order,
India’s foreign policy has become proactive, flexible as well as pragmatic so as to make quick
adjustments to respond to evolving situations. In the implementation of its foreign policy India,
however, invariably adheres to a set of basic principles on which no compromise is made.
• These fundamental principles include:
o Panchsheel
o Non-alignment
o Opposition to export of ideologies and change of regimes
o Opposition to unilateral sanctions and military actions
o Interference: no; intervention: yes
o Constructive engagement over aggression

PANCHSHEEL
• Indian policymakers recognized the importance of peace for national progress and global
survival.
• Nehru, the architect of India's foreign policy, prioritized world peace.
• India aimed for peaceful and friendly relations with all nations, especially major powers and
neighbors.
• PANCHSHEEL, or Five Principles, emerged as the foundation of international relations:
1. Mutual respect for territorial integrity and sovereignty.
2. Mutual non-aggression.
3. Peaceful co-existence.
4. Equality and mutual benefit.
5. Mutual non-interference.
• Embraced the concept of "Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam" (The World is One Family) and "Sabka
Saath, Sabka Vikas, Sabka Vishwas" (Together with all, for everyone's development and
trust).
• These principles underline the idea that the world is a global family where members must
live in harmony, collaborate, and trust each other for mutual benefits.

• Non-alignment is a core component of India's foreign policy, particularly notable during the
Cold War era. It signifies India's commitment to maintaining independence in foreign affairs
by avoiding military alliances with either the USA or the Soviet Union.
• India supports democracy but opposes the export of ideologies.
• It rejects regime change and violations of territorial integrity by force (e.g., US interventions
in Iraq, Libya, Syria, or Russia's actions in Georgia and Ukraine).
• India promotes democracy with consent, aiding capacity building and institution
strengthening (e.g., Afghanistan).
• India opposes unilateral sanctions/military actions, supporting only UN-approved measures.
• Regarding US sanctions on Iran, India abides by UN sanctions but not those imposed by
individual countries.
• India avoids interference in other countries' internal affairs but intervenes when its national
interests are at stake (e.g., Bangladesh 1971, IPKF in Sri Lanka 1987-90, Maldives 1988).
• India favors constructive engagement over aggression, believing war is not a solution.
• While engaging, India remains resolute and has demonstrated this with actions like the 2016
surgical strike and the 2019 air strike on terrorist camps in response to the Pulwama attack.

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DETERMINANTS OF INDIAN FOREIGN POLICY

Foreign policy of any country is not determined by any single factor but multiple factors. This
interplay between different factors determine the policies and principles in foreign policy and bring
continuity and change in policies. Foreign policy ,in concrete terms ,is a combination of principles,
interests and objectives through which a country formulates and conducts its relations in the
international affairs.
A country’s foreign policy does not emerge from a vacuum; it is guided and shaped by country’s
history, culture, the political system and various other factors.

Domestic politics as the determinant of Foreign Policy

• No country's foreign policy is immune from domestic dynamics, including governance
system, political culture, and public opinion.
• In modern political systems, policy implementation often requires government consensus,
influenced by the political system's nature.
• In democracies, foreign policy without consensus is less likely to succeed.
• India's adoption of Non-Alignment was influenced by the need for domestic consensus,
considering both left and right-wing perspectives.
• Domestic politics played a role in India's decisions regarding the US Civil Nuclear Treaty
(2005), UNHRC votes on Sri Lanka, Nepal blockade, and the Teesta Agreement with
Bangladesh.
• India's Middle East Policy has been shaped by domestic factors.
• Foreign policy is crafted in a complex domestic and international context, with domestic
politics significantly influencing decisions.
• Foreign policy analysis must be multifaceted to understand these complex motivations, and
leaders may sometimes choose suboptimal policies due to domestic political pressures.

Domestic social and political structure

• According to Nehru, foreign policy is an extension of domestic policy. Foreign policy of any
country is aimed at achieving domestic political, economic and social goals at international level.
• Impact of social structure-
o Shared ethnicity, culture, religion and race can be source of cooperation as well as conflict.
While in Europe, it has acted as binding agent in post-world war 2, in south Asia, it is source
of conflict. As the partition of subcontinent was artificial and product of colonialism,
nationalism is not consolidated in these countries and ethnic conflicts are common between
as well as within states.
o For example, the conflict between India and Pakistan is product of identity crisis. Stephen P.
Cohen calls it ‘paired minority conflict.’ Similarly, the Madhesi issue and Tamil issue have
led to deterioration of India-Nepal and India-Srilanka relations respectively.
o Further, due to the homogenization brought by globalization, events happening in one part
of the world has impact on other parts also. For example, human rights movement which
originated in the West has also impacted non-western world.

Impact of political culture

o As per democratic peace theory of Michael Doyle, two countries having democratic political
structure never go to war. He also gives theory of ‘zone of peace’. It is a region where
countries have democratic political system. The reason for this is shared values between
democracies, separation of powers between institutions at domestic level and public
pressure to settle dispute by negotiations.
o For example, during 3 wars between India and Pakistan (1948, 1965, 1971), the Pakistani
military was in charge of Pakistan’s foreign policy.

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o However, it must also be noted that though there is no empirical evidence of war between
democracies, democracy can’t always ensure cooperative and peaceful relationship. For
example, India has strained relationship with Nepal despite Nepal adopting democracy.
o Secondly, any international agreement is negotiated at two levels. Firstly, it is negotiated
between countries and secondly, it is negotiated at domestic level. Without ratification at
domestic level, no international agreement can come into force. For example, India has not
signed RCEP due to opposition at domestic level.
o Thirdly, political ideology of ruling party and elites also plays an important role. Ideological
difference between capitalist USA and communist USSR was the basis of cold war.
o However, the role of ideology as a determinant of foreign policy should not be
overemphasized. Often ideologies are used simply to obscure the real facts of a situation or
ambitious ruler’s real motives. Sometimes governments stand for certain ideas only to
command popular support. The foreign policy of India and many other countries, despite
ideological overtones, cannot be explained except in terms of national interests. For
example, India’s relations with Islamist countries in West Asia.

Geographical factors as the determinant of Foreign Policy

o India's foreign policy is shaped by its geography, including the Himalayan range to the north
and its extensive coastline along the Indian Ocean.
o Key foreign policy challenges for India include unsettled borders due to historical partition,
unfriendly neighbors limiting its influence, and trust deficits caused by power imbalances.
o There is a growing argument, advocated by Happymon Jacob, that India should shift its
focus from the continental sphere to the maritime sphere.
o Geography has historically influenced foreign policy, such as the role of the English Channel
in Britain's naval power.
o India's strategic location in the heart of Asia and its dominance in the Indian Ocean make it a
crucial player in global geopolitics.
o India is countering China's encirclement strategy with developments like Chabahar port in
Iran, access to Duqm port in Oman, and agreements with Indonesia, while establishing a tri-
service command in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
o Challenges in India's foreign policy include artificial borders in South Asia, terrorism,
fundamentalism, piracy, and narcotics production in surrounding areas, as well as border
disputes and river water-sharing issues due to politicization.
o Political divisions in South Asia have led to unresolved border conflicts, sensitive territorial
disputes, and politicization of issues, as seen in conflicts between India and Pakistan and
India and Nepal, as well as disputes over river water sharing like the Teesta water issue with
Bangladesh.

History and culture as the determinant of Foreign Policy

• India's post-independence foreign policy draws from its ancient civilization and cultural
traditions.
• Key policy concepts include Panchsheel, Kautilya's Mandal Siddhanta, Vasudhaiva
Kutumbakam, and Dharmashastra.
• India's foreign policy values tolerance, nonviolence, universal brotherhood, and peace.
• Nehru's policies were influenced by Buddhism and Ashoka, while Modi's draw from Kautilya
and Chandra Gupta Maurya.
• India's experience with colonialism fuels its commitment to fight imperialism, colonialism,
and racialism.
• The Indian National Movement influenced foreign policy by supporting freedom for
dependent peoples and opposing racial discrimination.

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• India's foreign policy reflects a division of the world into pro-colonial and anti-colonial blocs.
• Ancient Hindu foreign policy was isolationist, with a Munroe Doctrine approach toward
states outside India.
• India's constitution promotes international peace and security (Article 51) while asserting
sovereignty and territorial integrity.
• India maintains cultural links with Nepal, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia.
• India's foreign policy blends Kautilya's Realpolitik with Buddha's and Gandhi's idealism and
pacifism.
• India's stance on issues like the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and nuclear disarmament reflects
its idealism and pacifism.
• India's experience of colonialism led to non-alignment and the pursuit of purna swaraj.
• Gandhi's influence created the concept of ahimsa (non-violence) in Indian foreign policy.
• India's decision to develop nuclear capabilities aligns with its non-alignment and
modernization goals.
• India's support for decolonization, anti-imperialism, and opposition to apartheid stems from
its freedom struggle and Gandhian ideals.
• Early post-independence foreign policy emphasized non-alignment, anti-colonialism, anti-
racialism, disarmament, and peace-making.
• India's desire to protect sovereignty prevented alignment with superpowers during the Cold
War.
• India's actions in Goa (1960) and Bangladesh (1971) reflected realism and pragmatism.
• Historical animosities with China and Pakistan are impacted by the 1962 and 1971 wars but
can be addressed through diplomacy.
• Examples like German unification and EU consolidation show how historical animosities can
be overcome.
• India and China have also sought to prevent differences from escalating into disputes, as
seen in the Wuhan Summit.

Role of Leadership as the determinant of Foreign Policy

National leaders, especially the head of government has to play a two-level game between
international and domestic politics.
• Kautilya's Saptang theory emphasizes the role of leadership (King/Nabhi) in foreign policy.

• Western scholars like Alexander George and Julliet George also stress the importance of
leaders in shaping foreign policy.
• In the Indian context, leaders like PM Nehru played a pivotal role in foreign policy decisions,
such as reaching out to the UN on the Kashmir issue and leading the Non-Aligned Movement
(NAM).
• Nehru's grand liberal ideas influenced India's foreign policy, including recognizing China and
supporting its UNSC candidacy.
• Mrs. Gandhi's strong outlook was evident in India's intervention in the Bangladesh liberation
war despite resistance from the USA.
• Gujral's doctrine and Manmohan Doctrine projected a liberal image of Indian foreign policy.

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• PM Modi has been seen as a strong leader who promotes India strategically, focusing on soft
power and the diaspora.
• Leadership injects dynamism into foreign policy, although underlying forces remain
relatively unchanged.
• While leadership matters, institutions should not be underestimated in foreign policy
formulation.

Social structure as the determinant of Foreign Policy

India, being a heterogeneous and pluralistic society has taken an inclusive course .Same is
seen in our middle ground approach to international affairs like Non-Alignment. Having experienced
and suffered due to class inequalities, India supports development over trade like in Doha Round.
Indian society is still majorly patriarchal, thus the IFP is still not very feminist at its core ,much like
other south Asian nations.

GLOBAL AND REGIONAL CHALLENGES

• India's foreign policy shifted post-Cold War to focus on economic development,
multilateralism, and strategic autonomy.
• India's changing priorities are reflected in its relationships, such as closer ties with the US
and Japan, and shifting focus to regions like the Persian Gulf and ASEAN.
• India now values "strategic autonomy," examining foreign policy options on merit rather
than aligning with specific camps or alliances.
• In the evolving global landscape, India seeks to become a "leading state" rather than merely
a "balancer" or "swing state."
• India has assumed a central position in the Indo-Pacific to counter expansionist China, is a
member of the QUAD, and leads efforts at the FATF and WTO.
• India is actively engaged at the global level, advocating for the Comprehensive Convention
on Terrorism and establishing the International Solar Alliance.
• COVID-19 diplomacy saw India initially exporting vaccines but later facing disruptions due to
the Delta variant.
• Russia-NATO tensions pose challenges for India due to potential US sanctions over defence
deals with Russia.
• The Taliban takeover of Afghanistan has shifted India's regional priorities, leading to efforts
to engage with Central Asian leaders for a foothold in Afghanistan's future.

FEDERAL UNITS- PARADIPLOMACY

• States in India play an increasingly influential international role in various areas of foreign
policy, including economics, resource management, environment, and security concerns.
• States like Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal have organized investor
summits to attract foreign investment.
• The concept of "competitive federalism" under the present government promotes greater
involvement of states in foreign policy.
• The New State Division in the Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) was created to incorporate
regional voices in foreign policy decisions, but state involvement remains sporadic and
needs greater institutionalization and capacity building.
• Paradiplomacy, the diplomacy of sub-state units, depends on factors like demographic
distinctiveness, devolution of power, legal entrenchment, limited external relation powers,
and integrated mechanisms for autonomy.
• Federalism provides an opportunity for state governments to engage in paradiplomacy,
promoting local and international interests.
• However, states often pursue narrow regional agendas that may conflict with national
interests, with competing political actors influencing New Delhi's policy preferences.

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• Examples include West Bengal's influence on India-Bangladesh relations, particularly in

issues like water-sharing, immigration, and border politics.
• Tamil Nadu's political parties have impacted India's relations with Sri Lanka, as seen in India's
vote against Sri Lanka in the UNHRC in 2013 due to pressure from DMK and AIADMK.
• Factors like environmental protection, military power, and the quality of diplomacy also
influence the foreign policy decisions of states.

INSTITUTIONS OF FOREIGN POLICY MAKING

Foreign policy making is very complex phenomenon due to requirement of high level of
sophistication, secrecy and long-term vision. Various institutions comprising of elected
representatives, executive and bureaucrats are involved in Foreign policy making.
With the rise of globalization and increasing interdependency of states and enlarging scope
of foreign policy, demand larger involvement of major organs of the government. Though, the
Ministry of External Affairs is the pivotal player in managing India’s external relations, other
important agencies such as the Cabinet, Ministry of Defence, Ministry of Commerce and Industry,
National Security Council, Prime Minister’s Office and Parliament also are contributing significantly
for the planning and formulation of India’s Foreign Policy.

PARLIAMENT
• India's Parliament holds legislative power in foreign affairs, including the authority to amend
laws for the implementation of international treaties and agreements.
• Parliament exercises oversight through committees like the Standing Committee on External
Affairs and Standing Committee on Defence, which question officials on foreign relations
and security matters.
• Parliament serves as a platform for deliberation on government policies, allowing elected
representatives to bring foreign policy decisions to public attention and exert pressure on
the government.
• Parliament's discussions have covered significant foreign policy matters, such as India's
nuclear cooperation agreement with the US and Nehru's China policy.
• Some countries have formal procedures to maintain national consensus in foreign policy, like
Denmark's requirement for government consultation with the foreign affairs committee.
• Parliaments also strengthen bilateral relations through inter-parliamentary relations and
delegation-level visits, fostering goodwill between nations.
• However, party politics and national security concerns can limit Parliament's ability to hold
the government accountable and access certain information.
• The decline in parliamentary debates and informed discussions has weakened Parliament's
control over executive and foreign policy decisions.
• Despite bureaucratic dominance in policy-making, Parliament remains influential in shaping
India's external relations as the highest democratic institution and the voice of the people.

MINISTRY OF EXTERNAL AFFAIRS

• The Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) is empowered by the 'Allocation of Business Rules' of
the Government of India to plan, formulate, and manage India's external relations to protect
and promote national interests globally.
• In India, MEA serves as the foreign policy secretariat, receiving policy inputs from various
sources, analyzing options, and channeling recommendations to the political leadership, led
by the Prime Minister and the Cabinet.
• MEA has strengthened its economic diplomacy capabilities since the late 1980s, with
divisions dedicated to investment, technology promotion, and multilateral economic
relations.
• A Development Partnership Administration (DPA) within MEA consolidates India's role as an

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assistance partner to developing countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America.

• The D&ISA Division under MEA handles nuclear proliferation, disarmament, and related
issues, including India's bid for membership in the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG).
• Functional divisions like Administration, Establishment, Finance, Legal, and Treaties provide
the necessary tools and support for Indian diplomats at home and abroad.
• The External Publicity Division of MEA receives foreign policy inputs from the media and
disseminates information on India's foreign policy objectives.
• MEA manages all passport, visa, and consular issues, including issuing passports, providing
consular services to Indian nationals, and issuing visas to foreign nationals visiting India.
• Diaspora issues and the safety and security of Indian nationals abroad fall within the policy
purview of MEA.
• Despite its importance, MEA's role in foreign policy-making has diminished with the rise of
the Prime Minister's Office (PMO), which now assumes a central role in decision-making.
• Economic diplomacy and specialized centers for ties with ASEAN and BIMSTEC have been
established to strengthen economic relations.
• The National Security Council (NSC) and the National Security Advisor (NSA), such as Ajit
Doval, have increased their roles in shaping India's foreign and national security policies.
• MEA remains the focal point of India's foreign policy, with the Policy Planning and Research
Division collecting inputs from various sources, including Indian missions abroad, ministries,
think tanks, trade associations, academic institutions, and subject specialists.

MINISTRY OF DEFENCE
• The Government/PMO seeks the Ministry of Defence's views on matters related to defense
policy and national security.
• The Raksha Mantri (Defence Minister) is a member of the Cabinet Committee on Security and of
the National Security Council.
• The Secretary, Department of Defence, Secretary (Defence Production) and the three service
chiefs (Army, Navy and Air Force) are members of the Strategic Planning Group.
• In recent years, a joint secretary level officer from MEA is seconded to the MoD to handle
Planning and International Cooperation tasks of the Ministry.

MINISTRY OF COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY

• The Department of Commerce (DoC) together with the MEA and the Ministry of Finance is
largely responsible for conducting India's economic diplomacy.
• On trade issues at the WTO, bilateral and multilateral FTAs, etc, policy is largely initiated and
formalised at the DoC.
• Investment and taxation issues are coordinated by the MoF in consultation with MoC, MEA,
CBDT, Customs, etc,.

CABINET AND CABINET COMMITTEES

• Institutionalization of foreign and security policymaking in India has historically been weak
but has improved with the creation of the National Security Council and the Nuclear
Command Authority.
• The role and effectiveness of the Cabinet Committee on Security have varied across different
governments and are currently less influential than during Manmohan Singh's government.
• In India's parliamentary system, important decisions on national and international affairs are
typically made by the cabinet, the topmost decision-making body of the government.
• Cabinet ministers, as trusted colleagues of the Prime Minister, advise and assist on major
foreign policy issues, including during crises.
• The Cabinet decides measures to enhance India's external security in consultation with the
Ministries of Home Affairs, Defence, and External Affairs.

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• Specialized cabinet committees have been established to address various policy issues and
relieve the central cabinet of its increasing workload.
• Although no cabinet committee exclusively handles foreign affairs, those dealing with
economic, parliamentary, political, and security matters indirectly impact India's foreign
policy.
• During critical situations like the Indo-China conflict of 1961, the Emergency Committee,
chaired by the Prime Minister, played a crucial role in addressing national and external
issues.
• Committees like the one on World Trade Organization Matters resolve issues related to
India's concerns at the WTO, focusing on global trade developments.
• The Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs and the Committee on Investment aim to
improve India's economic conditions and attract foreign investment, indirectly impacting
foreign economic affairs.
• The Administrative Reform Commission has recommended the establishment of a Cabinet
Committee on Foreign Affairs to address foreign policy matters.

PMO
• Since independence, the Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) has often played a secondary role
in foreign policy, with the Prime Minister's Office (PMO) taking precedence.
• India has rarely had an independent and politically powerful Foreign Minister who could
leave a significant personal imprint on foreign policy.
• Foreign policy decision-making has largely been within the domain of the Prime Minister, a
practice initiated by Nehru and continued by his successors, resulting in bold and innovative
grand strategies shared across political parties.
• The PMO, comprising senior-level bureaucrats, serves as the center of policy-making in
India, coordinating various central agencies, Cabinet Committees, and stakeholders to
resolve interdepartmental issues in both domestic and foreign policy.
• During Nehru's tenure, as he held the positions of both Prime Minister and External Affairs
Minister, the Prime Minister's Secretariat (PMO) became the focal point for foreign policy
decision-making, a trend that has persisted with subsequent Prime Ministers.
• All-important foreign policy and security matters require the Prime Minister's approval
before implementation.
• The National Security Advisor (NSA) plays a crucial role in advising the Prime Minister on
foreign policy matters, influencing the advice provided to the PM.
• The appointment of Indian Ambassadors and High Commissioners abroad requires the Prime
Minister's approval, although the formal appointment letter is issued by the President as the
Head of State.
• The current PMO includes several key officials, such as the Principal Secretary to the PM, the
NSA, an Additional PS to the PM, Secretary to PM, and various other officers at different
levels.
• Major foreign policy initiatives, such as the Act East Policy and Neighbourhood First Policy,
are often initiated by the Prime Minister and coordinated by the MEA.
• India's Pakistan policy, known as Offensive Defence or the Doval Doctrine, is formulated by
NSA Ajit Doval.
• The PMO has been the most significant institution in foreign policy-making in India, but
effective coordination with the MEA is essential for evidence-based policy-making and policy
implementation

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NATIONAL SECURITY COUNCIL

• The National Security Council (NSC) safeguards India's security and strategic interests in
foreign policy.
• Chaired by the Prime Minister, it comprises key ministers, including External Affairs,
Defence, Home, and Finance, as well as the National Security Advisor (NSA) and Deputy
Chairman of NITI Aayog.
• The NSC has three tiers: Strategic Planning Group (SPG), National Security Advisory Board
(NSAB), and Joint Intelligence Committee (JIC).
• SPG, led by the Cabinet Secretary, shapes and executes strategic policies, monitors security
situations, and responds to potential threats.
• NSAB consists of experts advising on national security and development, offering long-term
analyses and perspectives.
• JIC, chaired by an Additional Secretary, coordinates intelligence efforts, collects and analyzes
data, and directs intelligence agencies as needed.
• NSC plays vital roles in foreign policy by advising the PM on security matters, formulating
national security strategies, and integrating insights from government bodies, armed forces,
and think tanks.

THINK TANKS
• Think tanks in foreign policy focus on informing and influencing public policies through
research and analysis.
• In Western countries, academia and think tanks significantly impact foreign policy decisions.
In India, there has been centralization in foreign policy decision-making alongside the rise of
new foreign policy think tanks.
• Key academic institutions in India include the School of International Studies at JNU, Indian
Council of World Affairs (ICWA), and Institute of Defence Studies and Analysis (IDSA).
Prominent think tanks include the Institute of Chinese Studies (ICS), Research and
Information System for Developing Countries (RIS), ICRIER, Centre for Policy Research (CPR),
Observer Research Foundation (ORF), and Vivekananda Foundation.
• India has seen a substantial increase in think tanks, from 121 in 2008 to 444 in 2017, making
it the third-largest in the world after the US and China.
• Newer Indian think tanks have become more active and visible, benefitting from increased
funding and improved access to information.
• Think tanks aid in achieving diplomatic objectives through networking, dialogues,
conferences, and policy recommendations.
• Challenges faced by Indian think tanks include limited funding, lack of human resources, the
dominance of retired civil servants, and restricted access to information.
• Think tanks are crucial for developing well-researched and comprehensive foreign policy
strategies, as highlighted by PM Modi's emphasis on their role.

EVOLUTION OF THINK TANKS IN INDIA

• According to Amitabh Mattoo and Rory Medcalf, since Jawaharlal Nehru’s reign foreign-policy
making has largely remained the preserve of the prime minister, while the MEA has traditionally
been in charge of policy implementation. Thus, with the exception of a very few high-profile
think tank leaders and public intellectuals, think tanks and other external providers of policy
advice have not been influential in shaping Indian foreign policy.
• The emergence of foreign policy think-tanks began in the early 2000s, led by retired military
leaders.
• In 2001-2002, the Centre for Air Power Studies was established by Air Commodore Jasjit Singh.

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• In 2005, Defence Minister Pranab Mukherjee launched the National Maritime Foundation (NMF)
to address maritime issues.
• In the late 2000s, broader-focused think tanks like the Vivekananda International Foundation
(VIF), India Foundation (IF), Brookings Institution India Center, and Carnegie Center India
emerged.
• Business-driven think tanks also developed, such as the Observer Research Foundation (ORF)
and Gateway House: Indian Council on Global Relations.
• ORF, one of the largest, received substantial funding, including 57% from Reliance Industries.
• Post-2014, government support, diversified funding, and business interest in foreign policy have
further expanded the think tank landscape.

PRESSURE GROUPS AND NGO’S

• In India's democracy, non-government stakeholders like political parties, media, and
pressure groups increasingly influence foreign policy.
• Joseph Nye's 3D chess board model describes a unipolar military world order, a multipolar
economic power level, and a third level involving transnational actors such as NGOs, MNCs,
and pressure groups.
• Realists downplay the role of NGOs and pressure groups in foreign policy, while liberals view
NGOs as agents of modernization and development.
• Some groups, like friendship associations, have formal registration and access to
policymakers, while others influence policy through media and social channels.
• NGOs in India, particularly in areas like environment and human rights, have influenced
foreign policy decisions. Examples include Greenpeace, Amnesty International, and Red
Cross.
• Pressure groups, formed by business, farmers, traders, etc., have gained influence post-
economic reforms and impacted India's international politics, e.g., India's stance on the WTO
Agreement on Agriculture and RCEP.
• While NGOs and pressure groups offer critical input and inclusivity in foreign policy, their
narrow self-interest can sometimes conflict with broader foreign policy objectives.
• Improved regulation and transparency are needed in the functioning of NGOs and pressure
groups to prevent harm to national interests.

ROLE OF MEDIA IN FOREIGN POLICY MAKING

• Realism minimizes the role of non-state actors in foreign policy but liberalism and
constructivism emphasize their significance.
• Media serves a dual role in foreign policy: as an input source for decision-making and as an
environment shaping policy formation.
• The role of media in India can be divided into two phases: pre-1990, when most media was
state-owned, and post-1991, with diversified private ownership.
• The "CNN effect" suggests media's constant flow of information influences governmental
decision-making, impacting intelligence gathering and response formation.
• Media can set agendas and serve as a platform for governments to send public signals to
foreign actors.
• Media contributes to a country's international prestige by conveying foreign policy
objectives and justifying means.
• Critics like Noam Chomsky argue that media can be used to control public opinion and
access to information, creating a society filled with deception.
• Challenges in media's constructive role include a lack of expertise in reporting, poor editorial
supervision, and the distortion of news for audience attraction.
• Media is often referred to as the fourth estate, highlighting its crucial role in a country's
societal and political life, but its impact on foreign policy depends on responsible reporting

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and government-media coordination.

Role of diaspora in Indian foreign policy-

• Once taunted as the 'Not Required Indians', in a major policy turnaround since the 1990s, the
Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) and the Persons of India Origin (PIOs), most of whom today hold the
OCI card, giving them access and facilities similar to NRIs, are an established factor in Indian
politics.
• Growing in wealth and influence and India's quest to use its diaspora population across the
globe for its national and international priorities, the NRI and PIO lobby is gaining influence in
ensuring national and international policies are tilted in their favour.

Indian Foreign Policy : Continuity and change.

External Affairs Minister's speech at the 4th Ramnath Goenka Lecture, 2019 sketched out the
evolution and corresponding changes in IFP. According to Jaishankar, Indian foreign policy has
evolved in six broad phases
First Phase (1946-62):
• Era of optimistic non-alignment.
• India aimed to resist constraints on choices and lead Asia and Africa.
• Energetic diplomacy from Korea to Suez.
• 1962 conflict with China led to a damaging end to this phase.
Second Phase (1962-71):
• Decade of realism and recovery.
• Pragmatic choices on security and politics.
• Defense agreement with the U.S. in 1964.
• External pressures on Kashmir increased.
• Emergence of limited U.S.-USSR cooperation.
• Managed through an anxious period with limited damage.
Third Phase (1971-1991):
• Greater Indian regional assertion.
• Creation of Bangladesh dismantled India-Pakistan equivalence.
• Indo-Soviet Treaty and pro-Soviet positions adopted.
• Complex phase with US-China-Pakistan axis threatening India.
• Collapse of USSR and economic crisis in 1991 led to policy reevaluation.
Fourth Phase (1991-2001):
• Dissolution of USSR led to a "unipolar" world.
• Shifted focus to safeguarding strategic autonomy.
• Introduction of Look East policy and adjustments in position on Israel.
• Engaged with the US while protecting critical interests.
• Shifted gear after 1998 as a declared nuclear weapon power.
Fifth Phase (2001-2014):
• Competitive global environment opened new opportunities.
• India acquired attributes of a balancing power.
• India-US nuclear deal and better understanding with the West.
• Collaboration with China on climate change and trade.
• Consolidation of ties with Russia and the formation of BRICS.
Sixth Phase (2014 onwards):
• Energetic diplomacy and pursuit of convergences.
• India emerged among major global economies.
• Active participation in key global negotiations, such as the Paris Agreement.
• Increased investment in development partnerships with Southern countries.

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• Broadened diplomatic agenda and aspirations to become a leading global power in the
future.

CONTINUITY AND CHANGE IN FOREIGN POLICY POST 2014

Indian foreign policy underwent significant changes since NDA government came to power in
2014. However, these changes were in broader framework of continuity. Some of the significant
changes are as follows:
Unprecedented Diplomatic Outreach:
• India engaged with nearly all countries globally, emphasizing relationships with countries of
all sizes.
• Enhanced bilateral relationships and regional/global issue coordination.
• Strengthened relations with West Asian nations like Saudi Arabia, UAE, Iran, and Israel.
Shift from Idealism to Pragmatism:
• S. Jaishankar advocated for greater realism and a shift away from dogmas in India's foreign
policy.
• India's proactive approach in the neighborhood and beyond reflects the changing approach.
• Membership in QUAD and SCO demonstrates India's willingness to enter the real world of
convergences.
• India seeks mutually beneficial partnerships based on convergences and national interests,
avoiding alliances.
• The center of gravity of Indian foreign policy shifted from idealism to realism, emphasizing
pragmatism.
Indo-Pacific Strategy:
• India holds a central position in the emerging Indo-Pacific construct.
• India joined QUAD with the US, Japan, and Australia to counter Chinese unilateralism.
• Strengthened ties with ASEAN through the Act East policy and bilateral agreements.
• Indo-Pacific represents a shift from continental threats to maritime concerns.
• Island nations play a crucial role in India's Indo-Pacific vision, contributing to maritime
security.
• India is gradually building diplomatic and strategic presence across strategic islands in the
Indo-Pacific.

Recent Articles about India’s Foreign Policy

‘India’s foreign policy should look at peace’
Former NSA Shivshankar Menon delivers lecture at CESS
July 08, 2022

• Shivshankar Menon, former National Security Adviser, emphasizes that India's foreign
policy should prioritize welfare and peace over seeking a permanent seat in the Security
Council or seeking revenge for historical wrongs.
• He suggests that India should focus on finding global partners with shared interests, such as
energy security, climate change, and cyber security.
• Menon spoke at a lecture on "Indian Foreign Policy @75 Challenges and the Way Forward,"
part of the Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav celebrations organized by the Centre for Economics
and Social Studies (CESS).
• He highlights the impact of the collapse of the Soviet Union, leading to a unipolar world
with rising authoritarian populist leaders and a shift towards hyper-nationalist politics.
• Menon discusses India's changing relationships, including its limited options following the
Sino-Soviet split and the Sino-US alliance.
• He notes China's evolving attitude from viewing disputes with India as historical remnants
to considering them a threat to its sovereignty.

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• Menon mentions that the Non-Alignment Movement (NAM) was a strategic choice for
India but became limited in a unipolar world.

Positioning India in a chaotic world

With old fashioned geo-political risks jostling alongside newer political challenges, India’s foreign
policy planners need to refashion the way they look at issues
September 21, 2022 M.K. NARAYANAN

• India's foreign policy is adapting to new challenges, exemplified by the recent Shanghai
Cooperation Organisation (SCO) meeting in Samarkand, Uzbekistan.
• Key leaders attending the SCO meeting included Prime Minister Narendra Modi, Russian
President Vladimir Putin, Chinese Premier Xi Jinping, and others.
• The meeting took place amid global conflicts, notably the Russia-Ukraine conflict,
highlighting the divided nature of the world.
• India aims to maintain a 'new version' of Non-alignment, seeking to be part of both blocs
without antagonizing either.
• Prime Minister Modi emphasized the importance of diplomacy over war in addressing
conflicts, reflecting India's equidistant stance between Russia and Ukraine.
• India's foreign policy needs to adapt to changing global dynamics, balancing its relations
with both Russia and China over the long term.
• Concerns about the nuclear dimension in the context of the Ukraine-Russia conflict have
arisen, and India must consider its nuclear stability in relation to China and Pakistan.
• Navigating the coming decade will require a total transformation of India's foreign policy to
address old geopolitical risks and new political challenges.

PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

2022 Peaceful co-existence remains the cornerstone of India's foreign policy.
Comment.
2022 Discuss the role of public diplomacy in the enhancement of India's global
standing.
2021 How do the constituent states influence the foreign policy making process in
India?
2021 Explain the philosophical foundations of India's foreign policy.
2020 Describe the structure and function of the National Security Council of India.
What role does it play in the formulation of Indian foreign policy?
2019 Discuss the utility of Nuclear Deterrence Theory in the context of the recent
standoff between India and Pakistan.
2019 Examine the role of parliamentary diplomacy in India's foreign policy.
2019 How is India responding to the idea of Indo-Pacific?
Examine the increasing significance of maritime security in India's foreign
2019 policy.
2019 Evaluate India's vision of a new world order
Given the recent developments in the region, do you think that there is a
2019 need to change India's 'No First Use NFU' nuclear policy?
Do you agree with the view that the Indian Foreign Policy is increasingly being
2018 shaped by the Neoliberal outlook? Elaborate 10
2018 "India is often said to have a rich strategic culture. Discuss,
"India's current foreign policy MARKS significant qualitative shifts from that of

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2018 the previous regimes." Discuss.

Examine the Indian National Movement and geographical location of India as
2017 determinants of India's foreign policy.
Which determinant factors play an important role in making India's foreign
2016 policy? Illustrate with examples.
The social structure of a country influences its foreign policy-making. How
does the social structure of India impact the course and direction of its
2015
foreign policy ?
How does the Parliament determine and influence the making of India’s ; ;
2015 foreign policy ?
‘Economic interest has emerged as the main component of India’s foreign
policy.’ Discuss the statement in the light of India’s initiatives to improve
2015
relations with China, Japan and the Central Asian republics.
"Federal units are critical in the making of India's foreign policy." Examine this
2014 statement with reference to the role of West Bengal vis-a-vis Bangladesh.
The Ministry of External Affairs is losing its importance in the making of India's
2014 foreign policy with the parallel rise of the P.M.O. Explain
2013 Identify the elements of change in India's foreign policy. ·
'The economic content of India's foreign trade is increasingly growing.'
Substantiate the statement with economic diplomatic engagements of India in
2013
the last decade.

REFERENCES
➢ IGNOU NOTES
➢ NEWSPAPERS

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SCHOLARS SAYINGS

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