Halogenoalkanes

Naming Halogenoalkanes H H H
H

H C H
H H H
Based on original alkane, with a prefix indicating halogen atom: H C C C H
H C C C C H
Fluoro for F; Chloro for Cl; Bromo for Br; Iodo for I.
Br H H H Cl H H
Substituents are listed alphabetically
1-bromopropane 2-chloro-2-methylbutane
Cl
If there are two or more halogen groups then di, tri are
used and each one is numbered and the groups are
listed alphabetically 4-bromo-2,2-dichloropentane
Cl Br

Classifying Halogenoalkanes

Halogenoalkanes can be classified as primary, secondary or tertiary depending

on the number of carbon atoms attached to the C-X functional group.
H
H H H H H H
H C H
H H H
H C C C H H C C C H
H C C C C H
Br H H H Br H
H Cl H H

Primary halogenoalkane Secondary halogenoalkane Tertiary halogenoalkane

One carbon attached to the Two carbons attached to the Three carbons attached to the
carbon atom adjoining the carbon atom adjoining the carbon atom adjoining the
halogen halogen halogen

Reactions of Halogenoalkanes
Halogenoalkanes undergo either substitution or elimination reactions
Nucleophilic substitution reactions
Most halogens are more electronegative than carbon and so a dipole is induced and the C-X bond is polar.

Cδ+– Fδ- > Cδ+– Clδ- > Cδ+– Brδ-

The positive dipole on the carbon attracts nucleophiles, and the halogen Nucleophile: electron
atom is swapped atom for another atom or groups of atoms in a substitution pair donator e.g. :OH-,
reaction. The generalised mechanism shows the general mechanism for :NH3, CN-
nucleophilic substitution although there are variations in the mechanism
depending on whether the halogenoalkane is primary, secondary or tertiary.

Nu:-
The nucleophiles
H H The carbon has a small
attack the positive H H positive charge because
carbon atom
of the electronegativity
H C C X H C C Nu + X- difference between the
δ+ δ-
H H carbon and the halogen
H H

:Nu represents any nucleophile – they always have a lone

pair and act as electron pair donators

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Rate of Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions
Comparing the rate of hydrolysis reactions
The different halogenoalkanes react at different rates. This can be Hydrolysis is defined as the
observed by observing the hydrolysis reaction of the splitting of a molecule ( in
halogenoalkanes with water in a silver nitrate solution. this case a halogenoalkane)
by a reaction with water
Water is a poor nucleophile but it can react slowly with
halogenoalkanes in a substitution reaction
CH3CH2X + H2O CH3CH2OH + X- + H+

Aqueous silver nitrate is added to a halogenoalkane and the

halide leaving group combines with a silver ion to form a
CH3CH2I + H2O CH3CH2OH + I- + H+
SILVER HALIDE PRECIPITATE.
The precipitate only forms when the halide ion has left the
halogenoalkane and so the rate of formation of the precipitate Ag+ (aq) + I-(aq) AgI (s) - yellow precipitate
can be used to compare the reactivity of the different
halogenoalkanes.

The quicker the precipitate is formed, the faster the AgI (s) - yellow precipitate
substitution reaction and the more reactive the AgBr(s) – cream precipitate forms faster
halogenoalkane AgCl(s) – white precipitate

One might consider that the different strength of the dipoles on the C-Halogen bond might play a role in
the rate of the hydrolysis reaction. The evidence does not hold up though as the one with the weakest
dipole (iodine) forms fastest. So the limiting factor cannot be how well the halogenoalkane attracts the
nucleophile. The factor that actually seems to explain the results if the strength of the C-Halogen bond.

The rate of these substitution reactions depends on the strength Bond enthalpy /
of the C-X bond . The weaker the bond, the easier it is to break kJmol-1
and the faster the reaction. C-I 238
C-Br 276
The iodoalkanes are the fastest to substitute and the fluoroalkanes
are the slowest. The strength of the C-F bond is such that C-Cl 338
fluoroalkanes are very unreactive
C-F 484
The iodoalkane forms a precipitate with the silver nitrate first as the C-
I bond is weakest and so it hydrolyses the quickest

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Nucleophilic substitution with aqueous hydroxide ions
This is a similar reaction to the hydrolysis reaction with water but the OH– is a stronger nucleophile than water as it has
a full negative charge and so is more strongly attracted to the Cδ+ so the reaction occurs more readily

Change in functional group: halogenoalkane H H H

H H H
alcohol
Reagent: potassium (or sodium) hydroxide H C C C Br + KOH H C C C OH + KBr
Conditions: In aqueous solution; Heat under reflux
H H H H H H
Mechanism: Nucleophilic Substitution
Role of reagent: Nucleophile, OH- 1-bromopropane propan-1-ol

The aqueous conditions needed is an important point. If the solvent is changed to ethanol an elimination reaction occurs

SN2 nucleophilic substitution mechanism for halogenoalkanes

SN2 The S means substation, the N means nucleophile and 2 is for two molecules in the rate determining step.
This will be explained more in the reaction kinetics chapter but the slow step is the first step here.

H CH3 H - H
δ+ δ-
H3C C Br HO C Br H3C C OH + :Br -
-HO:
H H
H
transition state.
The attacking OH- group is a nucleophile. It is attracted to the slightly positive carbon atom and
has a lone pair of electrons which can form a new covalent bond to the carbon.
This mechanism goes through a transition state: the C-OH bond is forming at the same time as the
C-Br bond is breaking
This mechanism occurs with primary halogenoalkanes

SN1 nucleophilic substitution mechanism for tertiary halogenoalkanes

The 1 in SN1 is for one molecules in the rate determining step. This will be explained more in the reaction kinetics
chapter but the slow step is the first step here and there is only one molecule in it

CH3 CH3 Tertiary halogenoalkanes

CH3
undergo this mechanism as the
+
H3C C Br H3C C H3C C OH tertiary carbocation is made
:OH- stabilised by the electron
CH3 CH3 CH3 releasing methyl groups around it.
(see alkenes topic for another
The Br first breaks example of this).
The hydroxide Also the bulky methyl groups
away from the
nucleophile then
halogenoalkane to prevent the hydroxide ion from
attacks the positive
form a carbocation attacking the halogenoalkane in
carbon
intermediate the same way as the mechanism
above

Primary halogenoalkanes don’t do the SN1 mechanism because they would only form an unstable primary
carbocation.

See chapter 6.15 Isomerism for a discussion how these mechanism can affect optical activity in chiral
compounds

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Nucleophilic substitution with ammonia
This is a similar reaction to the one with hydroxide ions and converts the halogenoalkane into an amine. The
conditions reflect the need to keep a high concentration of Ammonia in the reaction which is not so easy
because ammonia is a gas.

Change in functional group: halogenoalkane

amine H H H
H H H

Reagent: NH3 dissolved in ethanol H C C C NH2

H C C C Br + 2NH3 + NH4Br
Conditions: Heating under pressure in a sealed
tube H H H
H H H

Mechanism: Nucleophilic Substitution propylamine

Type of reagent: Nucleophile, :NH3
Naming amines:
In the above example propylamine, the propyl shows
the 3 C’s of the carbon chain.
Sometimes it is easier to use the IUPAC naming for
amines e.g. Propan-1-amine

H H H H
δ+ δ- + :Br -
CH3 CH2 C Br CH3 CH2 C N H CH3 CH2 C NH2
3HN:
H H H + NH4Br
H
:NH3

The reaction needs two molecules of ammonia. The first acts as a nucleophile in the first step.
The second ammonia molecule acts as a base and removes a proton from the intermediate
formed in step 1

Further substitution reactions can occur between the halogenoalkane and the amines formed leading to
a lower yield of the amine. Each H on the amine can be successively removed. Using excess ammonia
helps minimise this but this method will give a mixture of products.

H R
Further reactions H H
RX RX
RX R N:
H N: H N: R N:

H R R R

We will look at these further reactions in more detail in the chapter 6.10 amines

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Nucleophilic substitution with cyanide ions
This is another similar substitution reaction swapping the halogenoalkane for a nitrile groups. This is an
important reaction in organic synthesis because it can be used to increase the length of the carbon chain.
The nitrile group can be hydrolysed to carboxylic acid group or reduced to an amine group so adding a
nitrile group on to a chain can be an important step in building up new organic molecules

Change in functional group: halogenoalkane H H H H H H

nitrile
Reagent: KCN dissolved in ethanol/water mixture H C C C Br + :CN- H C C C CN + Br-
Conditions: Heating under reflux H H H H H H
Mechanism: Nucleophilic Substitution
1-bromopropane butanenitrile
Type of reagent: Nucleophile, :CN-

H H This reaction increases the length of

the carbon chain (which is reflected in
δ+ δ-
H3C C Br H3C C CN + :Br - the name) In the above example
-NC:
butanenitrile includes the C in the
H H nitrile group

Note: the mechanism is identical to hydroxide ion one

Naming Nitriles

Nitrile groups have to be at the end of a chain. Start

numbering the chain from the C in the CN Note the naming: butanenitrile and not
butannitrile.
CH3CH2CN : propanenitrile
H3C CH CH2 C N 3-methylbutanenitrile
CH3

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Elimination reaction of halogenoalkanes

Halogenoalkanes can also be converted to alkenes by an elimination reaction which can be defined as the
removal of small molecule (often water) from the organic molecule. The reagent of potassium hydroxide is
the same one as used for the substitution reaction. The conditions here are vital. Using ethanol as a solvent
for the KOH instead of water will promote the elimination reaction. Often though a mixture of products from
both elimination and substitution occurs

Elimination with alcoholic hydroxide ions

Change in functional group: halogenoalkane H H H H H H
alkene
H C C C H + KOH H C C C + KBr + H2O
Reagents: Potassium (or sodium) hydroxide
H H Br H H
Conditions: In ethanol ; Heat
Mechanism: Elimination 1-bromopropane propene
Type of reagent: Base, OH-

H H H H
Note the importance of
CH3 C C H + Br - + H2O the solvent to the type of
CH3 C C H
reaction here.
Br H Aqueous: substitution
:OH- Alcoholic: elimination
The hydroxide ion, OH-,
acts as a base and removes a proton from
a carbon atom adjacent to the one bonded to the bromine. The two
electrons in the C-H bond move to form the Pi bond to make the
alkene, and the C-Br bond breaks.

2-methyl -2- H
chlorobutane can give
H H C H
With unsymmetrical secondary 2-methylbut-1-ene and H H
H
and tertiary halogenoalkanes H C H 2-methylbut-2-ene
H H H C C C C H
two (or sometimes three)
different structural isomers can H C C C C H H H H
H
be formed because there is H Cl H H
more than one different H C H
H H
H
hydrogen atoms on adjacent
carbon atoms H C C C C H

H H

The structure of the halogenoalkane also has an effect on the

degree to which substitution or elimination occurs in this reaction.
Primary tends towards substitution
Tertiary tends towards elimination

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 Questions on halogenoalkanes
1) a)C4H9Cl has 4 structural isomers. Draw using skeletal formulae the 4 isomers and name each one

b) Give the molecular formula and calculate the Mr of the following compound
Br

Br

2) Draw displayed formulae the organic product of the following reactions. Also name the products
a) bromoethane + aqueous KOH
b) 2-chorobutane + aqueous KOH
c) 1-bromopropane + NH3
d) 2-chloro-2-methylbutane + KCN
e) 1,2-dibromopropane + aqueous KOH

3) Explain what the following terms mean

a) nucleophile
b) substitution
c) elimination
d) hydrolysis
e) Base

4) A substitution reaction occurs when 2-bromopropane reacts with aqueous sodium hydroxide.
a)Draw the skeletal formula of the organic product of this reaction and give its name.
b) Name the mechanism for this reaction. Draw the mechanism out with curly arrows. Explain what each of
the arrows represents.
c) Explain the role of the hydroxide ion in this reaction
d)Explain why halogenoalkanes can undergo substitution reactions with hydroxide ions whereas alkanes do
not undergo this reaction

5) In an experiment, some 1-chlorobutane, 1-bromobutane and 1-iodobutane were placed in separate test
tubes containing silver nitrate solution. The test tubes were put in a water bath. The halogenoalkanes reacted
with the water in the silver nitrate solution. The student timed how long it took for the first appearance of the
silver halide precipitate in each tube at a constant temperature. This time was used to provide a measure of
the initial rate of reaction.
a) Describe the likely observations – include colour of precipitate and order of appearance of precipitates.
Write ionic equations for the formation of the precipitates
b) Explain in terms of bond enthalpies the observations
c) What is the name of the organic product formed in these reactions?
d) In this reaction the nucleophile is water. Explain why using sodium hydroxide as the reagent would lead to
a faster reaction than using water
e) In this experiment, explain why a water bath was used rather than heating the test tube containing the
reaction mixture directly over a Bunsen flame

6) Ethanenitrile can be made by reacting chloromethane with potassium cyanide.

a) Write an overall equation using structural formulae for this reaction.
b) Name and the outline the mechanism for this reaction.
c) Explain, in terms of bond enthalpies, why bromomethane reacts faster than chloromethane with potassium
cyanide.

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7) a) Write an overall equation and outline the mechanism for the reaction of chloromethane with an
excess of ammonia.

b) Explain why an excess of ammonia is needed in this reaction to produce a high yield of the amine

8) When potassium hydroxide reacts with bromoethane, ethene can also be formed as well as ethanol.
a) What conditions are used to maximise the formation of the ethanol.
b) Explain why, other than safety, this method is not used in industry to make ethanol.
c) What conditions are used to maximise the formation of the ethene.
d) Name the mechanism for the reaction where the bromomethane forms ethene. Draw the mechanism
out with curly arrows. Explain what each of the arrows represents
e) Explain the role of the hydroxide ion in the reaction where the bromomethane forms ethene.

9) Consider the following reaction in which an alkene is formed from a halogenoalkane.

CH3CHBrCH2CH3 + KOH CH3CH=CHCH3 + KBr + H2O

a) Name the halogenoalkane used in this reaction.

b) What essential conditions must have been used for this reaction to occur?
c) Name and outline a mechanism for this reaction.
d) Draw structures for the E and Z stereoisomers of but-2-ene.
e) Another alkene, which is a structural isomer of but-2-ene, is also formed during this reaction.
(i) State what is meant by the term structural isomers.
(ii) State the type of structural isomerism shown by these two alkenes
(ii)Draw the structure of this other alkene.

10) Hot concentrated ethanolic potassium hydroxide reacts with 2-bromo-3-methylbutane to form two
alkenes that are structural isomers of each other. The major product is 2-methylbut-2-ene.

a) Name and outline a mechanism for the conversion of 2-bromo-3-methylbutane into 2-methylbut-2-
ene according to the equation.

(CH3)2CHCHBrCH3 + KOH (CH3)2C =CHCH3 + KBr + H2O

b) Draw and name the displayed formula for the other isomer that is formed.
c) State the type of structural isomerism shown by these two alkenes
d) A small amount of the Halogenoalkane undergoes the substitution reaction to form an alcohol. Draw
the skeletal formula of the alcohol and name it

11)* Nucleophilic substitution of halogenoalkanes can undergo two different mechanisms SN1 and SN2.
Outline the two different mechanisms and explain how the different mechanisms are favoured by
different types of halogenoalkanes

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Uses of halogenoalkanes

The halogenoalkanes have many uses although some have been phased out for environmental and safety
reasons

Solvents
Chloroalkanes and chlorofluoroalkanes can be used as solvents. Tetrachloromethane CCl4 was
a common non-polar solvent for use in the laboratory
CH3CCl3 was used as the solvent in dry cleaning. These have now largely
been phased out due to the toxicity of these compounds

Anaesthetics
Trichloromethane (Chloroform) CHCl3 was one of the first anaesthetics used in Victorian times but its
toxicity often result in patient death. Another anaesthetic used at the time was ether
(CH3CH2OCH2CH3). This was much less toxic but had a very high flammability. In the mid 20th century
another halogenoalkane ‘Halothane’ CF3CHBrCl was developed. This was much less flammable and
much less toxic than the previous anaesthetics used. Today Isoflurane CF3CHClOCHF2 and
Sevoflurane (CF3)2CHOCHF2 are used

CFC’s
Chlorofluorocarbons were used extensively in the late 20th century. They were non-toxic, non-
reactive liquids with low flammability. They had many uses including refrigerants, aerosol
propellants, and foaming agents for making expanded plastics such as those used in insulation and
packaging. The stability of the CFC’s caused an environmental problem because they once
released they lingered in the atmosphere. Eventually they diffused into the upper atmosphere. In
the upper atmosphere the were exposed to high levels of ultra-violet radiation which caused the
C–Cl bonds in chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) to break and form reactive free radicals. (The C-F bond
is much harder to break than the C-Cl bond.) The chlorine free radicals then destroyed the ozone
layer. This process is explored more on the next page.

Legislation to ban the use of CFCs was supported by chemists and they developed alternative
chlorine-free compounds. HFCs (Hydro fluoro carbons) were developed e.g. CH2FCF3 to replace
CFC’s. These are now used for refrigerators and air-conditioners. These are safer as they do not
contain the C-Cl bond so break down much more easily in the lower atmosphere where they do not
cause the same problem

CFC’s still concern us because CFCs are still entering the atmosphere from disused items and are still used
for some purposes and by some countries.CFCs have a long lifetime in the atmosphere and it takes a long
time for CFCs to reach upper atmosphere.

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The Ozone Layer

The naturally occurring ozone (O3) layer in the upper Ozone in the lower atmosphere
atmosphere is beneficial as it filters out much of the sun’s is a pollutant and contributes
harmful UV radiation towards the formation of smog

Ozone is continuously being formed and broken down

in the stratosphere by the action of ultraviolet radiation O + O2 O3
Ozone formation Ozone depletion
UV light causes an O2 molecule to split into free radicals This is the reverse of the formation reaction..
O2 + UV-light → O + O The energy is supplied by ultraviolet light
When the free radical hits another O2 molecule ozone O3 + ultraviolet light O2 + O
forms
O + O2 → O3 There is a continuous cycle of formation
and depletion of ozone
The frequency of ultra-violet light absorbed equals the rate of ozone formation = rate of ozone removal
frequency of biologically damaging ultra-violet radiation.
These reactions therefore filter out harmful UV from
So there is a constant amount of ozone in
reaching the Earth’s surface and allow life to survive on
earth.
the atmosphere
UV light can increase risk of skin cancer and increase
crop mutation.
Chlorine radicals are formed in the upper
Destruction of Ozone Layer atmosphere when energy from ultra-violet
radiation causes C–Cl bonds in
Radicals from CFCs, and NOx from thunderstorms or chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) to break. The
aircraft, may catalyse the breakdown of ozone C-F bond is much harder to break than
the C-Cl bond.

The chlorine free radical atoms catalyse the CF2Cl2 → CF2Cl + Cl

decomposition of ozone due to these reactions
because they are regenerated. (They provide an
alternative route with a lower activation energy)
.
Cl + O3
.
ClO + O2
.
ClO + O3 2O2 + Cl
.
They contributed to the formation of a hole in the
ozone layer. Overall equation
2 O3 3 O2

The regenerated Cl radical means

that one Cl radical could destroy
many thousands of ozone molecules

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 Ozone Layer.

1) a) What is the formula of Ozone?

b) Explain how ozone is formed in the atmosphere

c) What beneficial role does the Ozone layer provide for life on Earth?
2)a) Explain how chlorine atoms are formed from chlorine-containing organic compounds in the upper
atmosphere. Write an equation to show this process for a molecule of CF3Cl
b) Why does the C-Cl bond break rather than the C-F bond in the stratosphere?
3) What is a free radical?

4) a) Write two equations that show how chlorine atoms catalyse the decomposition of ozone into oxygen.

b) Explain why the chlorine atoms can be classed as a catalyst in the decomposition of ozone into oxygen.

c) Write the overall equation for the change specified in question 4a)

d) Explain why a small amount of CFC molecules can destroy many ozone molecules

5) One of the first substances used as an anaesthetic in medicine was chloroform (trichloromethane, CHCl3).
By 1950, halothane was in common use but by 1990 this had been replaced by more acceptable
anaesthetics such as desflurane.

CF3CHBrCl CF3CHFOCHF2
halothane desflurane
a) Give the IUPAC name for halothane
b) Calculate the Mr of halothane.
c) Calculate the percentage by mass of fluorine in halothane.
d) Give the types of intermolecular force present between molecules of liquid halothane
e) Show by using an equation how halothane could decompose to form free radicals in the atmosphere
f) Use the formulae of the two anaesthetics, halothane and desflurane, to help to explain why desflurane is
considered to be a more environmentally acceptable anaesthetic than halothane.

6) 3O2(g) 2O3(g) ΔH = +284 kJ mol–1

a) Use Le Chatelier’s principle to explain how an increase in temperature causes an increase in the
equilibrium yield of ozone.

b) Nitrogen monoxide (NO) catalyses the decomposition of ozone into oxygen.

Deduce Step 3 in the following mechanism that shows how nitrogen monoxide catalyses this
decomposition.
Step 1 O3 O + O2
Step 2 NO + O3 NO2 + O2
Step 3 ...................................................................................................................................

7) Chemists supported the legislation to ban the use of CFCs. Modern refrigerators use pentane rather
than CFCs as refrigerants. These belong to the class of refrigerants that cool by change of state (typically
by boiling).
(a) Suggest how these refrigerants cool by change of state.
(b) Describe characteristics or properties desirable in a refrigerant
(c) With reference to its formula, state why pentane is a more environmentally acceptable refrigerant.

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