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Real Analysis-1

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58 views3 pages

Real Analysis-1

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benulchenuka2
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Real Analysis – MA1014 - 2022 Batch

Chapter 0 – Methods of Proof


0.1 Mathematical Logic

In university level mathematics everything is based on precise statements and logical arguments,
therefore it is important to see how statements are written and claims are proven before starting a
lecture series in analysis. It will be assumed that students have a general idea of basic logical
operators like “and(∧)”, “or(∨)” , “not(∼)” and their truth tables.

Definition 0.1.1: " ⇒ " operator


Given 𝑝 and 𝑞 logical statements, the statement “ 𝑝 ⇒ 𝑞 ” is often read as “𝑝 implies 𝑞” or
“if 𝑝 then 𝑞” and is defined by the following truth table.

The meaning of writing “ 𝑝 ⇒ 𝑞 ” is that if 𝑝 is true then 𝑞 will be true. The direct proof
approach to proving the statement “ 𝑝 ⇒ 𝑞 ” is that you first assume that 𝑝 is true and then you
construct arguments to conclude that 𝑞 is true. As you assume 𝑝 at the beginning of the process,
the conclusion 𝑞 is not generally proved and what you have only proven is the conditional
statement “ 𝑝 ⇒ 𝑞 ” and you haven’t proven that 𝑞 𝑖𝑠 true, neither 𝑝. In fact, even after proving
“ 𝑝 ⇒ 𝑞 ” both 𝑝 and 𝑞 being false at the same time is still a possibility when you examine the
truth table.
Definition 0.1.2: If “ 𝑝 ⇒ 𝑞 ” and “ 𝑞 ⇒ 𝑝 ” both are true, we say “ 𝑝 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑞 " and
is symbolically denoted as “ 𝑝 ⇔ 𝑞 "
Theorem 0.1.1:

1
H H S R Samarasiri, PhD, Department of Mathematics, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka
Last updated: 05/03/2023 12:15
Real Analysis – MA1014 - 2022 Batch

If you closely look at the truth table, you will observe that if “ 𝑝 ⇒ 𝑞 ” is true and 𝑝 is true as well,
then the only possibility would be the case where 𝑞 is also true.
Also, you will notice that if “ 𝑝 ⇒ 𝑞 ” is true and 𝑞 is false, then 𝑝 being false is the only
possibility. This is called contraposition and is the basis for indirect proof methods “proof by
contrapositive” and “proof by contradiction”. So instead of proving “ 𝑝 ⇒ 𝑞 ” you can
equivalently prove "~𝑞 ⇒ ~𝑝". Which can be rigorously proved using truth tables.

Definition 0.1.3: Quantifiers


For all: ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑝(𝑥), which means that the logical statement 𝑝(𝑥) which involves 𝑥 is true for
each element 𝑥 in the set 𝐴. Here 𝑥 is a dummy variable and can be replaced with another
variable that is not being defined at another location.

There exists: ∃𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 such that 𝑝(𝑥), which means that the logical statement 𝑝(𝑥) is true for at
least one element 𝑥 in the set 𝐴.

To prove ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑝(𝑥) we construct an argument to show that 𝑝(𝑥) is true for an arbitrarily
defined element 𝑥(fixed or variable) in the set 𝐴.

To prove ∃𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑝(𝑥) we first find some element 𝑥 in the set 𝐴 and then prove that 𝑝(𝑥) is true.
It should be noted that once you select 𝑥, you cannot change it while proving 𝑝(𝑥) and that the
chosen 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 may depend on other quantities previously defined.

Manipulating nested structures: Will be explained in class.

Theorem 0.1.2

Circular argument: Will be explained in class.

2
H H S R Samarasiri, PhD, Department of Mathematics, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka
Last updated: 05/03/2023 12:15
Real Analysis – MA1014 - 2022 Batch

Examples
1. ∀𝑎 ∈ ℝ , [ (∀𝜖 > 0, 𝑎 < 𝜖) ⇔ 𝑎 ≤ 0]
2. ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ , ∃ 𝑦 ∈ ℝ ∶ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 + 1 = 0
3. ∀𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ , [ (𝑎 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0) ⟹ ( ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ , 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 > 0 ) ]

0.2 Mathematical Induction (revision)


Will be revised during the class.

3
H H S R Samarasiri, PhD, Department of Mathematics, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka
Last updated: 05/03/2023 12:15

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