Electrical Interview Questions

Power factor
What is active, reactive, apparent & complex power?

Power Factor is a measure of how effectively incoming power is used in your electrical system
I) Active power: It is the actual power that is delivered to the load

II) Reactive Power: The powers that continuously bounce back and forth between source and load is
known as reactive power.
III) Apparent Power: It is the product of voltage & current without referencing the phase difference
between them.
III) Complex power: it is the product of voltage & current with reference to the phase difference between
them. it is the complex sum or vector sum of the active power & reactive power. It is denoted by S &
measure in VAR.

5.What is a leading & lagging power factor & how can you improve it? State the methods of power factor
correction
The cosine of the angle between voltage & current is called the power factor. If the current leads the
voltage, it causes a leading power factor. If the current lags voltage the power factor is lagging.

Power Factor Correction is a technique which uses capacitors to reduce the reactive power component of
an AC circuit in order to improve its efficiency while real power do not change.

Most loads are inductive that causes a lagging power factor.

Thus, these following methods are used for p.f correction (to nullify the lagging current): -

Static Capacitor
The capacitor helps in providing a leading current that eliminates the lagging component of current &
improves the power factor

Synchronous Condenser
It is an over-excited synchronous motor with no load that also provides a leading power factor.

Phase Advancer
Phase advancer is a simple AC exciter which is connected on the main shaft of the motor and operates
with the motor’s rotor circuit for power factor improvement. Phase advancer is used to improve the
power factor of induction motor in industries

7.Why do we improve the power factor?

Large Line Losses (Copper Losses): Line losses (I2R) depend on current. The low power factor draws a
large amount of current as compared to the high-power factor.
Large kVA rating Equipment: PF is inversely proportional to KVA. Low PF equipment with a high KVA
rating is larger in size.
Large Conductor Size and Cost: we need large conductors to transmit the heavy current required due to
low power factor.
Poor Voltage Regulation and Large Voltage Drop: The large current due to low PF causes a high voltage
drop that needs to be regulated more often than usual.
Low Efficiency: The losses due to the high current flow & voltage drop deteriorate the efficiency of the
system. The efficiency is maximum at PF=1.

How do you calculate capacitor value for PF?

Why reactive power is important?

Reactive power is unavoidable in power supplies. This is so because majority of load is motors,
electromagnets, transformers all of which use magnetic fields for their operation.

All these applications result in currents which lag behind voltage in phase. The current for creating
the magnetic field just do this- create the field, and do not take part in any active power or in getting
work done. This current is reactive by definition, and no machine can work without this reactive
component.

What is a linear & non-linear circuit?

In a linear circuit, the relation between the current & voltage is linear i.e. resistance, inductance

While in the non-linear circuit, the current & voltage does not have a linear relationship i.e. diode

What could be the reason for the current to double in a linear circuit?
There are two reasons for increasing the current:
Either the total resistance of the circuit is reduced by half

Or the supply voltage to the circuit is doubled.

What is a primary & secondary cell?

The primary cell is a non-rechargeable battery. Use toys, baby car, remote

The secondary cell is a rechargeable battery. Use cell phones, vehicles, generators, etc.

What are the limitations of ohm’s law?

Ohm law is not applicable to non-linear circuit. The criterion for ohm’s law is that the resistance must be
constant which also depends on the temperature.
Diode voltage vs curve does not applicable to ohm law

Does current lead or lag the voltage in an inductive or capacitive circuit?

The current lags the voltage in an inductive circuit.
the current leads the voltage in a capacitive circuit.

Define the term Capacitance and Inductance

Capacitance: capacitance is the ability of a component to store charge between two plates when there is
a potential difference applied.
Inductance: inductance is the ability of a conductor to store charge by varying magnetic field in
conductor coil.

Why the Capacitors works on AC only?

In ac there is frequency

What is the maximum power transfer theorem?

the maximum power will be transferred from source to the load when the external load resistance
equals the internal resistance of the source or Thevenin’s resistance of the circuit.

Explain Thevenin’s Theorem in a single sentence.

one voltage and resistance connected in series.

Explain Norton’s Theorem in a single sentence.

to an equivalent circuit with just a single current source and parallel resistance connected to a load.

What are the different colors on wires indicates? Or Mention what are the different colors on wires
indicates?

The different colors of the wires are used for phase indication purposes.
Single phase: Red and black
3 phases: Red, Yellow, Blue
Neutral: white and gray
Ground: green or green with yellow strip

What is the difference between a single pole and a double pole circuit breaker?
Single-pole breakers are wired with one hot wire and one neutral wire. When there is an overload in a
single-pole breaker’s circuit, only that particular breaker trips.

Double-pole breakers have two hot wires that are connected by a single neutral wire. That means if
there’s a short circuit on either of the pole’s hot wires, both trips.

Why Motor rated in kW instead of kVA?

As we know the transformer is rated in KVA because its PF depends on the nature of the loads. But
transformer is not a load.

However, Motor is a load and has a fixed Power factor, the rating has been mentioned in kW

What is the definition of generator & motor?

The working principle of a motor is based on the current-carrying conductor that experiences a force
when it is kept in the magnetic field.

An electric generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. The working
principle of generator is based on electromagnetic induction.

What is a motor starter?

Motor Starter is a device that connects in series with the motor to decrease the starting current.

The purpose of a starter is not to just start the motor, but it performs the two main functions. They are
as follows:
• To reduce the heavy starting current,
• To provide overload and under-voltage protection.
 DC generator
Types of DC generator

The direction of induced voltage in Generator by Fleming right hand rule.

Lap and wave winding

What is lap winding and wave winding?

Emf generate

All losses in DC Generator

Eddy current of DC machine motor

Eddy current loss, also known as Foucault or joule loss, is a phenomenon that occurs when a conductor is
exposed to a varying magnetic field, resulting in the generation of circulating currents within the
conductor

Hysteresis loss
Hysteresis loss is caused by the magnetization and demagnetization of the core as current flows in the
forward and reverse directions.

DC MOTOR
What is back EMF?
V=Vb + IaRa

Condition for maximum power?

Eb=V/2

Why is not should make maximum power practically?

1. at maximum power current become so high then rated current

2. 50% power loss is armature circuit

Characteristics of DC shunt motor

1) Ta- Ia characteristics

Then flux. So, speed become slow a little bit

Colclusion……
Low starting torque
it can’t start with heavy load,
speed almost constant, and
when load increase then speed may be become a little bit slower.

Characteristics of dc series motor

Conclusion :
-high starting torque
-its speed can adjust with load. If load decrease then speed increase
- at no load armature current is very small so flux also small.
- that’s why speed become so high,
for this reason, series motor never start with no load

Speed control method of DC motor:

The speed of a DC motor (N) is equal to

N = K (V – IaRa)/ ø Where, K is a constant.

This implies three things:

1. Speed of the motor is directly proportional to supply voltage.

2. The Speed of the motor is inversely proportional to armature voltage drop.
3. The motor speed is inversely proportional to the flux due to the field findings

Thus, the speed of a DC motor can control in three ways:

• By varying the flux,

 • By varying the armature voltage,
• Through the supply voltage

Flux Control Method

Due to the field winding, the magnetic flux varies in order to vary the speed of the motor. As the magnetic
flux depends on the current flowing through the field winding, it changes by varying the current through
the field winding. This can achieve using a variable resistor in a series with the field winding resistor.

when the variable resistor keeps at its minimum position, the rated current flows through the field winding
due to a rated supply voltage, and as a result, the speed is kept normal. When the resistance increases
gradually, the current through the field winding decreases. This in turn decreases the flux produced. Thus,
the speed of the motor increases beyond its normal value.

Armature Control Method

The controlling of armature resistance controls the voltage drop across the armature. With this method,
the speed of the DC motor can control. This method also uses a variable resistor in series with the
armature.

When the variable resistor reaches its minimum value, the armature resistance is at normal one.
Therefore, the armature voltage drops. When the resistance value gradually increases, the voltage across
the armature decreases. This in turn leads to decrease in the speed of the motor. In this way, this method
achieves the speed of the motor below its normal range.

Voltage Control Method

Both the above-mentioned methods cannot provide speed control in the desirable range. Moreover, the
flux control method can affect commutation. Whereas the armature control method involves huge power
loss due to its usage of resistor in series with the armature. Therefore, a different method is often
desirable – the one that controls the supply voltage to control the motor speed.

One such technique of voltage control method involves the use of a switch gear mechanism to provide a
variable voltage to the armature.
What is the motor starter?

What are the different methods for starting an DC motor?

3 Point Starter
The internal wiring of a 3-point starter is as shown in the figure. Also called shunt starter.

When the connected dc motor is to be started, the lever is turned gradually to the right. When the lever
touches point 1, the field winding gets directly connected across the supply, and the armature winding
gets connected with resistances R1 to R5 in series. During starting, full resistance is added in series with
the armature winding. Then, as the lever is moved further, the resistance is gradually is cut out from the
armature circuit. Now, as the lever reaches to position 6, all the resistance is cut out from the armature
circuit and armature gets directly connected across the supply. The electromagnet 'E' holds the lever at
this position. This electromagnet releases the lever when there is no (or low) supply voltage.
It can be seen that, when the arm is moved from the position 1 to the last position, the starter resistance
gets added in series with the field winding. But, as the value of starter resistance is very small as
compared to the shunt resistance, the decrease in shunt field current may be negligible.
When the motor is overloaded beyond a predefined value, 'overcurrent release electromagnet' D gets
activated, which short-circuits electromagnet E and, hence, releases the lever and the motor is turned
off.

Can a DC series motor start by AC supply

yes

Can a DC shunt motor have started by AC supply

No

Torque of DC motor

Speed of DC motor??
Speed Regulation of DC motor
Why is the starting current high in dc motor?

The dc motor has no back emf at the starting of the motor. The armature current is controlled by the
resistance of the circuit. The resistance of the armature is low, and when the full voltage is applied at the
standstill condition of the motor, the armature current becomes very high

What is the difference between a Four Point Starter and a Three Point Starter?
The starter which consists three terminals is known as the three- point starter. The armature, field and
line are the terminals of the three-point starter. In the three-point starter, the no-voltage coil (NVC) is
connected in series with the field winding.
The starter that consists four terminals and hence called the four- point starter. In four-point starter
along with the armature, field and line terminal one additional terminal is added which connected the no
voltage coil parallel with the shunt field winding. In four-point starter the no-voltage winding is
connected in parallel with the field winding.
The three-point and four-point starter both are similar in construction. But in three-point starter when
the speed of the motor varies then the current passes through the field coil and this current affects the
no-voltage coil. The four-point starter is designed for reducing the problem.

Why can't a series motor be started on no-load?

A series motor should never be started at no load. With no load, the current is low, the counter-EMF
produced by the field winding is weak, and so the armature must turn faster to produce sufficient
counter-EMF to balance the supply voltage. The motor can be damaged by overspeed.
 Transformer
What is transformer

A machine that transfers power by changing voltage level is called transformer.

Efficiency of transformer

Condition for maximum efficiency

Here R02 is the total resistance of transformer referred to secondary

Output KVA corresponding to maximum efficiency

If you want connect DC then a large series resistance must be connected with series with primary

Transformer can be use as

- Voltage and current level change
- Can be uses as impedance transferring device
- It can also be uses as electrical isolator circuit
- It can change the value of capacitor resistor or inductor

Types of transformers

1) shell type-coil are inside. It uses those transformers which are work in low power factor
2) core type-coil are in outside. Better colling provide, it uses those transformers which are in always full
load.

Where are core-type and shell-type construction suitable for a transformer?

Core-type construction is mostly preferred for high-voltage applications of transformers such as
distribution transformers, power transformers, and also in auto-transformer.

Whereas shell-type construction is preferred mostly in the case of low-voltage applications like
transformers used in electronic circuits, converter circuits, etc.

What is the difference between power transformer and distribution transformer?

What is a distribution transformer?

As the name suggests a Distribution transformer is the step-down high-voltage transformer used
for the distribution of electrical energy of voltage up to 33kV at the distribution substation. It is a
small-sized transformer designed for maximum efficiency at 70% loading.

What is a power transformer?

A power transformer is an extra-high voltage step-up transformer used at the generating station
and transmitting power station for transmission of electrical power at a voltage greater than 33
kV. It is a large-sized transformer generally rated in MVA. Its efficiency is high nearly about 98%.
Impedance transfer of transformer

What is current transformer?

The transformer which is used to measure the high alternating current.

Actually, it is a step-up transformer.
It must be connected with series with line
Ip/Is= Ns/Np

Potential transformer

It is step down transformer.

It is used to measure the high voltage of a transmission line.
It must connect with parallel with line

Based on measurements
• Current transformer (CT)
• potential transformer (PT)
• Capacitive voltage transformer (CVT)

Why transformer is rated in kVA, not in KW?

The rating of an AC machine depends on the losses, and losses depend on voltage and current.
In the case of a transformer, both iron losses and copper losses don’t depend on the power
factor of the load. Hence the rating of the transformer is also independent of the load power
factor. That’s why the transformer is rated in kVA but not in kW.

- Must remind transformer is not a load so power factor term does not come in here.
That’s why its rating in kVA

What is the all-day efficiency of a transformer?

The term all-day efficiency is defined for distribution transformers. In all electrical machines, We
find efficiency but in the case of the distribution transformer, we calculate all-day efficiency
because the distribution transformer works for 24 hours at different loading conditions.

All-day efficiency is also known as the energy efficiency of the transformer and it is defined as
the ratio of total output energy in kWh to the input energy in kWh for a certain period of time
generally 24 hours.

What is an isolation transformer?

As the name suggests it is a transformer used to isolate two electrical circuits. In this transformer,
the primary and secondary turns become the same and hence its turn ratio will be equal to 1. It
protects the secondary circuit when a fault occurs in the primary circuit.

What is the function of no-load current in a transformer?

The main function of no-load current is to set up working flux in the core and also it is
responsible for supplying no-load losses (Eddy current loss and hysteresis loss)

Why open circuit (OC) test is performed on the LV side of the transformer?

An open circuit (OC) is performed to find out the core losses in the transformer. In this testing, all
the measuring equipment is placed on the LV side. HV side is open.

So, there are two reasons of conducting the OC test on the LV side, these are:

• If LV winding is preferred then the voltage (rated) to be supplied is less as compared to the
HV side.
• And also, when we prefer LV winding for the OC test then a small rating measuring
instrument will be required.

Why SC test is generally performed on the HV side of the transformer?

In the SC test usually, the LV winding is short-circuited with a thick conductor and all
measurements are taken at the HV side. The main reasons behind this are:

• The rated current on the HV side is lower and it can be safely measured by laboratory
ammeter.
• In this case, since the applied voltage is less than 5% of the rated voltage of winding,
better accuracy in the reading of the voltmeter.

In a transformer, why is low-voltage winding placed near the core?

In transformer LV and HV windings are sandwiched on the core with the help of proper
insulation. When we placed LV winding near the core, less insulation is required in between LV
and HV winding as compared to another case.

What is the difference between delta-delta, delta-star transformer?

Delta-delta transformers are employed at generating stations or receiving stations to change the voltage
(i.e., where the voltage is high and the current is low).

Delta-star transformers are distribution transformers in which the secondary star neutral is employed as
a return path, and this arrangement is used for step down voltage phenomenon.

Power transmitted in long distance by delta connection. Generate in wye and transmit delta
Power distributed in local area is wye winding. Receive in delta but distributed in wye

What is the meaning of Dyn11 in a transformer?

D = Delta connection (capital letter=primary=HV winding)

y = Star connection (small letter= secondary=LV winding)
n = neutral point connected at secondary.
Dyn 11 means that the voltage of the secondary star winding leads the primary phase voltage by 30
degree and it corresponds to 11 o’clock.

disadvantages of y-y (wye-wye) transformer connection

The presence of third harmonics at an ungrounded neutral can cause overvoltage conditions at light
load. When constructing a Y-Y transformer using single-phase transformers connected in a bank, the
measured line-to-neutral voltages are not 57.7% of the system phase-to-phase voltage at no load
but are about 68% and diminish very rapidly as the bank is loaded.
If the load on the secondary side of the transformer is unbalanced, the phase voltages of load side
change unless the load-star point is earthed. The difficulty of shifting neutral can be overcome by
connecting the primary star point to the star point of the generator.

What are some of the most common causes of transformer humming?

-Transformer noise is caused by a phenomenon called magnetostriction. In very simple terms this means
that if a piece of magnetic sheet steel is magnetized it will extend itself. When the magnetization is taken
away, it goes back to its original condition.

-due to the flow of alternating current through the transformer, which has a magnetic effect on the iron
core of these devices.

-Transformer noise is produced by the core.

How Can You Stop Transformer Noise from Happening?

-Select a Low-Traffic Installation Site
-Avoid Corners, Stairwells and Corridors
-make sure the bolts and screws on the transformer are adequately tightened

What is the voltage regulation of the transformer & why is it important?

Ideally, the secondary voltage remains the same throughout the load, in which case the voltage
regulation is zero. But practically it varies with the power factor of the load.

There is a Transformer and an Induction Machine. Those two have the same supply. For Which Device
the load current will be maximum and why?
which of the two equipment’s (having same rating) will take higher no-load current?

No-load current comprises of two components:

Magnetizing current
In transformer, the medium for the flow of magnetic flux is iron core. Iron core offers less reluctance to
the flow of flux. So, the magnetizing current required to produce the flux is less.

In case of induction motor, the medium for flux flow is air. It offers more reluctance than iron core. So,
the motor takes more magnetizing current compared to the transformer.

That’s why induction motor will consume more load current compared to the transformer.

How many types of cooling system are there in Transformers?

The types are
ONAN (oil natural, air natural).
ONAF (oil natural, air forced).
OFAN (oil forced, air natural).
OFAF (oil forced, air forced).
ODWF (oil direct, water forced).
What is an Ideal Transformer?
they have 100% efficiency.

What is transformer efficiency & all-day efficiency? What is the condition for maximum efficiency?

Efficiency, η = Output Power / Input Power

All Day Efficiency:

The ratio of energy delivered in Kilo Watt-Hour (kWh) to the energy input in kWh of the transformer for
24 hours is called all-day efficiency.
all-day = Output in kWh / Input in kWh

Condition for Maximum Efficiency:

The copper loss must be equal to the iron loss.

Why the current transformer’s secondary should not be open when there is current flowing in its
primary?
The current transformer is essentially a step-up transformer that increases the voltage & decreases the
current on the secondary side. Under the open secondary condition, the primary current becomes the
magnetizing current that generates a very high secondary voltage that can damage the insulation as well
as can pose danger to personnel.

What are the different types of faults in a transformer?

A. The internal faults include
phase faults, ground faults, inter-turn faults, tap-changer failure, and leakage oil from tank.
The external faults include
system phase faults, system ground faults, over loads and over fluxing.

Transformer test

The three primary tests used to determine the condition of a transformer are the open-circuit
test, short-circuit test, and measurements of winding resistance.

Open-Circuit Test

Figure 1(a) shows the circuit for the transformer open-circuit test. The alternating input voltage is
set to the normal primary level for the transformer, and the voltage at the open-circuited output
terminals is monitored on a voltmeter, as illustrated.

The wattmeter measures the input power, and the ammeter measures the primary current.

Because the secondary is open-circuited, the primary current is very small, and the voltage drops
across the ammeter and wattmeter can be assumed to be negligible.
Figure 1(a). A transformer open-circuit test is performed by measuring the (no-load) secondary voltage,
the primary current, and the input voltage and power.

With a very small primary current, and near-zero secondary current (i.e., the voltmeter current),
the copper loss in the windings can be assumed negligible. The input power measured on the
wattmeter is then the total transformer core losses, and the ammeter indicates the no-load
primary current (Io) (see Figure 1(b)). From the measured values of input voltage, current, and
power, the components of the no-load equivalent circuit can be determined.

Figure 1(b). Secondary components referred to the primary.

Short-Circuit Test

The transformer short-circuit test is performed with the secondary terminals short-circuited, as
illustrated in Figure 2(a). Note that the primary voltage (EP) is measured right at the transformer
primary terminals to avoid error due to the voltage drops across the ammeter and wattmeter. The
input voltage is increased from zero until the ammeter in the primary circuit indicates normal full-
load primary current. When this occurs, the normal full-load secondary current is circulating in
the secondary winding. Because the secondary terminals are short-circuited, the input voltage
required to produce full-load primary and secondary currents is around 3% of the normal input
voltage level. With such a low input voltage level, the core losses are so small that they can be
neglected. However, the windings are carrying normal full-load current, and so the input is
supplying the normal full-load copper losses.

Figure 2(a). To perform a transformer short-circuit test, the secondary is shorted, and the primary
current is adjusted to the normal full-load level. The primary voltage and input power are measured.

The output power (to the short-circuit) is zero, so the wattmeter measuring true input power
indicates the full-load copper losses. The product of the ammeter and voltmeter readings gives
the apparent input power. From these quantities, calculations may be made of the resistive and
reactive components of the full-load equivalent circuit referred to the primary (see Figure 2(b)).
Figure 2(b). Equivalent Transformer Circuit simplified by neglecting Ro and Xo.

SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Difference between AC motor and DC motor

DC motors will only run when a DC supply is given.

In the case of an DC series motor, the motor might run with an AC supply. But, for shunt motors, the motor never
runs on an AC supply

In AC motors, the armature is stationary but magnetic field rotates.

In DC motors, the armature rotates while the magnetic field remains stationary.

What type of motor is used in ceiling fan

- Single phase induction motor
- It is permanent capacitor motor

Working of Single-phase Induction Motor

There are two fluxes; main flux which is produced by stator and second is the rotor flux which is
produced by the rotor.
Single-phase AC supply is given to the stator winding (main winding). The alternating current
flowing through the stator winding produces magnetic flux. This flux is known as the main flux.
Now we assume that the rotor is rotating and it is placed in a magnetic field produced by the
stator winding. According to Faraday’s law, the current start flowing in the rotor circuit it is a
close path. This current is known as rotor current.
Due to the rotor current, the flux produced around the rotor winding. This flux is known as rotor
flux.
Interaction between main flux and rotor flux, the torque produced in the rotor and it starts rotating.

What is double revolving theory

One magnetic field (ɸ1) resolved into two magnetic field and their magnitude (ɸ2= ɸ1/2) is half of of the
main magnetic field. Besides both are rotate in opposite direction with synchronous speed.

Please Name some Single-phase induction motors?

(I)split-phase type
(ii)capacitor type
(iii) shaded-pole type

What are different types of single-phase Synchronous motors?

(i) Reluctance motor

(ii) Hysteresis motor
What is major difference between a 3-phase induction motor and a single-phase induction motor?
Unlike a 3-phase induction motor, a single-phase induction motor is not self- starting but requires some starting
means.

Why single-phase induction motor does not self-start?

How to make Single-Phase Induction Motor Self-Starting?

The single-phase induction motor is not self- starting. To make a single-phase induction motor self-starting, we
should somehow produce a revolving stator magnetic field.

This may be achieved by converting a single-phase supply into two-phase supply through the use of an additional
winding. When the motor attains sufficient speed, the starting means (i.e., additional winding) may be removed
depending upon the type of the motor.

Name the types of single-phase motors with respect to the method employed to make them self-starting?
(i) Split-phase motors-started by two phase motor action through the use of an auxiliary winding.

When the motor reaches about 75% of synchronous speed, the centrifugal switch opens the circuit of the starting
winding. The motor then operates as a single-phase induction motor and continues to accelerate till it reaches the
normal speed. The normal speed of the motor is below the synchronous speed and depends upon the load on the
moto

(ii) Capacitor motors-started by two-phase motor action through the use of an auxiliary winding and a capacitor.

(iii) Shaded-pole motors-started by the motion of the magnetic field produced by means of a shading coil around a
portion of the pole structure.

What is speed variation of split phase induction motor from no load to

full load?

An important characteristic of these motors is that they are essentially constant-speed motors. The speed
variation is 2-5% from no-load to full- load
 Induction motor

Slip Ring Induction Motors

Slip ring induction motors, also known as wound rotor induction motors, are AC
motors characterized by their high starting torque capabilities, and adaptable speed
controls.
Where requiring varied speed controls such as crushers, elevators, and industrial
machining.
What is servo motor
A servo motor is defined as an electric motor that allows for precise control of
angular or linear position, speed, and torque.
Servo motors are widely used in industrial applications such as robotics, CNC
machinery, and automated manufacturing, and medical equipment where high
accuracy, fast response, and smooth motion are required. ( two types ac dc )
What is Stepper motor

Stepper motors convert electricity into rotation. Not only does a stepper motor convert
electrical power into rotation, but it can be very accurately controlled in terms of how far it
will rotate and how fast.

Stepper motors are so named because each pulse of electricity turns the motor one step.
Stepper motors are controlled by a driver, which sends the pulses into the motor causing
it to turn. The number of pulses the motor turns is equal to the number of pulses fed into
the driver. The motor will spin at a rate that is equal to the frequency of those same
pulses.

What is a bldc motor?

A Brushless DC Electric Motor (BLDC) is an electric motor powered by a
direct current voltage supply and commutated electronically instead of
by brushes like in conventional DC motors
why induction motor do not reach synchronous speed?
An induction motor cannot run at synchronous speed. If it runs at synchronous speed, there would be no
cutting of the flux by the rotor conductors and there would be no induced EMF, no current and no torque.
Therefore, the rotor of the induction motor rotates at a speed slightly less than the synchronous speed.

Due to magnetic locking, sometimes induction motor fails to start. This phenomenon is called cogging.
Induction Motor Braking
The braking is the process of reducing the speed of an induction motor.
It is mainly classified into three types. They are
1. Regenerative Braking
2. Plugging
3. Dynamic Braking
• AC dynamic braking
• Self-dynamic braking
• DC dynamic braking
• Zero sequence braking

What Is Meant by Regenerative Braking?

Regenerative braking takes place whenever the speed of the motor exceeds the synchronous speed. This
baking method is called regenerative braking because here the motor works as generator.
That’s why the direction of current flow through the circuit and the torque reverses and braking takes
place.
What is Plugging Breaking?
In this method the terminals of supply are reversed, as a result the generator torque also reverses which
resists the normal rotation of the motor and as a result the speed decreases

What is dynamic breaking?

In this method of breaking the motor which is at a running condition is disconnected from the source
and connected across a resistance. When the motor is disconnected from the source, the rotor keeps
rotating due to inertia and it works as a self-excited generator. When the motor works as a generator the
flow of the current and torque reverses.

Zero Sequence Braking – In this braking, the three phases of the stator are connected in series across
either a single AC or DC source. Such type of connection is known as zero sequence connection because
the current in all the three phases is co-phase. The nature of speed-torque curve for AC and DC supply is
shown in the figure below.

What is the difference between a generator and an alternator?

in alternator, the armature is stationary and the field rotates

in the generator, armature rotates and field is stationary.

What are the different methods for starting an induction motor?

The methods used for starting an induction motor are the following:
DOL: direct online starter
Star delta starter
Autotransformer starter
Forward reversed strarter

DOL
The direct on-line starter method, of an induction motor, is simple and economical. In this method, the
starter is connected directly to supply voltage. By this method, small motors up to 5 kW rating are
started to avoid the supply voltage fluctuation.
On pressing the START pushbutton S1, the contactor C is energized

The three main contacts M and the auxiliary contact A are closed. Motor start running.

The stop button S2 is normally closed. If the S2 button is pressed to STOP the motor, the coil C is de-
energized, the main contacts M and the auxiliary contact A are opened. The motor is stopped.

Undervoltage Protection
When the voltage falls below a certain value or when the supply fails or disrupted during the operation
of the motor, the coil C is de-energized. Hence, the motor is disconnected from the supply Overload
Protection.

The motor is overloaded, one or all the overload coils (O.L.C) are energized. The normally closed contact
D is opened, and the contactor coil C is de-energized to disconnect the supply from the motor

Star Delta Starter

A star delta is used for a cage motor designed to run normally on the delta-connected stator winding.

When the motor picks up the speed, about 80 percent of its rated speed, the switch S is immediately put
into the RUN position. As a result, a stator winding which was in star connection is changed
into DELTA connection now.
Firstly, the stator winding is connected in star and then in Delta so that the starting line current of the
motor is reduced to one-third as compared to the starting current.
At star-connected, phase voltage VL/√3. Since the developed torque is proportional to the square of the
voltage applied to an induction motor. So, it reduces the starting torque to one-third that is obtained by
direct delta starting and torque is directly proportional to square of the armature current.

Forward/Reverse Starters
A forward/reverse magnetic motor starter is constructed from two regular contactors installed with
a mechanical interlock that prevents both coils from pulling in simultaneously.

To prevent unintentional energization of both the forward and reverse coil at the same time, the coils are
equipped with normally closed contacts, which are then wired in series with the opposite direction’s coil
to act as an electrical interlock.

What is the slip of an induction motor?

The percentage difference between the synchronous speed Ns & the rotor speed N of an induction
motor is called slip.

Explain the principle of Induction Motor

We need to give double excitation to make a DC motor to rotate. In the DC motor, we give one supply to
the stator and another to the rotor through brush arrangement. But in induction motor, we give only
one supply, so it is interesting to know how an induction motor works.

It is simple, from the name itself we can understand that here, the induction process is involved. When
we give the supply to the stator winding, a magnetic flux gets produced in the stator due to the flow of
current in the coil. The rotor winding is so arranged that each coil becomes short-circuited.

The flux from the stator cuts the short-circuited coil in the rotor. As the rotor coils are short-circuited,
according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the current will start flowing through the coil of
the rotor. When the current through the rotor coils flows, another flux gets generated in the rotor.
Now there are two fluxes, one is stator flux, and another is rotor flux. The rotor flux will be lagging with
respect to the stator flux. Because of that, the rotor will feel a torque which will make the rotor to rotate
in the
direction of the rotating magnetic field. This is the working principle of both single and three-phase
induction motors.

A new motor setup and supply power of IM, but it does not start rotating, what is the possible
problem here? and how to check this problem?

If a new motor setup is not starting to rotate, several potential issues could be causing the problem. Here
are some common possibilities and steps to check each one:

• Check the Power Supply: Ensure that the motor is receiving the correct voltage and
frequency. Verify that the power supply is within the motor's specified operating range.
• Inspect Wiring Connections: Check for loose or disconnected wiring in the motor circuit.
Verify that all connections are secure and follow the correct wiring diagram.
• Inspect the Capacitor: For single-phase induction motors, check the start capacitor.
• Check rotor is block or Mechanical Obstruction: Ensure that the rotor is not physically
blocked or obstructed. Attempt to rotate the motor shaft manually to check for any
resistance.
• Check for Overheating: Motors may have built-in thermal protection that causes them to
shut down if they overheat. Allow the motor to cool down and check for signs of
overheating such as a burning smell.
• Verify Rotation Direction: Some motors have a specified direction of rotation. If the
motor is not rotating, check whether the direction is correct. If needed, swap any two of the
three-phase leads to reverse the direction.
• Examine the Starting Mechanism: Motors equipped with starters may have a faulty
starting mechanism. Check the starter contacts and control circuit for proper functioning.
• Check Motor Windings: Inspect the motor windings for continuity using a multimeter. If
there is an open circuit or a short, it can prevent the motor from starting.
• Examine the Control Circuit: If the motor is part of a control system, check the control
circuit for faults. Ensure that all control devices, such as relays and contactors, are
operating correctly.
• Contact Manufacturer or Supplier: If all else fails, there may be an internal issue with
the motor itself. Contact the manufacturer or supplier for guidance or to request a
replacement.

Synchronous Motor
Why synchronous motor is not self-starting?
Synchronous motor is a doubly excited machine. It’s stator winding which consists of a 3-phase winding
is provided with 3 phase supply and rotor is provided with DC supply. The 3-phase stator winding
carrying 3 phase currents produces 3 phase rotating magnetic flux.
The rotor carrying DC supply also produces a constant flux. At a particular instant rotor and stator poles
might be of same polarity causing repulsive force on rotor and the very next second it will be N-S causing
attractive force. But due to inertia of the rotor, it is unable to rotate in any direction due to attractive or
repulsive force and remain in standstill condition. Hence it is not self-starting.

What are the methods of starting synchronous motor?

Starting as squirrel cage Induction motor or using damper winding
Starting as slip ring Induction motor or synchronous motor
Using dc machine coupled to it.

Why damper windings are used in synchronous motor? Or How synchronous motor is started as squirrel
cage motor?
The damper winding consists of short-circuited copper bars embedded in the face of the rotor poles.
When an ac supply is provided to stator of a 3-phase synchronous motor, stator winding produces
rotating magnetic field. Due to the damper winding present in the rotor winding of the synchronous
motor, emf is induced in damper winding and hence currents start to flow. Hence torque acts on rotor.
Damper windings in synchronous motor will carry out the same task of induction motor rotor windings.
Therefore, due to damper windings synchronous motor starts as induction motor and continue to
accelerate. When the motor attains about 95% of the synchronous speed, the rotor windings is
connected to DC exciter terminals and the rotor is magnetically locked by the rotating magnetic field of
stator and it runs as a synchronous motor. Now as the rotor rotates at synchronous speed. Due to
absence of relative motion no emf induced in damper winding.

What is the function of damper winding?

To run the Synchronous Motor as Induction Motor
To prevent or minimize hunting

What is hunting?
The sudden changes of load on synchronous motor set up oscillations in the rotor. Such oscillation of
rotor about its new equilibrium position is called hunting.

What are the effects of hunting?

Loses synchronism
Develops mechanical stress
Increase machine losses
Increase machine temperature

What is pull in torque?

The torque which is required to pull the motor into synchronism when it is running as induction motor is
called pull in torque.

What is the effect on speed if the load is increased on a 3-phase synchronous motor?
The speed remains constant from no load to maximum load in the motor

Why a synchronous motor is a constant speed motor?

When load increase in synchronous motor the load angle
δ also increases but speed remains constant. The further increase in load cause further increase in load
angle. When load angle reaches 90 degrees electrical then the motor comes out of synchronism. Hence
the motor rotates at synchronous speed otherwise it comes out of synchronism.
What is under excitation?
The excitation for which power factor of the synchronous motor is lagging and the back emf is less than
supply voltage.

What is over excitation?

The excitation for which power factor of the synchronous motor is leading and the back emf is greater
than supply voltage.

What is critical excitation?

The excitation for which power factor of the synchronous motor is unity and the back emf is equal to
supply voltage.

What is synchronous condenser?

An over-excited synchronous motor under no load,
used for the improvement of power factor is called as synchronous condenser because, like a capacitor it
takes a leading current.

What are V and inverted V curves of synchronous motor ?

The variation of magnitude of line current with respect to the field current
is called V curve.
The variation of power factor with respect to the field current is called inverted V curve.
Write the applications of synchronous motor.
a. Used for power factor improvement in sub-stations and in industries.
b. As synchronous condenser
c. Used for constant speed applications

In what way synchronous motor is different from other motors?

Synchronous motor operates due to magnetic locking taking place between stator and rotor magnetic
fields.

What could be the reasons if a 3-phase synchronous motor fails to start?

It is usually due to the following reasons
a. Voltage may be too low.
b. Too much starting load.
c. Field excitation may be excessive

what is the condition of parallel connection of two generator

How to make reverse rotation of industrial motor?

Among three phases, put one phase in fixed and interchange other two phase. Then the motor start to
rotate in reverse direction.

How to check synchronism of 3 lamp method

Three bulb is connected in series between the busbars and generator. When all the three light is bright and
dark together at this moment, they are synchronous and we lock the synchronous switch. Otherwise, any
two phases will interchange.

Circuit Breaker
What is a Circuit Breaker?
The circuit breaker is a device that opens and closes the circuit under normal and fault conditions.

What is the making current of the circuit breaker?

Making current is the magnitude of peak current flows through the circuit breaker when we close the
breaker under sub transient conditions.
What is breaking current?
The breaking current is the maximum current that the breaker can interrupt without being damaged.

What is rupturing capacity of the circuit breaker?

Rupturing capacity = Short circuit current of CB X Rated voltage of CB

What is the relationship between making current and breaking current of the circuit breaker?
Making current(peak) = 2.55 X breaking current

What are the different types of circuit breakers?

1. Air Brake Circuit Breaker
2. Oil Circuit Breaker
3. Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker
4. Air Blast Circuit Breaker
5. Vacuum Circuit Breaker
6. SF6 Circuit Breaker

Explain The Working Principal of The Circuit Breaker?

Circuit Breaker is one which makes or breaks the circuit. It has two contacts namely fixed contact &
moving contact. Under normal condition the moving contact comes in contact with fixed contact thereby
forming the closed contact for the flow of current.

1.Air Blast Circuit Breakers:

In this type, a high-pressure air-blast is used as arc extinguishing medium. The air-blast in cross-blast
type circuit breakers is perpendicular to the arc path and in radial-blast type circuit breakers, it is
directed radially.
Advantages
-Risk of fire is eliminated.
-Arcing products are completely removed by the air-blast.
-Air-blast is independent to the interrupting current.
Disadvantages
Arc extinguishing properties of air are inferior.
Air-blast compressor needs to be maintained.

2. Oil Circuit Breakers

In Oil Circuit Breakers, an insulating oil is used as the arc extinguishing medium. As the contacts are
opened in oil, when the arc strikes, the surrounding oil is evaporated as hydrogen gas. The hydrogen gas
bubble will surround the arc region. Bulk Oil Circuit Breakers, Low Oil Circuit Breakers.
Advantages
• Oil has excellent cooling property and the arc energy converts the oil into gas.
• Acts as insulator between live wires and earth.
Disadvantages
• Oil is inflammable and is a fire hazard.
• Arcing products cannot escape and remain in the oil.

3. Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) Circuit Breakers

In Sulfur Hexafluoride circuit breakers, formula SF6, is used as the arc extinguishing medium.
The Sulfur hexafluoride gas is electro-negative in nature i.e. it attracts free electrons.

When the circuit contacts are opened, a high-pressure Sulfur hexafluoride gas flows through the
chamber as the arc strikes.

Free electrons produced during the arcing are quickly absorbed by the SF 6 gas resulting in immobile
negative ions. As the arc loses its conducting electrons, the insulating strength of the surrounding
medium is quickly increased and the arc completely extinguishes.
Advantages
• Superior arc extinguishing property.
• Can interrupt larger currents as the dielectric strength of SF 6 gas is almost 3 times greater than
air.
• Noise free operation
• Moisture free operation
• Very low maintenance

• Disadvantages
• Sulfur hexafluoride gas is very costly.
• SF6 has to be reconditioned after every operation.
• This high-pressure Sulfur hexafluoride gas will absorb all the conducting free electrons and as a
result causes the extinction of the arc.

What Is a Vacuum Circuit Breaker?

In VCB, the medium for arc quenching is a vacuum. A vacuum that is used as the arc quenching medium
in a circuit breaker is known as a vacuum circuit breaker because vacuum gives high insulating strength.
Advantages of VCB
-The vacuum circuit breaker has a long life.
-No fire hazards
-The vacuum CB is fast in operation
-Vacuum circuit breakers are almost maintenance-free.

- The main disadvantage of VCB is that it is uneconomical at voltages exceeding 38 kV

Circuit Breaker Types Summary:

Type of Circuit Breaker Suitable Rated Voltage Breaking Capacity
Oil Circuit breaker 1-330 KV 150-2000 MVA
Air Circuit breaker 1-15 KV 5-500 MVA
SF6 3.6-760 KV 10000-50,000 MVA
Vacuum 11-33 KV 250-2000 MVA
21.What is the difference between MCB & MCCB?
The MCB stands for “miniature circuit breaker” & it is used for current rating lower than 100 amps and
they are used for domestic purposes.

The MCCB stands off “Molded case circuit breaker”. It has a high current rating of around 2500 Amps.
Also, its tripping characteristics can be adjusted. They are used in industries.

22. What Is RCB, RCD, RCCB or RCBO?

RCCB stands for Residual Current Circuit Breaker. RCCB is also known as RCB or RCD.

RCD stands for Residual Current Device, while RCB stands for Residual Current Breaker.

23. Difference Between RCD and MCB

The MCB doesn’t protect against earth fault. On the other hand, the RCD/RCCB protect against earth
fault.

The MCBs are mostly used in homes and industries, while the RCD is mostly used in homes.

What Is the Difference between Fuse and Breaker?

The fuse is made of a metal that melts when the current exceeds its limit. it works automatically & it is a
one- time use device that needs to be replaced.

The circuit breaker is an electromechanical switch that opens the circuit during overcurrent or short-
circuits. It works automatically as well as manually & it can be used again by resetting the lever.

What is the difference between circuit breaker & Isolator?

Circuit Breaker:
It automatically breaks the circuit in case of fault conditions like short circuit and overload. It can also
manually break the circuit. It is ON-load & OFF load device, it means it operates in both ON/OFF supply
condition.

Isolator:
An isolator is a mechanical switch used for isolating or disconnecting power supply in substations. It is an
off-load device i.e. it is operated when the power supply is off.

Which type of circuit breaker do we use in the HV application?

SF6 breaker is suitable for HV application.

Why is the VCB used in High Transmission Systems? Why can’t ACB be used?
Actually, vacuum has a higher arc quenching property than air since the die electric strengths in VCB are
8 times that of air. That is why vacuum is always utilized as an HT breaker and air is used as an LT
breaker.
What is the difference between surge arrestor and lightning arrestor?
Lightning arrestor is installed outside the panel whereas surge arrestor installed inside panels comprising
of resistors which consumes the energy and nullify the effect of surge.

Q. What is the difference between megger test equipment and contact resistance meter test
instruments?
Megger test equipment used to measure cable electric resistance, conductor continuity, phase
identification.
Contact resistance meter test instruments used to measure low resistance like relays, contactors.

What is meant by knee point voltage?

Knee point voltage is the voltage at which a CT gets saturated. It is one of the important factors
taken into consideration for selecting a current transformer.
What is reverse power relay?
Reverse Power flow relay is used to stop the flow of power from grid to station generator when
the generating units are off.

In three pin plugs why earth pin diameter is higher than other two pin?
Because Current flow in the conductor is inversely proportional to the conductor diameter. So, if
any short circuits occur in the system first high currents bypassed in the Earthling terminal.
(R=Pl/a area of the conductor increases resistance value decreases)

Programmable Logic Controller

What is PLC?
Programmable Logic Controllers, are industrial computers used to control automated devices and
processes.

Do you know about redundancy in PLCs ?

It is a term used when a PLC stop working as it should due to malfunction or power loss. This
causes system downtime which results in decreased productivity and slower processes.

What are the advantages of using PLCs for automation?

In a industry there a lot of machine , motor ,fan,light ,control bulb. If we manually operate this by using switch
there need a lot of switch, relay, breaker. To maintain all of these, making a pannel board and troubleshooting
all are complex. Then system makes more complex. By using PLC we can easily control everything.

We can use in PLC pannel board around 500+ counter relay which reduce complexity, reduce wire, can easily
programm at our wish.

Beside you have two motor, you have operate this two motor like – one motor rotate one hour then the second
motor run 1 hour, then 1st motor will start. If you operate by manually by switch that might be complex. By
using PLC+timer we can easily operate these two mkotor.
What are the programmable languages used in PLC?
The following are the programmable languages used in PLC.

▪ Instruction List Programming

▪ Functional Block Programming
▪ Ladder Logic Programming
▪ Sequential Functional Chart

PLC symbol

Power supply in PLC system:

Power supply provides processor, I / O and communication modules with system energy
requirements. Typically, the input voltage of the energy supply is 120 V – 230 V AC or 24 V DC and
the output voltage of the back plane is 2 A to 5 A at 5 V DC.

What are the different PLC brands known?

1. ABB
2. Siemens
3. Honeywell
4. Mitsubishi
 5. Toshiba

What is Sinking & Sourcing?

The most brief definition of these two concepts would be:

SINKING = Common GND line (‐)

SOURCING = Common VCC line (+)

What are the general functions of a PLC?

PLCs act as the physical interfaces between devices on manufacturing floor and a SCADA or HMI
system. PLCs can communicate such as conveyors, temperature control, robot cells, and many
other industrial machines.

Types of PLC

There are two fundamental kinds of PLC bases based on PLC building and operation:

• Compact PLC
• Modular PLC

Compact PLC
All the modules are within a single case. This type of PLC has a fixed number of
Input/Output modules. The power supply, CPU, and communication card are
within a single case.

Modular PLC

The name itself suggests that this type of PLC consists of various modules. Inputs and Outputs modules
can be easily expanded just by adding the modules.

Types of PLC inputs & Outputs:

Inputs:
DC Inputs: DC input modules allow to connect either PNP (sourcing) or NPN (sinking) transistor type
devices to them.
AC Inputs: There is no polarized AC voltage. The AC voltage is most frequently shifted via a limit switch or
other form of switch.
Outputs:
Relay Outputs: One of the most common types of outputs available is the relay output. Existence of
relays as outputs makes it easier to connect with external devices.
Transistor Outputs: Transistor type outputs can only switch a DC current. The PLC applies a small current
to the transistor base and the transistor output “closes”.
Triac Output: Triac output can be used to control AC loads only. Triac output is faster in operation and
has longer life than relay output.
What are the different components of PLC?
In the below figure you can find the different components of the PLC.

These are the important components of the PLC system:

Central Processing Unit
Processor
Memory
Power Supply
Input/Output Module
Communication Protocol
Programming Device

What are the various applications of PLC?

PLC is used in almost all types of industrial applications.
Driving Motors
Control Valve Operation
Air Compressor
Waste-water treatment
Crane Operation
Traffic Signals

What is Scan Time and Scan Cycle in PLC?

Each PLC has a scan time and a scan cycle. This considers how fast PLC work.
The Scan cycle is the cycle of which the PLC sense the inputs, executes the PLC programs, and then
updates the outputs. This will take some amount of time usually in milliseconds.

The amount of time it takes for the PLC to finish one complete cycle is called the scan time of PLC.
 VFD
What is a VFD?
Variable frequency drives/ variable speed drives/ VFD/ VSD are all one and the same. They are used to
control the speed of rotation of a motor by regulating the frequency and voltage of the electric motor’s
input power supply. The speed of the motor can be controlled precisely using a variable frequency drive.

DESCRIBE THE FUNDAMENTAL WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A VFD

A drive (VFD) can control the frequency and voltage supplied to an electric motor. The variable-
frequency drive’s operation is primarily determined by its changing speeds & soft start or soft stop
features.

WHAT ARE THE PRIMARY ELEMENTS OF A VFD CIRCUIT AND WHAT DO THEY DO?
A VFD circuit’s main components are:
Rectifier: A device that convert AC input voltage to DC voltage.
DC bus: A capacitor bank which stores the rectifier’s direct current voltage.
Inverter: A device that converts DC voltage to alternating current voltage.
PWM controller: This device regulates the frequency & duty cycle of the output voltage.
Filter: Removes high-frequency noise from output voltage.

IN MOTOR CONTROL APPLICATIONS, WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS OF USING VFDS?

VFDs provide numerous benefits in the motor control applications, such as:
Energy efficiency
Longer motor life
Reduced vibration and commotion (vibration)

EXPLAIN THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN VECTOR CONTROL & V/F (VOLTS PER HERTZ) FOR VFDS.
VFD Vector Control VFD V/f Control
VFD vector control is an even more advanced motor VFD V/f control is a less complicated and less
control approach than V/f control. It uses input from costly way of motor control. It maintains a
the motor to more precisely manage the speed and steady voltage-to-frequency ratio, which
torque. Vector control is frequently employed in high- maintains the magnetic flux in the electric
performance, high-accuracy applications such as motor constant. V/f control is frequently
machine tools, robotics, & food and beverage employed in low-performance applications such
processing. as fans & pumps.

WHAT VARIABLES SHOULD BE TAKEN INTO CONSIDERATION WHILE CHOOSING A VFD FOR A CERTAIN
APPLICATION?
The following criteria should be considered while considering a VFD for a certain application:
The form of motor being controlled must be appropriate with the VFD.
Motor power rating
Speed range
Torque requirements
Duty cycle
Environmental conditions installed.
WHAT CAUSES HARMONICS IN THE VFD SYSTEMS, & HOW CAN THEY BE PREVENTED?
Transformers, wires, and motors that are too hot
Protection relays failure
Increased vibration and noise
In VFD systems, harmonics can be avoided in a number of methods, including:
Putting in harmonic filters at the VFD output or input

How does a variable frequency drive work?

A variable frequency drive comprises a rectifier, filters, an inverter, switching, and control circuits. Input
to the VFD is usually a three-phase AC supply. This three-phase input supply is rectified and converted
into DC voltage by the rectifier. This DC voltage is again converted into a Three-phase AC voltage of
required frequency and threshold by the inverter.

What are the different types of breaking methods used in a VFD?

Two types of braking methods are used in variable frequency drives:
Dynamic resistive braking and Regenerative braking.

What is meant by regenerative braking?

In regenerative braking, instead of dissipating the energy in the resistors, it is fed back to the mains. A
regenerative braking unit is connected to the DC bus of the VFD which converts the regenerated energy
into AC and feeds it backs to the mains.

HOW ARE VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVES AND SOFT STARTERS DISTINCTIVE FROM ONE ANOTHER?
When using a VFD, the AC power source is first converted to DC power, which is then inverted back to AC
power at the specified frequency and voltage. This enables the VFD to modify the power supply’s
frequency and voltage in order to manage the motor’s speed and torque.
Soft starters function by gently raising the motor’s voltage over time. This helps in lowering the motor’s
starting current and preventing overheating.

SCADA
What does SCADA stand for?
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems are used for controlling, monitoring, and
analyzing industrial devices and processes. The system consists of both software and hardware
components and enables remote and on-site gathering of data from the industrial equipment.

What is a SCADA system used for?

The main purpose of a SCADA system is to monitor and control equipment in industrial processes. Thus,
SCADA systems are seen almost everywhere. Typically, SCADA systems are used in

Manufacturing

Water management

Oil and gas

Transportation

Renewable energy

Power distributions and control

In these industries, SCADA systems provide valuable information to key stakeholders. They can use the
system to improve the performance of the industrial plants, keep track of the plants’ efficiency and
mitigate errors and downtime through messages received from the system.
In today’s industrial advanced world, SCADA systems are crucial for operating industrial plants more
efficiently, as they are much easier and faster in collecting essential data. This allows for better allocating
of resources in many businesses.
A SCADA system connects to many different types of equipment. It monitors and controls everything
from weather sensors and pumps to power production and motors, depending on what kind of data is
needed.
How does a SCADA system work?
A SCADA system consists of three main system components. Combined, they ensure that data is
transmitted from the equipment that needs to be monitored and controlled (sensors, motors, etc.) to an
interface where the data can be analyzed and used for reporting.
The connecting link in the SCADA architecture are the Programable Logic Controllers (PLCs) or Remote
Terminal Units (RTUs). These are microcomputers that interact with both the equipment (also called field
devices) on the one hand, and HMIs, which are Human Machine Interfaces, on the other hand. HMIs are
also referred to as graphical user interfaces.

what is scada illustration

As the illustration shows, the PLCs and RTUs works as local collection points that send and translates
data to the remote or on-site HMI and send back control commands to the field devices.

The human operators access the data through the HMI, which can either be cloud-based or based on
own servers. The software interprets and displays the data in an easy-to-understand matter, so
operators quickly and simply can analyze and react to alarms.

Some SCADA systems also include options for automatic control actions and an automatic reporting
engine for easy-made reports.

RELAY
What is Relay? Types, Applications, and Working of Relay
A Relay is a simple electromechanical switch.

Every electromechanical relay consists of an consists of an

Electromagnet
Mechanically movable contact
Switching points and
Spring
Depending on the poles and throws, relays are classified into
Single Pole Single Throw
Single Pole Double Throw
Double Pole Single Throw
Double Pole Double Throw
Types of Relays
Relays can be classified into different types depending on their functionality, structure, application etc.
We listed out some of the common types of relays here.
Electromagnetic
Time Delay
Differential
Frequency
Buchholz
What is a Magnetic Contactor? – Principle, Types, Advantages

A magnetic contactor is a device that is powered by magnetism. Used to open and close the contacts in
the motor control circuit, may also be called a magnetic switch or a contactor.
Basically, a magnetic contactor works on the same principle as a relay, connecting and disconnecting
electricity. The actuators are similar, this device uses a coil, which when an electrified coil creates a
magnetic field.

Two sets of contactors will change the operating condition,

The normally closed (NC) contactor will close the contact point circuit and
The normally open contactor (NO) will open the contact circuit, connect the circuit of the contact point
when there is no current flowing to the coil, all contactor magnetic fields.

What is thermal overload relay

A thermal overload relay is a safety device used in manual control circuits. The thermal overload uses an
electric motor to control its overheated short circuit by switching off the heating circuit when the
temperature increases above the set value.

What is Buchholz Relay and How does it work?

When a minor fault occurs inside the transformer tank, heat is produced by the fault current. The
produced heat causes the decomposition of transformer oil into gas bubbles. These gas bubbles flow
upward through the pipe and get collected in the chamber. These gases displaced the oil in the Buchholz
Relay chamber and the displacement of oil is equivalent to the volume of gas collected. The
displacement of oil causes the upper float to close the upper mercury switch that is connected to the
alarm circuit. Hence during a minor fault in the transformer, the alarm gets activated.
When a major fault occurs like a phase-to-earth fault (short circuit), the heat generated is high, and a
large amount of gas is produced. These gas bubbles similarly flow upward through the pipe, but their
motion is high enough to tilt the lower flap in the Buchholz Relay. Hence the lower flap closes the lower
mercury switch that is connected to the trip circuit and hence they trip the transformer from supply.
Hence in this way, the transformer gets isolated from the supply during major faults or severe fault
conditions. Hence Buchholz Relay also provides protection against major faults in transformers.

What types of problems are likely to arise during the functioning of a three-phase induction motor?
The following faults are likely to occur in 3-phase induction motor operation:
Stator faults
Phase to phase faults,
Phase to earth faults, and
Inter turn faults,
Rotor faults
Earth faults and
Inter turn faults
Prolonged overloading.
Stalling.
Unbalanced system voltages.
Single phasing.
Under voltage.
Reverse phase.

Why does an induction motor have negative sequence current protection?

When the motor is supplied with an imbalanced supply voltage, negative sequence of currents flow into
it. The flow of the negative sequence currents will result in the motor to overheat.
Where Impedance relay, Reactance relay, and Mho relays are employed?
The Impedance relay is suitable for the phase faults.
Reactance type relays are employed for the ground faults
Mho type of relays is best suited for the long transmission lines

Define Plug Setting Multiplier?

Plug Setting Multiplier and is defined as the ratio of fault current in the relay coil to the pick-up value.

For what type of fault does Buchholz relay is employed?

Buchholz relay provides protection only against transformer internal fault.

What is meant by “Relay Settings”?

Relay settings mean the actual value of the energizing or characteristic quantity at which the relay is
designed to operate under given conditions.

7) How many types of Protection relays are there based on the Characteristic?
o Definite time relays.
o IDMT (Inverse time relays with definite minimum time).
o Instantaneous relays.
o IDMT with inst.
o Stepped Characteristic relays.
o Programmed Characteristic relays.
o Voltage Restraint overcurrent relays.

What is the difference between over current relay and differential relay?

The operating coil of over current relay is connected across the CT secondary circuit. This differential
relay compares the current at the two ends of the alternator winding.
Differential Protection of a Transformer
Differential protection schemes are mainly used for protection against phase-to-phase
fault and phase to earth faults. The differential protection used for power transformers is
based on Merz-Prize circulating current principle. Such types of protection are generally
used for transformers of rating exceeding 2 MVA.

Working of Differential Protection System

Normally, the operating coil carries no current as the current are balanced on both the
side of the power transformers. When the internal fault occurs in the power transformer
windings the balanced is disturbed and the operating coils of the differential relay carry
current corresponding to the difference of the current among the two sides of the
transformers. Thus, the relay trip the main circuit breakers on both sides of the power
transformers.

Problem Associated with Differential Protection System

When the transformer is energizing the transient inrush of magnetizing current is flows in
the transformer. This current is as large as 10 times full load current and its decay
respectively.This magnetizing current is flows in the primary winding of the power
transformers due to which it causes a difference in current transformer output and it
makes the differential protection of the transformer to operate falsely.
To overcome this problem the kick fuse is placed across the relay coil. These fuses are
of the time-limit type with an inverse characteristic and do not operate in short duration of
the switch in the surge. When the fault occurs the fuses blow out and the fault current

Differential protection relay

The differential protection relay is used for the protection of the generator, transformer, feeder, large
motor, bus-bars etc. The following are the classification of the differential protection relay.
• Current Differential Relay
• Voltage Differential Relay
• Biased or Percentage Differential Relay
• Voltage Balance Differential Relay
• Current Differential Relay
A relay which senses and operates the phase difference between the current entering into the
electrical system and the current leaving the electrical system is called a current differential relay

Voltage Balance Differential Relay

The current differential relay is not suitable for the protection of the feeders. For the protection of the
feeders, the voltage balance differential relays are used. The voltage differential relay uses two similar
current transformer places across the protective zone with the help of pilot wire.
The relays are connected in series with the secondary of the current transformer. The relays are
connected in such a way that no current flows through it in the normal operating condition. The voltage
balance differential relay uses the air core CTs in which the voltages induces regarding current.

When the fault occurs in the protection zone, the

current in the CTs become unbalance because of which the voltage in the secondary of the CTs disturbs.
The current starts flowing through the operating coil. Thus, the relay starts operating and gives the
command to the circuit breaker to operates.

Working on Differential Protection System

Consider the fault occurs on the R phase of the network because of the insulation breakdown. Because
of the fault, the current in the secondary of the transformer becomes unequal. The differential currents
flow through the relay coil. Thus, the relay becomes operative and gives the command to the circuit
breaker for operation.

If the fault occurs between any two phases, say Y and B then short-circuit current flows through these
phases. The fault unbalanced the current flows through CTs. The differential current flows through the
relay operating coil and thus relay trips their contacts.

Problem Associated with Differential Protection System

A neutral resistance wire is used in the differential protection system for avoiding the adverse effect of
earth fault currents. When an earth fault occurs near the neutral, it will cause a small, short circuit
current to flow through the neutral point because of small emf. This current is further reduced by the
resistance of the neutral grounding. Thus, the small current will flow through the relay. This small
current will not operate the relay coil, and hence the generator gets damage.

Modified Scheme of Differential Protection System.

To overcome the above problem, the modified scheme has been developed. In
this scheme two elements are arranged, one for the protection of the phase fault
and other for the earth fault protection.
The phase elements are connected in stars along with the resistor. The earth fault
relay is kept between the star and neutral. The two-phase elements together
with a balancing resistor are connected in star, and the earth fault relay is
connected between the star and neutral pilot wire.

The star-connected circuit is symmetrical, and any balanced overflow

current from the current circulating point will not flow through the earth fault
relay. So in this system, the sensitive earth fault relay will operate at a high
degree of stability.

Transmission line
Power system single line diagram

Single line diagram of substation

 SUB-STATION
Define Substation?
A substation is a switching, transforming, or converting station located between the generating station
and the low-tension distribution network, typically near the consumer’s load center.

What are the various substation components?

Component of substation
Circuit breaker
Lightning arrester
Surge arrester
Busbar
Relay
current transformer
potential transformer
Switch
Distribution transformer
Wave trap (use to check the frequency variation)

Name the types of substation?

Indoor substation-voltages up to 11kV
Outdoor substation-voltage of 33kV
Pole mounted substation
Underground substation.

What is the function of Substation?

The Substation receives power from the generating station by a signal or many feeders at high voltage,
converts it to different distribution voltages, and distributes it to various consumers via the distribution
network.
What are the things need to be considered while selecting space for outdoor substation?
The following factors must be considered when deciding where to locate an outdoor type substation:
The site should be near the center of its supply area.
A sufficient amount of land must be accessible at a fair cost.
The location should be away from intensively inhabited areas.
The place should be easily accessible by transportation.

Define Frequency Substation?

A frequency substation is a substation in which the frequency is changed from one value to another
using a frequency converter.

Define Power Factor Correction Substation?

Power factor-correction substations are positioned at the receiving end of transmission lines and
perform power factor correction utilizing generally synchronous condensers.

Define diversity factor?

Diversity Factor is the Sum of Individual Maximum Demand/ Maximum Demand on Power Station

Why EHV busbars are hallowed and circular?

To avoid corona effect.

Earthing resistance of substation?

- Should be 1 ohm

Why use stone in substation?

- To increase the impedance between the earth and equipment.

Power system
10) How many types of faults are there in 3 phase power system?

The faults that occur in the three-phase power system are as follows:

o Single line to ground (LG) fault

o Line to line (LL) fault
o Double line to ground (LLG) fault
o Three Phase short circuit (LLL) fault
o Three phase to ground (LLLG) fault

What is a Slack bus?

A slack bus also known as reference bus or swing bus balances the active and reactive power of
the system. The slack bus serves as angular reference for all the buses in the system.

How many methods use the load flow solution?

The method that uses the load flow analysis is as follows:

o Gauss-Seidel method using Y bus

o Newton- Raphson method (NR)
o Power flow through slack bus and line.
o Decouple load flow method
o Fast Decouple load flow method.

What is meant by Sag?

'Sag' is the difference in level between the points of support and the lowest point on the
conductor.

What is Corona?

'Corona' is the phenomenon of violet glow, hissing noise, and production of ozone gas in an
overhead transmission line.

Draw the Single Line Diagram of the Power Station?

How many types of fault occur in a 3-phase power system?

Electrical faults are the deviation of voltage and current from normal values. There are two types
of faults that occur in a three-phase system.

1. Symmetrical faults.
 2. Unsymmetrical faults.

28) What are the effects of Electrical Faults?

The effects of electrical faults are as follows:

1. Overcurrent flow- During fault occurrence high current flows in the system and which leads to
tripping of relays, damaging insulation and components of the equipment.
2. The danger to operating personnel- Fault can also affect the individual working there, and
severity of the fault depends upon the voltage and current at the point of fault.
3. Loss of equipment- Heavy current due to short circuit faults result in the burning of equipment
completely which leads to improper working of equipment or device.
4. Disturbed interconnected active circuits- During the occurrence of fault the active, connected
components of the system also get disturbed.

What is Critical disruptive Voltage?

The minimum phase to a neutral voltage that is required for corona discharge to start is called
the Critical disruptive voltage. In this, the corona discharge means the current discharge in the
air.

EXTRA
What is the MARX CIRCUIT?
It is used with generators to charge and discharge a number of capacitors in parallel. It is utilised when
the voltage required for testing is greater than the available voltage.

What exactly is a stepper motor? What are its applications?

A stepper motor is an electrical mechanism that responds to an input pulse. It is a sort of synchronous
motor that works in steps in either direction rather than in a whole cycle, and it is utilized in automation
parts.

What’s the distinction between earth and neutral?

Neutral = is a return current path for equipment
Earth = is a neutral support. If neutral is not present, the machine will enter full phase and we will
receive a shock. To avoid such shocks, earthing is used

What Is Meant by Armature Reaction?

The effect of armature flux on the main field flux is called as armature reaction
The armature reaction distorts the main field flux.
It reduces the magnitude of the main field flux.

What is a single line diagram?

A single line diagram is defined as the representation of numerous power system components in a single
diagram.

Which Motor Has High Starting Torque and Staring Current Dc Motor, Induction Motor or Synchronous
Motor?
-The DC series motor has the highest starting torque out of all motors.
-they are used in electrical machinery requiring high starting torque like cranes, hoist, etc.

What do you mean by 1Ton of AC?

A ton, as used in the HVAC field, is a term that describes how much heat the AC unit can remove from a
home in one hour. The measurement for heat is the British thermal unit (BTU). One ton of air
conditioning can remove 12,000 BTUs of air per hour.

That is 1 ton of refrigeration = 3.5 KW

What is “pu” in electrical engineering?

The per-unit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of actual value in any unit to the base value in
the same unit.
There are lot of components in power system like (generators, transformers, loads) with different ratings
(in MVA and KV). To bring all the ratings into common platform we use pu concept in which, in general
largest MVA and KV ratings of the component is considered as base values, then all other component
ratings will get back into this basis. Those values are called as pu values.
(p.u=actual value/base value).

Why are most of the parameters measured in pu?

• Circuits are simplified.

• Voltages have same range in per unit in all parts of the system from EHV system to distribution
and utilization.
• When expressed in the per unit system, apparatus parameters usually fall in narrow range
regardless of apparatus size.

What are the various kinds of cables used for transmission?

The types of cables based on the transmission voltage ratings are given below:
• Low tension or LT cable t is used for transmission of voltage below 1000v
• High tension or HT cable used for transmission of up to 11kv.
• Super tension cable is used for handling voltage up to 33kv
• Extra high-tension cable can handle voltage up to 66 kV.
• Extra super tension cable is used for transmission of voltage up to 132kV.

What is the difference between surge arrestor and lightning arrestor?

Both of them are used as protection devices for grounding the high voltage transients or surges.
• The surge arrestor is used inside the circuit to protect the components from high voltage spikes.
Surge arrester intercepts the surges and sends the extra unwanted energy to the ground wire.
• The lightning arrestors are used outside the circuit such as on transmission tower to protect them
from high voltage strikes of lightning. lightning arrester diverts the energy flow to the ground
through the arrester.

What Is Critical Disruptive Voltage?

It is the minimum voltage required for the breakdown of the insulation (air) between a phase & neutral
to discharge the current. It is the voltage at which the corona discharge starts.

How Many Types of Faults Occur in a 3 phase Power System?

The faults in the three-phase system are named below: -
Short circuit fault:
• Single line to ground fault (LG)
• Double line to ground fault (LLG)
• Line to line fault (LL)
• Three phase short circuit fault (LLL)

What Is Skin Effect?

The non-uniform distribution of electric current over the surface or skin of the conductor carrying a.c
This phenomenon is called skin effect & directly proportional to the frequency. That is why,tranded
conductors are used for power transmission.

How to reduce Skin Effect?

The methods of reducing skin effects are:

ACSR bundled conductor is used to reduce the skin effect.

Reducing the diameter of the conductor.
Using hollow conductors.

Why power is generated and transmitted in 3 phases only?

Why 3 phase system is better than 1-phase system

 • Single-phase power is pulsating in nature and hence, the torque produced by it is also pulsating,
which creates noise and vibrations in the Motor.
• In three-phase system, there is no need of neutral wire to transmit the power. But single-phase
system needs a neutral wire to provide return path.

Why three phase system is better than 2-phase system

• When we add the instantaneous values of current in both phases then the result not comes
equals to zero, it means that we need a neutral wire to provide return path for current.
• Ultimately, we are using three wires (2 phase and 1 neutral) in 2-phase system, then why don’t
we use 3-phase system which is also using 3 wires for transmission purpose. Also, 3 phase system
is transmitting more power than 2 phase system.

Why we don’t use 4-phase, 6-phase, 12-phase system

• A six-phase system has more power (6VIcosɸ).
• 6-phase system has rotating magnetic field which makes the motor self-start just like 3-phase
system.
• Six-phase system also provides constant power and torque.
• 6-phase system can supply heavy loads directly.
So, we see that 6-phase system or any other phase system higher than the 3-phase system are better
than 3 phase system, but still, we prefer 3-phase system because of the reason discussed below.

• By increasing the number of phases, the system becomes more costly and complex.
• To generate 6-phase power we need a six-phase generator which will take large area and
becomes more complex.
• To step-up or step-down, the voltage level, a 6-phase transformer is needed, which is again not
cost effective and becomes more complex.

What is Ferranti Effect?

The effect in which the voltage at the receiving end of the transmission line is more than the sending
voltage is known as the Ferranti effect. Such type of effect mainly occurs because of light load or open
circuit at the receiving end.
Capacitance and inductance are the main parameters of the lines having a length 240km or above. On
such transmission lines, the capacitance is not concentrated at some definite points. It is distributed
uniformly along the whole length of the line.
When the voltage is applied at the sending end, the current drawn by the capacitance of the line is more
than current associated with the load. Thus, at no load or light load, the voltage at the receiving end is
quite large as compared to the constant voltage at the sending end.

How can we reduce Ferranti Effect?

Ferranti effect can be reduced:
• By installing shunt compensation devices at receiving end.
• The compensation device is a shunt reactor which is connected in parallel with the transmission
line. It reduces the voltage level by absorbing the reactive power.
• Running the transmission line with higher load.
What is Proximity Effect?
When the conductors carry the high alternating voltage then the currents are non-uniformly distributed
on the cross-section area of the conductor. This effect is called proximity effect. The proximity effect
results in the increment of the apparent resistance of the conductor due to the presence of the other
conductors carrying current in its vicinity.

How can we reduce Proximity Effect?

We can reduce proximity effect by:

• Reducing the size of the conductor.

• Increasing the distance between the two conductors.
• Reducing the frequency and increasing the voltage we can reduce the proximity effect.

What is ACSR cable and where we use it?.

ACSR stands for “Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced”.

It is used for overhead transmission lines. It has better conductivity & low weight as well as cost.

Why a bird doesn’t get shocked while sitting on a power line?

Birds can sit on power lines and not get electric shocks because the electricity is always looking for a way
to get to the ground. The birds are not touching the ground or anything in contact with the ground,
so, the electricity will stay in the power line. If the birds touch 2 lines, then the circuit will be closed and
they will get electrical shock.

Why human bodies feel electric shock? In an electric train during which is running, we do not feel any
shock? Why?

Unfortunately, our body is a pretty good conductor of electricity. The golden rule is that current takes
the lowest resistant path. If we have insulation to our feet the circuit is not complete. The electric train is
well insulated from its electrical system.

What does RYB in a circuit indicates?

RYB simply stands for Red, yellow and Blue respectively in a three-phase electrical system. In a three-
phase electrical system, the three phases are separated by an angle of 120 degrees and
each phase is given a specific color, i.e. R, Y and B for the phases to be identified.

Which bulb glows brighter when connected in series, 80Watt or 100 Watt & why?
1) When connected in series:

since current is same, we can say that power dissipation will be higher for the bulb with higher resistance
i.e., 80W bulb.
P=(I*I) R
R80=2202/80=605
R100=2202/100=484

Hence 80W bulb will glow brighter in series connection.

2) When connected in parallel:

R80=2202/80=605
R100=2202/100=484

P=(V*V)/R

since voltage is same, we can say that power dissipation will be higher for the bulb with lower resistance
i.e. 100W bulb.

Hence 100W bulb will glow brighter in parallel connection.

Explain the working principle of a tube light.

The tube light does not work directly on power supply. It needs some auxiliary components to work.
They are-

1) Ballast: It may be electromagnetic ballast or electronic ballast. Series connection

2) Starter: The starter is a small neon glow up lamp that contains a fixed contact, a bimetallic strip and a
small capacitor-parallel connection

Working Principle of Tube Light

When the switch is ON, full voltage will come across the tube light through ballast and fluorescent lamp
starter. No discharge happens initially i.e. no lumen output from the lamp.

At that full voltage first the glow discharge is established in the starter. This is because the electrodes
gap in the neon bulb of starter is much lesser than that of inside the fluorescent lamp.

Then gas inside the starter gets ionized due to this full voltage and heats the bimetallic strip that is
caused to be bent to connect to the fixed contact. Current starts flowing through the starter
As voltage gets reduced due to the current causing a voltage drop across the inductor, the strip cools and
breaks away from the fixed contact. At that moment a large L di/dt voltage surge comes across the
inductor at the time of breaking.
This high valued surge comes across the tube light electrodes and strike penning mixture (mixture argon
gas and mercury vapor).
Gas discharge process continues and current gets path to flow through the tube light gas only due to low
resistance as compared to resistance of starter.
The discharge of mercury atoms produces ultra violet radiation which in turn excites the phosphor
powder coating to radiate visible light.
Starter gets inactive during operation of tube light.

What is the difference between an ammeter and a voltmeter?

Ammeter is a low resistance indicating instrument while the voltmeter is high resistance one.
Why should an ammeter be of very low resistance?
Ammeter, which is connected in series with the circuit carrying the current under measurement, must be
of very low resistance so that the voltage drops across the ammeter and power absorbed from the
circuit are as low as possible.

Why should a voltmeter be of very high resistance?

Voltmeter, which is connected in parallel with the circuit across which the voltage is to be measured,
must be of very high resistance so that the current flowing through the voltmeter and the power
absorbed from the circuit are minimum possible.

How can an ammeter be changed in to a voltmeter?

An ammeter of low range can be converted into a voltmeter by connecting a high resistance in series
with it.

What do you understand by the term ‘burden’ of a CT?

The product of voltage and current on the secondary side, when the CT is supplying the instrument with
its maximum rated value of current, is known as rated burden and is expressed in volt- amperes.

What is Meggar?
An instrument that is used to measure insulation resistance is a Meggar.
It is also known as meg-ohm-meter. It is used to measure
Insulation resistance
Machine windings
Explain what rectifiers are and what are the types of rectifiers?
A rectifier is an electronic circuit that converts the alternating current into a direct current.

• Uncontrolled rectifier: these rectifiers are made from diodes & their output only
depends on the input supply. They are not controlled by any external means.
Half wave rectifier; that converts half i.e. positive half or negative half-wave of the AC cycle into DC.
Full-wave rectifier: it converts both positive & negative half of AC into DC.
Bridge rectifier; It is made of 4 diodes to converts full AC wave into DC
Center tap rectifier; it utilizes a center tap transformer with only 2 diodes to convert full AC into DC.

• Controlled Rectifier: these rectifiers are made from SCR (thyristors) & their output voltage can be
controlled by varying the firing angle.
Half controlled: These rectifiers are made from SCR as well as diodes.
Full controlled: it is purely made from SCR & provides full control over the voltage through the external
triggering pulse

What is the role of a transistor in Circuit?

Mainly the transistor can be used for two reasons.
Switching: to switch ON/OFF the flow of current in a circuit. The switching depends on the input
voltage or current.
 Amplification: to increase or amplify the input signal that has very low power into a high power
signal.

Explain the operation of inverter.

An inverter can be defined as it is a compact and rectangular shaped electrical equipment used to
convert direct current (DC) voltage to alternating current (AC) voltage in common appliances.

There are four switches. A DC source connected with the switches and load. When switch S1 and S2 are
ON, S3 and S4 OFF, the direction of current through the load are positive in this condition. It gives a
positive half cycle of the AC output.

Now, switch S3 and S4 is ON, S1 and S2 OFF. The current flowing in the opposite direction. It gives a
negative half cycle of the AC output.
The ON and OFF time of switches decides the output frequency. The output of the inverter is a square
wave. The filters used to generate a sine wave.

How does a Voltage Stabilizer work?

These two main operations are essential in each and every voltage stabilizer. The components of voltage
stabilizer include a transformer, relays, and electronic circuitry. If the stabilizer senses the voltage drop in
incoming voltage, it enables the electromagnetic relay so as to add more voltage from transformer so
that the loss of voltage will be compensated. When the incoming voltage is more than normal value,
stabilizer activates another electromagnetic relay such that it deducts the voltage to maintain the normal
value of voltage.

What is holding current in SCR?

Holding current of SCR is the minimum anode current to keep SCR in conduction mode
When the forward current becomes less than holding current, SCR turns from forward conduction state
to forward blocking state.

What is latching current in SCR?

It is the minimum current required to latch (turn on) the SCR from forward blocking state to forward
conduction state.

Latching current is always greater than holding current.

What are the different methods to turn on a SCR?

Forward voltage triggering

Gate Triggering
dv/dt triggering
Temperature triggering
Light triggering

What is a Snubber circuit?

The snubber circuit is used for the dv/dt protection of the SCR. It is a series combination of a resistor and
a capacitor in parallel with the SCR.

What are the types of Commutation? Explain.

There are two types of commutation.

Natural Commutation: The process of the current flowing through the thyristor goes through a natural
zero and enable the thyristor to turn off is called as natural commutation.
Forced Commutation: The process of the current flowing through the thyristor is forced to become zero
by external circuitry is called as forced commutation.

Chopper Circuit
The circuits that are designed to directly convert fixed dc voltage into adjustable dc voltage are called
Chopper Circuits. It is also known as dc-to-dc converter or dc chopper.

• Buck Converters (also known as Step-up Choppers)

• Boost Converters (also known as Step-down Choppers)
• Buck-Boost Converters (also known as Step-up/Step-down Choppers)
• Chuk converter

What are the advantage and disadvantages of Open-Loop System?

Advantages of the open-loop control system

Open loop systems are simple.

These are economical.
Less maintenance is required and is not difficult.

Disadvantages of the open-loop control system

Open loop systems are inaccurate.

These systems are not reliable.
These are slow.

What are the advantages of Closed-Loop System?

Advantages of closed-loop systems

The closed loop systems are more reliable.

Closed loop systems are faster.

Disadvantages of closed-loop systems

Closed loop systems are expensive.
Maintenance is difficult.
Installation is difficult for these systems.

What is the “Pole of the System”?

The value at which the function F(s) becomes infinite is called the Pole of the function F(s), where F(s) is
a function of complex variables.

What is “Zero of the System”?

The value at which the function F(s) becomes zero is called the Zero of the function F(s), where F(s) is a
function of complex variables.

What is transfer function?

Transfer function of a system is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of output to the Laplace
transform of input with all the initial conditions as zero.

Some important MCQ question

=For leading load, voltage regulation is negative and for lagging load voltage regulation is positive

=semiconductors form different types of transistors with different electrical properties.

=If the voltage and current in an AC circuit are given by v = 200 sin(ωt + 30) and i = 10 sin(ωt - 60) then
the pf of the circuit is
Ans: 0( cos90=0)

=Quality factor is also known as voltage magnification because the voltage across the capacitor or
inductor in resonance condition is equal to Q times the source voltage.

=Peak factor of full wave rectifier=1.414

Peak factor of half wave rectifier is =2
Ripple factor of full wave rectifier=0.482
Ripple factor of half wave rectifier=1.21

=Dc offset sine wave er Vrms=√(〖a0〗^2+〖a1〗^2/2)

=Relays are switches that open and close circuits electromechanically or electronically. Relays control
one electrical circuit by opening and closing contacts in another circuit.

=differential relay use for transformer and generator. Differential relays are very sensitive to the faults
occurred within the zone of protection but they are least sensitive to the faults that occur outside the
protected zone

=A voltage regulator is a system designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. Basically,
there are two types of Voltage regulators: Linear voltage regulator and Switching voltage regulator.
There are two types of Linear voltage regulators: Series and Shunt. There are three types of Switching
voltage regulators: Step up, Step down, and Inverter voltage regulators.

=voltage regulation is a measure of change in the voltage magnitude between the sending and receiving
end of a component, such as a transmission or distribution line.

=booster transformer used in intermediate point of transmission line or feeder to maintain or rise the
voltage at desired point at far away from main traansformer.it is connected in series.

=An overexcited synchronous motor operate at leading power factor, under-excited synchronous motor
operate at lagging power factor and normal excited synchronous motor operate at unity power factor.

=why guard ring used?

A guard ring is a circular conductor located near the bottom of a high-voltage insulator string, from
where the line conductor or conductors are suspended. It's function is to evenly-distribute the potential
gradient across the length of the insulator string, by preventing the concentration of electric field in the
vicinity of the line conductor, which would otherwise act to break down the insulating properties of the
insulator chain.

=why bundle condle conductor used?

Up to 220 kv , single stranded conductors are used. But it is not possible to use single stranded conductor
above 220 kv systems.

=For these high voltage system, hollow conductors can be used to optimize the flow of current. But
maintenance and eretion of hollow conductors is not economical. Bundled conductors are used instead.

=In bundled conductors two or more stranded conductors are used per phase.

Now, why they are used :

-It reduces the reactance of the electric transmission line

-reduce skin effect.
-It also reduces corona loss, which improves the transmission efficiency.
-Bundled conductor lines do have the higher capacitance to neutral, when compared to single lines. This
results in higher charging currents which helps in improving the power factor
-In bundled conductor, as the GMR (geometric mean radius) of the conductor increases, the inductance
per phase decreases.
-With decrease inductance, the surge impedance of the line is also reduced
-Decrease in surge impedance due to bundle conductor, surge impedance loading (SIL) of the conductor
increases. This makes the transmission capacity of the system more.

=Surge impedance for long transmission line is 400 ohm

=In long distance transmission lines, during light loaded conditions receiving end voltage will be higher
than sending end voltage. This is because of the charging currents and capacitive effect of the line it is
called as ferranti effect.

=The difference is that for AC transmission lines, both positive and negative corona will occur on all
phase conductors, while for DC transmission lines, positive corona occurs near the positive conductor
and negative corona occurs near the negative conductor.

=why corona loss less in HVDC

Because In DC field negatively charged particles move from negative pole conductor to positive pole
conductor continuously and steadily. Naturally they do not tend to remain near the surface of negative
pole conductor thats why corrona loss less in negative polarity HVDC homopolar line.

=which is economical?
Transmitting DC power over a long distance is inefficient. Thus AC supply is a far more efficient to
transmit power. According to Siemens it's quite the opposite: Whenever power has to be transmitted
over long distances, DC transmission is the most economical solution compared to high-voltage AC.

=In dc system there is no frequency so, no skin or proximity effect.

=effective resistance is increase due to proximity effect in AC system.

= Insulator picture up

=CT- current transformer used to measure high current connect in series with high current line

=PT-potential transformer used to measure extra high voltage connect in parallel with high voltage line.

=If delta circuit converted into wye with same parameters value,then multiply by 3 of each parameter
and vice versa.

=Transposition is the periodic swapping of positions of the conductors of a transmission line, in order to
reduce crosstalk and otherwise improve transmission
The mutual influence of electrical conductors is reduced by transposition. Transposition also equalizes
their impedance relative to the ground, thus avoiding one-sided loads in three-phase electric power
systems

=For a sine wave the crest factor is 1.414, and for a square wave the crest factor is 1. So the peak
amplitude of a pure sine wave can be determined by multiplying the RMS value times 1.414

= Hysteresis loss is proportional with frequency

= Eddy current loss is proportion with square of flux density / voltage

= Increasing Frequency, decrease current. So increasing frequency decreasing cupper loss

= Commutator number is equal coil number for dc motor.

= Booster transformer: Booster transformers are used in electric railway AC catenary feeders to collect
the return current from the rails and the earth to the return conductor.

=Booster transformer is one which is often used towards the end of a power line to raise the voltage to
the desired value. It is used for controlling the voltage of a feeder at a point far away from the main
transformer.

=It is 1:1 transformer.

=It also used in railway to eliminate the stray current. It also maintain uniform voltage along the whole
line

= In Japan, the western part of the country uses 60 Hz and the eastern part uses 50 Hz

= The RMS value is the effective value of a varying voltage or current. It is the equivalent DC value which
gives the same effect.

For example, a lamp connected to a 6V RMS AC supply will shine with the same brightness when
connected to a steady 6V DC supply.

= A circuit can flow maximum current at resonance frequency. In this manner circuit act as a resistive
circuit. Resonance frequency f=1/(2π√LC)

= The main reason for happening harmonics in transformer, is saturation core

=Megger is used only for measuring insulator resistance.

=If DC voltage Applied across transformer then due to low resistance the winding act as short circuit and
large current flow. May be burn the winding

=At standstill condition the value of slip of an induction motor is 1

=Crest factor is = (peak value/RMS value)

=Form factor = ( average value/RMS value)

=The slip ring use for transferring the power from static and rotary part of the machine. And the split ring
uses for changing the polarity of the current. The slip ring is used in AC machine, whereas the split ring
uses in the DC machine.

= Here you can see the KVA output of the transformer is directly proportional to the input frequency of
the transformer. KVA ~ frequency

= Common examples of active components include:

Voltage sources.
Current sources.
Generators, alternators, DC generators
All different types of transistors MOSFETS, FETs, and JFET
All types diode diodes.
But transformer is a passive element

= In circuit breaker all bushing are like same but in transformer bushing are different because
transformer voltage is not equal in both side

How many SDG goals are there in Bangladesh?

The Sustainable Development Goals are a global call to action to end poverty, protect the earth's
environment and climate, and ensure that people everywhere can enjoy peace and prosperity. 17 goals
One of major important development policies of Bangladesh is its Five Year Plan (FYP), all the 17 goals of
SDGs are already integrated into the running 7th FYP.

= The Bangladesh government recently planned to import 9,000MW in 2041 , electricity from India,
Myanmar, Nepal and Bhutan to maintain the country's highest electricity demand.

= Currently Bangladesh imports around 1,160 MWs of electricity from India, of which 1,000 MWs are
imported through Bheramara and 160 MW in Tripura.

= the generation capacity of Bangladesh govt own power plant is 46% of total power generation.

= series gen armature reaction drop < shunt gen armature reaction

= power generation capacity in Bangladesh including (capacitive+ renewable) is 25,227 MW

= power generation capacity in Bangladesh excluding (capacitive+ renewable) is 22,023 MW

= Hysteresis loss is proportional to speed