Basic Mathematics I

Lecturer: Terry Kwok

1
 Syllabus

• 1.) Linear and Quadratics

• 2.) Polynomial and Rational Functions
• 3.) Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
• 4.) System of Equations and Inequalities
• 5.) Trigonometric Functions
• 6.) Analytic Trigonometry
• 7.) Applications of Trigonometric Functions
2
 Polynomial and Rational Functions

~ Polynomial Functions and Models

~ Properties of Polynomial Function
~ Properties of Rational Functions
~ The Graph of a Rational Function
~ Polynomial and Rational Inequalities
~ The Real Zeros of a Polynomial Function
~ Complex Zeros; Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

3
 Assessment

• 1 ~ 2 Assignments 25%
• 1 Test 25%
• Examination 50%
 Rational and Irrational Numbers
Rational number
Any number that can be written as an integer divided by
integer
another integer, i.e. integer , is called a rational number.

7 17 5 0 13
e.g. 5= 0= 0.013 =
10 4 1 1 1000

Irrational number
Any number that cannot be written as a fraction of two
integers is called an irrational number.

e.g. √2, π, -√6, ∛9

5
 Integer Exponents
Definition of exponentiation:
If a is any number and n is a positive integer
x is Base ~ the number or variable that undergoes repeated multiplication.
n is Exponent ~ the number of times of the base that is used as a factor.

xn = x ⦁ x ⦁ x ⦁⦁⦁⦁⦁⦁⦁ x

25 = 2 ⦁ 2 ⦁ 2 ⦁ 2 ⦁ 2 = 32

Consider the two cases as below:

(-3)4 and -(34)

6
 Integer Exponents
Definition of exponentiation:
If a is any number and n is a positive integer
xn = x ⦁ x ⦁ x ⦁⦁⦁⦁⦁⦁⦁ x
25 = 2 ⦁ 2 ⦁ 2 ⦁ 2 ⦁ 2 = 32
Consider the two cases as below:
(-3)4 and -(34)

(-34) = (-3) (-3) (-3) (-3) = 81 -34 = -[(3) (3) (3) (3)] = -81

7
 Integer Exponents
Example 1

8
 Integer Exponents
College Algebra
Definition of exponentiation:
If a is any number and n is a zero exponents
e following definition for negative exponents. If a is any non-zero numbe
x0College
= 1 Algebra
x0 ≠ 0
eger (yes, positive) then,
5000n = 11
a n
llowing definitionexponents.
For negative for negativeIf exponents. If a is any
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e why we required that a not be zero?
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Remember
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ples for this definition, a
2 1 1 3 1 1 1
hy we5required2 that a not be zero? 4
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5 25 4 64 64
llowed a to be zero we would have gotten division by zero. Here are
for this definition,
9
 Integer Exponents
Exponents properties:

10
 Integer Exponents
Example 2: Solve

11
 Integer Exponents
Example 3:

a2 5 1 (a2)5 1
4x2 3 (4x2)3 b. =
a. = b 2a2 b5 2a2
5y (5y)3
a10 1
43 (x2)3 = 5
= 3 3 b 2a2
5y a10
64x6 =
= 2a2b5
125y3
= a8
2b5

12
nce again, notice this common mistake comes down to being careful with parenthesis. T
a constant refrain throughout these notes. We must always be careful with parenthesis.
isusing them can lead to incorrect answers. Integer Exponents
et’sExample
take a look4:atSimplify
some moreeach
complicated examples now.
of the following and write the answers
with only positive exponents.
xample 1 Simplify each of the following and write the answers with only positive expo
3
4 5 3
(a) 4x y [Solution]
2 4 2 3 5
(b) 10z y z y [Solution]
2
n m
(c) 4 3
[Solution]
7m n
1 4
5x y
(d) 2
[Solution]
5 9
3y x
5 6
z
(e) 2 1
[Solution]
z x
3 8 2
24a b
(f) [Solution]
6 a 5b 13
nsve exponent
with each
constant
in the denominator
property.
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College Algebra
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Integer Exponents [Return to Pro
of the to
imilar negative exponents
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one except
s take a look At2 at
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we2 need complicated
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the first term now.
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e minus sign in the exponent. Likewise, any terms in the denominator with and the
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15
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15
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 Polynomial Functions and Models
What is a Polynomial function?

example of a polynomial
this one has 4 terms

A polynomial can have constants, variables and exponents, but

never division by a variable.
constants (like 5, -3, or 0.6)
variables (like x and y)
exponents (like the 3 in y3), but only 0, 1, 2, 3, ... etc are allowed
15
 Polynomial Functions and Models
What is a Polynomial function?
Some algebraic expressions occur so often and are so useful
that we give them a special name: Polynomial
i.) -4x3
ii.) 7a + a
3 2 3rd degree the largest exponent
iii.) 8y4 + 2y3 - y2 + y + 6 4th degree
iii.) 2x2y2 + xy Sum of exponents of x & y
Each term of polynomial is a product of a real number
(coefficient) and one or more variable whose exponents are
non-negative integers
The degree of a polynomial is equal to the highest degree of its

16
 n m
ons consisting of terms in the form ax y . The degree of each
variablesPolynomial
is the sum of Functions
the exponentsand
in each term and the deg
Models
largest such sum.
Example 4: What is the degree of the following polynomials?
amples of polynomials in two variables and their degrees.
2 3 12 2
x y 6x y 10 x 7y 1 degree : 15
4 4 2
6x 8y xy degree : 4
4 2 3 3 4
x y x y xy x degree : 6
14 3
6x 10 y 3 x 11 y degree : 14

polynomials not every term needs to have both x’s and y’s in the
mple they don’t need to have any terms that contain both x’s an
nomial may come from terms involving only one variable. No
y have the same degree. 17
 n mn m
ons consisting
consisting of terms
of terms in the
in the form ax ax
form y .yThe. The degree
degree of each
of each ter
variables
riables is the
sumsum
is Polynomial
the of Functions
of the the exponents
exponents in each
in and
each termterm
Models andand
the the deg
degree
largest
gest suchsuch sum.
sum.
Example 4: What is the degree of the following polynomials?
ples of polynomials
amples in two
of polynomials variables
in two andand
variables theirtheir
degrees.
degrees.
2 2 3 123 12 2 2
x yx y6 x 6yx y 10 x10 x 7 y 7 y1 1 degree : 15: 15
degree
4 4 2
6 x 6 x 8 y 8 y xy xy
4 4 2
degree : 4: 4
degree
4 24 2 3 33 4
x yx y x yx y xy xyx x 3 4
degree :6 :6
degree
14 14 3
6 x 6 x 10 y10 y 3 x 311
3
x y11 y degree : 14: 14
degree

ynomials not not

polynomials every termterm
every needs to have
needs bothboth
to have x’s and y’s in
x’s and y’sthem,
in the
e theythey
mple don’t need
don’t to have
need anyany
to have terms thatthat
terms contain bothboth
contain x’s and y’
x’s an
mial maymay
nomial come from
come terms
from involving
terms onlyonly
involving oneone
variable. NoteNo
variable. a
ave the the
y have same degree.
same degree. 18
 Polynomial Functions and Models

Polynomial are usually written in descending orders (i.e. in

order of decreasing degree of their terms)

Example: Write it in Standard Form: x2 - 8 + 2x3 + 3x5

The highest degree is 5, so that goes

first, then 3, 2 and then the constant last:

3x5 + 2x3 + x2 - 8

19
 Polynomial Functions and Models
General Polynomial in one Variable

A Polynomial in one variable x is one term or a sum of terms each

of which has the form
axn

where a is not a non zero real number and n is a non-negative integer

Example: i) 3x2 ii.) -x3 + x iii.) -8

20
 Polynomial Functions and Models
A formal definition of polynomial
The Polynomial in x of degree n is an algebraic expression of the
form
anxn + an-1xn - 1 + .......... + a2x2 + a1x + a0

where n is a non-negative integer and the coefficients an, an-1, ....., a1, a0
are real numbers

Example: We can denote 5x3 -7x + 2 by f(x)

Here: a3 = 5, a2 = 0, a1 = -7, a0 = 2

A monomial is a polynomial that consists of exactly one term.

A binomial is a polynomial that consists of exactly two terms.
A trinomial is a polynomial that consists of exactly three terms.
21
 oAdd make 6 x 310 x 2 x 45 to 13 x 2 9we
5
clear the
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operation that
2
x are 4 . performing. To add two polynomials
eubtract
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illAdding
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and that term.must
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This are in fact best
probably subtracting
done wi th
emples.
polynomial. 5 2 6 x2 3 x 8 x 41
a.)
his(a)caseAdd 6 x 10 x x 45 to 13 x 9 x 4 . [Solution]
this is, [Return to Pr
3 2 2
ing(b) 10 x 5xxthe45
6 xSubtract
the subtraction
5 2 9 x thing
first 13 xx that
2 39 xwe’ll
from 4 dox6isx5distribute
x 110. [Solution]
thexminus
13 2
1 sign
9 x through
45 4the
mple
nthesis. 3 1 This Perform
2 means the indicated
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change for each
the sign on every of thetermfollowing.
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5that x all9 xwe arex really 5 3 from x x 1 . 5 2
ion (a) Add 6 x 10doing x 2 here
x to 13 x 6a9
is multiplying
45 2 x “-1”
x 34 xthrough
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x the 41 second polynomial usi
rite down
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the2 After
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doing here.
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li
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irst thing
Subtract 5 x 9 x that
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2

on
ain, let’s write down
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dd 6 x 10xx x x 1 455 xto 6 x13 2
9 xx10 x9 x x 43 45 2 13 x 9 x 4 x 3
x 3 .
x x 1 52 3
x 9 x 2

parentheses
rst thing thataround we should the do xis actually
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x
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issimply
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6 x 10 x x 45 13 x 9 x 4
 Properties of Polynomial Function
Multiplying polynomials

• multiply each term in one polynomial by each term in the

other polynomial
• add those answers together, and simplify if needed

23
 Properties of Polynomial Function

Example: (x + 2y)(3x – 4y + 5)

Answer:
(x + 2y)(3x – 4y + 5)
= 3x2 – 4xy + 5x + 6xy – 8y2 + 10y
= 3x2 + 2xy + 5x – 8y2 + 10y

24
 that College Algebra
(c) sometimes
2
4 x x 6 3x a term will completely
[Solution] drop out after combing like terms as the x
6 3x
will happen on occasion so don’t get excited about it when it does happen.
[Solution]
(d) 3 x 7Properties
y x 2 y [Solution] of Polynomial Function [Return
x 2 y [Solution]
2
(e)
that
let’s 2 x 3onto
sometimes
move x amultiplying
x 1will [Solution]
term completely dropAgain,
polynomials. out after
it’s combing
best to dolike terms
these in asexam
an the x
2
Multiply polynomials
x 1 [Solution]
will
n happen on occasion so don’t get excited about it when it does happen.
mple Example
2 2 Multiply 7: Multiply
each of theeach of the following.
following. [Return
x 6x 2
2 2
is(a)
elet’s 4 x onto
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move more 6than
x 2a quick
x multiplying [Solution]
application ofAgain,
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it’s best tolaw.
do these in an exam
re than a quick application 2 of2 the distributive law.4 3 2
(b) 3 x2 52 x 104 x [Solution] x 4 6 x 23 4 2x 24 x 8 x
x x 6each
mple 2 4Multiply 2
x 2of the4 xfollowing.
24 x 8 x
[Return to P
(c) 4 x2 2x 6 3 x [Solution]
(a) 4 x x 6 x 2 [Solution] [Return to Problems]
(d) 3 x 7 y x 2 y [Solution]
(b) 3 x 5 x 10 [Solution]
x 10 This one2 will use the FOIL method for multiplying these two binomials
will42use
(e)
one(c) x2 the3 FOIL
x xmethod1 [Solution]
x x 6 3 x [Solution] for multiplying these two binomials.
2 2
ion 3 x 5 2x 10 3x 30 x 5 x 2 50 3 x 25 x 50
10(d) 3 x 3 x7 y x302x y [Solution] 5x 50 3 x 25 x 50
2 2 First Terms Outer Terms Inner Terms Last Terms
x x 6 x 2 Outer Terms Inner Terms Last Terms
First Terms
2
one (e)
is 2 x
nothing3 x
more x
than 1
a [Solution]
quick
hat the FOIL method will only work application of the distributive
when multiplying law. If either o
two binomials.
ethodisn’t
ion
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4 work.3If either
2 of the
4 x x 6 x 2 4 x 24 x 8 x
25
ample 2 Multiply each of the following.
2 2
(a) 4 xProperties
x 6 x 2 of[Solution]
Polynomial Function
(b) 3 x 5 x 10 [Solution]
2
(c) 4 x x 6 3x [Solution]

(d) 3 x 7 y x 2y [Solution]
2
(e) 2 x 3 x x 1 [Solution]
ution
2 2
4x x 6x 2
s one is nothing more than a quick application of the distributive law.
2 2 4 3 2
4x x 6x 2 4x 24 x 8x

x 5 x 10 This one will use the FOIL method for multiplying these tw
26
 Properties of Rational Functions
Consider a function which is the quotient of two polynomials

It is just like a fraction,

but with polynomials.

In General
Both polynomials

Except that Q(x) cannot be zero (and anywhere that Q(x)=0

is undefined)
27
 Properties of Rational Functions
Long Run Behavior

To find the roots of a Rational Expression you only need to find the
the roots of the top polynomial, so long as the Rational Expression
is in "Lowest Terms".
28
erator of the second
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not reduced to lowest terms 12 4 3 3 reduced to lowest terms
not reduced to lowest terms 8 4 2 2 reduced to lowest terms
8 4 2 2

rational expression it works exactly the same way.

ith rational
With expression
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exactly the same way.
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Rational(Expressions(
Properties of Rational Functions
We now need to look at rational expressions. A rational expression
action in which
Proper: the numerator
the degree of the top isand/or thethe
less than denominator are
degree of the polynom
bottom.
xamples of rational expressions.
2 4 2
6
College Algebra z 1 m 18m 1 4x
Proper: 2
deg(top) < deg(bottom)
2
x 1 z 5 m m 6
s(
he last one may look a little strange since it is more commonly wri
Improper:
ational the Adegree
expressions. ofexpression
rational the top isisgreater
nothing than,
more or equal
than a to, the
owever,
degree it’s important to note that polynomials can be thought of a
erator and/orofthe
the bottom. are polynomials. Here are some
denominator
eed to, although they rarely are.
essions.
2 4 2
z 1 m 18m 1 4 x 6 x 10
Improper:
herez is an deg(top) ≥ deg(bottom)
2
5 unspoken
m rule
2
m 6when dealing
1 with rational expressions tha
When dealing with numbers we know that division by zero is not all
r rational
ttle expressions.
strange since So, when
it is more commonly dealing
written 4 x 6with
2
x 10 rational
. expressions
o note that polynomials can be thought of as30 rational expressions if we
be
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be careful withdeal
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that we’ll canceling.
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down the road.
s take a look at a couple of examples.
s
smpleReduce
take a lookthe
take 1a look at
atfollowing
aacouple
coupleofrational expression to lowest terms.
examples.
of examples.
Reduce the following rational expression to lowest terms.
2
ample 1 xReduce
2 x the8 following rational expression to lowest terms.
(a)1 2Reduce
mple the [Solution]
following rational expression to lowest terms.
xx 2 92xx 20
2
8
(a) x22 2 x 8 [Solution]
(a) x 2 925 x 20 [Solution]
(b) x2 92x [Solution]20
5xx2 25
x
(b) x7 25
2 6
[Solution]
5
(b) x5 x 2xx [Solution]
x
(c) 7 26 [Solution]
x5xx3 2xxx 1 x 8 5
(c) 7 6 5 [Solution]
tion(c) xx 3 2x
x 1
8
x
8
[Solution]
3
n reducing
ution x a rational
x 1 expression to lowest terms the first thing that we will d
numerator
en reducingand denominator
a rational as much
expression as possible.
to lowest That
terms the firstshould always
thing that we be
willthe
do
tion
lems.
numerator and denominator as much as possible. That should always be the fi
n reducing
blems. a rational expression to lowest terms the first thing that we w
numerator and in
, the factoring denominator
this section,as much
and as possible.
all successive
31
Thatfor
section should alwayswill
that matter, be
 The Graph of a Rational Function
Rational expressions can have asymptotes (a line that a curve
approaches as it heads towards infinity):

The graph of (x2-3x)/(2x-2) has:

• A vertical asymptote at x = 1
• An oblique asymptote: y = (x/2) - 1

32
 The Graph of a Rational Function
Finding Horizontal or Oblique Asymptotes

A rational expression can have:

• any number of vertical asymptotes,
• only zero or one horizontal asymptote,
• only zero or one oblique (slanted) asymptote
33
 The Graph of a Rational Function
Degree of Top Less Than Bottom
The bottom polynomial will dominate, and there is a
Horizontal Asymptote at zero.

Example: f(x) = (3x+1)/(4x2+1)

When x is 1000:
f(1000) = 3001/4000001 = 0.00075...

And for larger values of x, you will find f(x) goes very close to 0

34
 The Graph of a Rational Function
Degree of Top is Equal To Bottom
Neither dominates ... the asymptote will be set by the leading terms
of each polynomial.

Example: f(x) = (3x+1)/(4x+1)

When x is 1000:
f(1000) = 3001/4001 = 0.750...

And for larger values of x, you will find f(x) goes very close to 3/4
Why 3/4? Because "3" and "4" are the "leading coefficients" of
each polynomial

35
 The Graph of a Rational Function
Degree of Top is Equal To Bottom
Divide the leading coefficient of the top polynomial by the
leading coefficient of the bottom polynomial.

Example: f(x) = (8x3 + 2x2 - 5x + 1)/(2x3 + 15x + 2)

The degrees are equal (both have a degree of 3)

Just look at the leading coefficients of each polynomial:

• Top is 8 (from 8x3)

• Bottom is 2 (from 2x2)
So there is a Horizontal Asymptote at 8/2 = 4

36
 The Graph of a Rational Function
Degree of Top is 1 Greater Than Bottom
This is a special case: there will be an oblique asymptote, and you
need to find the equation of the line

Example: f(x) = (3x2+1)/(4x+1)

The degree of the top is 2, and the degree of the bottom is 1, so

there will be an oblique asymptote

We need to divide 3x2+1 by 4x+1 using polynomial long

division:

To work it out use polynomial long division: divide the top by the bottom
to find the quotient (ignore the remainder).
37
 The Graph of a Rational Function
Degree of Top is 1 Greater Than Bottom

The answer is (3/4)x-(3/16)

(ignoring the remainder):

Asymptote "equation of line" is: (3/4)x-(3/16)

To work it out use polynomial long division: divide the top by the bottom to find
the quotient (ignore the remainder).
38
 The Graph of a Rational Function
Degree of Top is More Than 1 Greater Than Bottom
When the top polynomial is more than 1 degree higher than the
bottom polynomial it will just curve upwards and there is no
asymptote.

Example: f(x) = (3x3+1)/(4x+1)

The degree of the top is 3, and the degree of the bottom is 1.

The top is more than 1 degree higher than the bottom so there is
no horizontal or oblique asymptote.

39
 The Graph of a Rational Function
Finding Vertical Asymptotes
There is another type of asymptote, which is caused by the bottom
polynomial only.

make sure the rational expression is in lowest terms!

40
 The Graph of a Rational Function
Finding Vertical Asymptotes

Example: (x2-3x)/(2x-2)
The bottom polynomial is 2x-2,
which factors into:

2(x-1)

And the factor (x-1) means there

will be a vertical asymptote at
x = 1 (because 1-1 = 0)

41
 The Graph of a Rational Function
Sketch the (x-1)/(x2-9)
Step1: find factor the bottom polynomial (it is the difference of two
squares): x-1
(x+3)(x-3)
The roots of the bottom polynomial are: -3 and +3 (these will be Vertical
Asymptotes)

Step2: find the point cross to x axis: y = 0 = (x-1)/(x2-9)

when x = 1 then y = 0 the point is (1, 0)

Step3: find the point cross to y axis: y = (x-1)/(x2-9) when x = 0

when x = 0 then y = 1/9 the point is (0, 1/9)

42
 The Graph of a Rational Function
Sketch the (x-1)/(x2-9)
Step 4: the degree of the top is less than the degree of the bottom,
so there will be a Horizontal Asymptotes at 0

43
 The Graph of a Rational Function
Sketch the (x-1)/(x2-9)
Step 5: sketch the curve of the (x-1)/(x2-9)

44
 Polynomial and Rational Inequalities
Polynomial Inequalities
In this section we will be solving (single) inequalities that involve
polynomials of degree at least two.
Solve x2 −10 < 3x .

Step 1 : Get a zero on one side of the inequality.

x2 - 3x - 10 < 0

Step 2 : If possible, factor the polynomial.

(x−5)(x+2) < 0

45
 Polynomial and Rational
College Algebra Inequalities
Polynomial Inequalities
satisfied for some point in that region that it isn’t satisfied for ANY point in that region.

Step 3This
: Determine where
leads us into the next step. the polynomial is zero.
In our case the polynomial will be zero at x = −2 and x = 5 .
Step 4 : Graph the points where the polynomial is zero (i.e. the points from the previous step) on
a number line and pick a test point from each of the regions. Plug each of these test points into
the polynomial and determine the sign of the polynomial at that point.
Step 4 : Graph the points where the polynomial is zero (i.e. the
This is the step in the process that has all the work, although it isn’t too bad. Here is the number
pointsline
from
for thisthe previous step) on a number line and pick a test
problem.

point from each of the regions.

Step 5Now,
: Write down
let’s talk about this a the answer.
little. When −2make<sure
we pick test points x< that 5
you(−2,5)
pick easy numbers
to work with. So, don’t choose large numbers or fractions unless you are forced to by the
problem. 46
 Polynomial and Rational Inequalities
Example Solve x4 + 4x3 - 12x2 ≤ 0 .

47
 Polynomial and Rational Inequalities
College Algebra
Example: Solve x4 + 4x3 - 12x2 ≤ 0 .
We’ve already got zero
Example 3 Solve x 4 4 x3 12 x 2 0. on one side so we can go straight to
factoring.
Solution
Again, we’ll just jump right into the problem. We’ve already got zero on one side so we can go
x4 to+factoring.
straight 4x3 - 12x2 ≤ 0
x2 (x2 + 4x - 12) ≤ 0 x 4 x 12 x 0
4 3 2

2 2
x2 (x + 6)(x - 2) ≤ 0x x 4 x 12 0
x2 x 6 x 2 0
So,this polynomial is zero at x = -6, x = 0 and x = 2. Here is
So, this polynomial is zero at x 6 , x 0 and x 2 . Here is the number line for this
the number line for this problem.
problem.

−6 ≤ x ≤ 2 [−6, 2]

48
 In this section we will solve inequalities that involve rational exp
solving rational inequalities is nearly identical to the process for
Polynomial
with a few minorand Rational Inequalities
differences.
Rational(Inequalities(
Rational Inequalities
Let’s
In thisjust jumpwe
section straight into some
will solve examples.
inequalities that involve rational exp
The basicsolving
processrational
here isinequalities
the same as is with
nearlypolynomial
identical toinequalities.
the process for
x 1
with a few minor differences.
Example 1 Solve 0.
x 5
Let’s just jump straight into some examples.
The first step is to get a zero on one side and write the other side as a single
Solution
rational inequality.
Before we get into x 1 these we need to point out that these D
solving
Example 1 Solve 0.
that we’ve solve equations
x 5 that contained rational expressions. W
we always did was clear out the denominators by multiplying by
The second stepwon’t
That is to factor
Solution work the
withnumerator and denominator as much as
these however.
possible. Again,
Beforethis
wehas
getalready been done
into solving thesefor
weusneed
in this case. out that these D
to point
Since
that we don’t
we’ve solveknow the value
equations that of x we can’t
contained multiply
rational both sidesW
expressions.
Recall
we
Factor that did
always
of if we
numerator :multiply
was x clear
+1 out boththesidesofofdenominator
an inequality
denominators
Factor : xby
−5a negativ
by multiplying by
the direction
That won’t workof the inequality.
with However, since we don’t know th
these however.
the denominator is positive 49
or negative and so we won’t know if
 Polynomial and Rational Inequalities
Rational Inequalities
The third step is to determine where both the numerator and the
denominator are zero. In this case these values are.

numerator : x = -1 denominator
College Algebra : x =5

Here is the number line for this inequality.

The solution for this inequality is, − 1 ≤ x < 5 [ − 1, 5 )

So, we need regions that make the rational expression
50 negative. That means the middle region.
 1 x 5 1,5
Polynomial and Rational Inequalities
2
x 4x 3
Example
Example:2 Solve 0.
x 1
Solution
We’ve got zero on one side so let’s first factor the numerator and determine
and denominator are both zero.
x 1 x 3
0
x 1
numerator : x 1, x 3 denominat

Here is the number line for this one.

51
 The solution for this inequality is,
nd denominator arethis
The solution for both zero. is,
inequality
1 x 5
1 x 5x 1 x 3 1,5
1,5
Polynomial and Rational
x 1
0 Inequalities
numeratorx 2
: 4 2x 34
x 1,x0x. 3 3 denominator : x 1
Example 2 Solve
Example:
Example 2 Solve x 1 0.
Solution x 1
Here is the number line for this one.
Solution
We’ve got zero on one side so let’s first factor the numerator and determine where the numerator
and denominator
We’ve got zeroareonboth
onezero.
side so let’s first factor the numerator and determine where th
and denominator are both zero. x 1 x 3 0
x 1
numerator : x 1, x 3
x 1 x denominator
3
0 :x 1
x 1
Here is the number line for this one.
numerator : x 1, x 3 denominator : x 1

Here is the number line for this one.

n the problem we are after values of x that make the inequality strictly positive and so that looks
ike the second and fourth region and we won’t include any of the endpoints here. The solution is
hen,
3 x 1 and 1 x
3, 1 and 1,
In the problem we are after values of x that make the
52 inequality strictly positive and so that looks
ofxt
nto couple
that we
sections of
wesections
need to we
will need towill
get findneed
some to zeroes
allideas
the find
out all the
thea zeroes
offor way for a given
givenregarding polyno
zeroes
polynomial. So, o
use get
hat inwe into
that that
to we
get need
process.
need sometoideas
get some
out ofideas outregarding
the way of the wayzeroes
regarding zeroes
of polynomia
helpprocess.
that usThe
in thatReal
process.
Zeros of a Polynomial Function
finding
Defining
the zeros of P x really amount to nothing more than solv
ess
ing the zerosa of
of finding root
P or
the x zero
zeros ofofPaamount
really polynomial
x really is: more
amount
to nothing to nothing more than
than solving the solv
x 0=and
r is we
a already
root or know
zero of a how to do thatP(x),
polynomial, for ifsecond
P(r) =degree
0. In (quadra
other
P xwe already
and 0 and weknowalready
how to know howfor
do that tosecond
do thatdegree
for second degree (quadr
(quadratic)
So, words,
to help xillustrate
= r is a root
some or of
zero
theofideas
a polynomial
were goingif itto
is be
a solution
looking toat le
oials.
help
the So, to help
illustrate
equation illustrate
some of thesome
ideas
P(x) = polynomials.
0. of the
were ideas
going were
to be going
looking to be
at looking
let’s get at
the le
uple
of of
f asecond second
coupledegree degree
of second degree polynomials.
polynomials.

Let’s first find the zeroes2for 2P(x) = x2 + 2x - 15. To do this we

stthe
zeroeszeroes
find for P forx Pfor
the zeroes x xP 2 xx 15x2. xTo2 x15
2 . To
15
do this dosimply
. we
To this
do we
this wesimply
solve solve
solvethe
the following
simply th
simply solve the following equation.
.
2
2 x 152xx 15
2
2xx 515xx 53x x50 3x 3 0 0 x 5, x x x3 5,5, xx
ree polynomial
dsecond
degree has twohas
polynomial
degree zeroes
polynomial has or
two roots.
zeroes
two or roots.
zeroes or roots.
So, this second degree polynomial has two zeroes or roots.
2
zeroes
d’sthe
find for P x
the zeroes
zeroes x 14 x 49
2 . That will mean solving,
for PforxP xx x14 x14 x49 49
2 . That
. That will
will meansolving,
mean solving,
2 2
x 142x x49
2 x 7 0
14 x 49 x 7
2 2
53
0 x 7 x 7
 The Real Zeros of a Polynomial Function
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
If P(x) is a polynomial of degree n then P(x) will have exactly
n zeroes, some of which may repeat.

The Factor Theorem

For the polynomial P(x),

1. If r is a zero of P(x) then x - r will be a factor of P(x).
2. If x - r is a factor of P(x) then r will be a zero of P(x)

54
 The Real Zeros of a Polynomial Function
Fact 1:
If P(x) is a polynomial of degree n and r is a zero of P(x) then
P(x) can be written in the following form.

P(x) = (x - r) * Q(x)

where Q(x) is a polynomial with degree n - 1. Q(x) can be

found by dividing P(x) by x - r

55
 The Real Zeros of a Polynomial Function
Example: Given that x = 2 is a zero of P (x) = x3 + 2x2 - 5x - 6
find the other two zeroes.
by The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra we will have exactly 3 zeroes,
with some repeats possible.
we know that x = 2 is a zero of P(x) = x3 + 2x2 - 5x - 6 the Fact 1 tells us
that we can write P(x) as,
P(x) = (x - 2) Q(x)

P(x) = (x− 2)(x2 + 4x+ 3)

Here they are, Q(x) = x2 + 4x + 3= (x + 3)(x + 1) ⇒ x = -3, x = -1

So, the three zeroes of P(x) are x = -3, x = -1 and x = 2.

56
vision Problem 23. Divide 2x 2 +x−3b
The
division in Real
algebraZeros
let us of a Polynomial Function
h numbers (we may have 2x 2 + x − 3 is called the dividend a
rs Example:
do the jobDivide
for us!)2x2 + x - 3 divisor.
by x - 1. The usual layout is shown be
eved as follows: dividend and divisor both arranged i
powers of theBysymbols.
long division
2x2 + x - 3
mean that 2x + 3
x-1 #
2
x − 1 2x + x − 3
2x 2 − 2x
2x2 + x - 3 3x − 3
= 2x + 3
x-1 3x − 3
———
· ·
———
2x2 + x - 3 = (2x + 3) (x - 1)
on’t go Dividing the first term of the dividen
oes 1
o 2x 2
term57 of the divisor, i.e. gives 2x,
 The Real Zeros of a Polynomial Function
Example: Solve 2x2 + x - 3 = 0.
By Factoring By long division
If we know one of root, we can use
long division to find another root Q(x).
2x2 + x - 3 = (2x + 3) (x - 1)
If x = -1, P(-1) = 2(-1)2 + (-1) - 3 = -2
If x = 1, P(1) = 2(1)2 + 1 - 3 = 0
x = -3/2 or x = 1
P(1) = 0, then 1 is the root of P(x)

P(x) = 2x2 + x - 3 = (x - 1) Q(x)

2x2 + x - 3
Q(x) =
(x - 1)
Q(x) = (2x + 3)
P(x) = 2x2 + x - 3 = (x - 1) (2x + 3)
58
 If x = 1, then f (1) = 1 − 7(1) −
he factor theorem
The following worked problems show the use of the 3 − 7(2) −
If x = 2, then f (2) = 2
The
factor Real
theorem. Zeros of a Polynomial
a simple relationship between the factors of If x = 3, then f (3) = 33 − 7(3) −
Function
tic expression and the roots of the equation
Problem 28. Factorize 3 − 7x − 6 and (3) it= 0, then (x −3) is a factor —
If fuse
byExample:
equating the Solve x - 7x
3
expression to -zero.
6 =3 0.
x
to solvethe
mple, consider thequadratic
cubic equation
equation x − 7x − 6theorem.
= 0.
−8= By0.long division We have a choice now. We can divide
this we may factorize the quadratic expres- (x − 3) or we could continue our ‘t
Let f (x) = x 3 − 7x − 6 by substituting further values for x
+ 2x − 8 giving (x − 2)(x + 4).
x − 2)(x 3 expression — and hope to arrive at f (
If +x 4)== 1, 0. then f (1) = 1 − 7(1) − 6 = −12
Let us do both ways. Firstly, dividing
the product of two numbers is zero, one or
3 − 7(2) − 6 = −12
If x = 2, then f (2) =
hose numbers must equal zero. Therefore, 2
x 2 + 3x + 2
of If x = 3, then f (3) = 33 − 7(3) − 6 = 0 #
x − 2) = 0, from which, x = 2
on x − 3 x 3 − 0 − 7x − 6
x + 4)If=f 0,
(3)from
= 0,which,
then (x −3)x = is−4 a factor — from the factor x 3 − 3x 2
f(3) = 0, then 3 is the root of f(x)
ar thentheorem.
that a factor of (x − 2) indicates a 3 2 − 7x − 6
We have
+2, while axfactor a choice
3 -7x -of (x now.
+ 4) We can
indicates divide
a rootx − 7x − 6 by 3x
(x − 3) or we6 = (x
could - 3) Q(x)
continue our ‘trial and error’ 3x 2 − 9x
es- ————
by substituting
neral, we can therefore say further
x that:
3 values
-7x - 6 for x in the given 2x − 6
expressionQ(x) — and= hope to arrive at f (x) = 0.
(x - 3) 2x − 6
Let us do both ways. Firstly, dividing out gives: ———
or
factor of (x − a) corresponds to a
Q(x) = x 2 + 3x + 2 · ·
e, root of x 2= a ———
# x + 3x + 2 59
 If x = 1, then f (1) = 1 − 7(1) −
he factor theorem
If x = 2, then f (2) = 23 − 7(2) −
The Real Zeros of a Polynomial
a simple relationship between the factors of
Function3
If x = 3, then f (3) = 3 − 7(3) −
tic expression and the roots of the equation
byExample:
equating the Solve x3 -7xto- zero.
expression 6 = 0. If f (3) = 0, then (x −3) is a factor —
mple, consider the quadratic equation theorem.
−8= We have a choice now. We can divide
By0.long division (x − 3) or we could continue our ‘t
this we may factorize the quadratic expres-
+ 2x − 8x3giving by substituting further values for x
6 =−(x
-7x - (x - 3)+(x
2)(x 4).2 + 3x + 2)
expression — and hope to arrive at f (
x − 2)(x + 4) = 0.
the product of two numbers is zero, one or Let us do both ways. Firstly, dividing
x -7x - 6 = (x - 3) (x + 1) (x +2)
3
hose numbers must equal zero. Therefore, 2 + 3x + 2
# x
x − 2) = 0, from which, x = 2
x = 3, x = -1 and x = -2 x − 3 x 3 − 0 − 7x − 6
x + 4) = 0, from which, x = −4
x 3 − 3x 2
ar then that a factor of (x − 2) indicates a
+2, while a factor of (x + 4) indicates a root 3x 2 − 7x − 6
3x 2 − 9x
————
neral, we can therefore say that: 2x − 6
2x − 6
———
factor of (x − a) corresponds to a · ·
root of x = a ———
60
 4 5
(a) 4x y
n m 2 [Solution]
(c) [Solution]
4 2 3 4 2 5
(b) 7 m10zn y 3
z Tutorial
y 2
[Solution]
1 4
5 x
2 y
n m of the following and write the answers with only
1.) Simplify each
(d)
(c) 2
[Solution]
[Solution]
positive exponents.
45 3
my n x
73
9

1 4
5 x 5y 6
a (d) z5 2 9 [Solution]
(e) 3 y2 1 x [Solution]
z x
5 6
z 3 8 2
(e) 242a b1 [Solution]
(f) z x 5 [Solution]
6a b 2
b 24 a b 3 8
Solution(f) 5
[Solution]
Note that when6awebsay “simplify” in the problem statement we mean th
the properties that we can to get the answer into the required form. Als
Solution
will
Notehavethat as fewwe
when terms as possible
say “simplify” in and each term
the problem should we
statement have no that
mean more wet
it.the properties that we can to get the answer into the required form. Also, a “
will have as few terms as possible and each term should have no more than a
it.
There are many different paths that61we can take to get to the final answ
 32
[Return to
[Return to Prob
Tutorial
We can also do some of the simplification 2 with rational exponents that w
type problems
We can also do
he2.)
previous some of the simplification type problems with rational exponents that we saw
section.
Simplify each of the following and write the answers with only
he previous section.
positive exponents.
Example 3 Simplify each of the following and write the answers with only positive ex
Example 3 Simplify1 each of the following and write the answers with only positive expone
14
2
w2 4
(a) w [Solution]
(a) 1
1 [Solution]
16vv2
16
2

1
1
2 7
2 7
2
(b) xx yy
2 33
[Solution]
(b) 11
[Solution]
33
xx yy22

Solution
Solution
a) For this
this problem
problemwewewill
willfirst
firstmove
movethethe exponent
exponent intointo
thethe parenthesis
parenthesis thenthen we will
we will eliminel
he negative
negative exponent
exponentasaswe
wediddidininthe
theprevious section.
previous section.WeWe willwill
thenthen
move the term
move to theto
the term
denominator and
denominator anddrop
dropthe
theminus
minussign.sign.
1 1
2 2 1 1
4 4
ww ww
2 2 1 1
1 1 1 62 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
 Tutorial 2
3.) Multiply each of the following.

(a) (3x + 5)(3x − 5)

(b) (2x+6)2

(c) (1−7x)2

(d) 4(x+3)2

63
 1
careful with these cases. It is easy to make a mistake with these and incorrectl
careful
sion. with
careful withthese
thesecases.
cases.It Itis iseasy to to
easy make a mistake
make a withwith
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Tutorial 2
sion.
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Perform at aindicated
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operation and reduce the answer to
w let’s
w let’s take
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examples.
lowest terms.
ample 2 Perform the indicated operation and reduce the answer to lowest term
ample 2 xPerform
2
5 x the
14 indicated
x 2
4operation and reduce the answer to lowest term
ample 2 Perform
(a) x 2 5 x 14 2 x 4
2
the indicated
2
operation and
[Solution]
reduce the answer to lowes
x 2 3x 2 x
(a) x2 5 x 14 2 x 14 2x 49
4 [Solution]
(a) x 2m 23 x 9 2 x3 2 14 m x 49 [Solution]
(b) x2 m 2 3 x9 2 3x m14[Solution] x 49
(b) m 2 m52m 96 m3 2m [Solution]
(b) ym2 2 55ym 46 m 2 [Solution]
(c) ym 2 5m 4 6[Solution]
25 y
m 2
(c) 2y 2 1 [Solution]
y y 5 y1 4
(c) y25 [Solution]
yy 5 1
y 5
007 Paul Dawkins 45 http://tutorial.math.lam
007 Paul Dawkins 45 http://tutorial.math.lam
007 Paul Dawkins 64
45 http://tutorial.mat
 Tutorial 2
5.) Solve x3 -5x2 + 3x +9 > 0

65
 Tutorial 2 answer

1.) a 2.) a 3.) a

b
b b18/(16a16) b c
d

4.) a 5.)

b -1

66