torque can be provided is shown in the Fig.

1 in which the switch S after disconnecting from the supply is The resistance of the primary winding is very low, and the primary current is high. So this current is much
thrown to terminals 1'2'. The machine then gets connected to a non-inductive load resistance RL. The higher than the rated full load primary winding current. Hence, as a result, the amount of heat produced
power drawn by this resistance will acts as a retarding torque on the armature which will make it slow will be greater and therefore, eddy current loss (I2R) loss will be more. Because of this, the insulations of
more quickly. the primary windings will get burnt, and the transformer will be damaged.
The primary and the secondary currents are inversely proportional to their respective turns.
The additional loss in the resistance will be equal to product of ammeter reading and the average
Turn Ratio:
reading of the voltmeter (for a fall of 5% of voltmeter reading, the time is noted.) The ammeter reading is Behaviour of Ideal Transformer:
It is defined as the ratio of primary to secondary turns.
also changing so its average reading is taken. Thus the additional losses is Ia2 (Ra + R). Let t1 be the time Consider the ideal transformer shown in the figure below. The voltage source V 1is applied across the
when armature is considered alone and t2 be the time when armature is connected across a load resistance, primary winding of the transformer. Their secondary winding is kept open. The N1 and N2 are the
V be average voltage across R and Ia be the average current and W' is additional retarding electrical numbers of turns of their primary and secondary winding.
torque supplied by motor. Fig: Simple Transformer
If N2 > N1 the transformer is called Step up transformer The current Im is the magnetizing current flows through the primary winding of the transformer. The
If N2 < N1 the transformer is called Step down transformer magnetizing current produces the flux φm in the core of the transformer. As the permeability of the core is
When the AC supply is given to the primary winding with a voltage of V1, an alternating flux ϕ sets up in
the core of the transformer, which links with the secondary winding and as a result of it, an emf is induced infinite, the flux of the core link with both the primary and secondary winding of the transformer.
Transformation Ratio:
in it called Mutually Induced emf. The direction of this induced emf is opposite to the applied voltage V1,
The transformation ratio is defined as the ratio of the secondary voltage to the primary voltage. It is
this is because of the Lenz’s law shown in the figure below
denoted by K.
If dN i.e. change in speed is same in two cases then

As (E2 ∞ N2 and E1 ∞ N1)

Fig: Ideal Trasfomer
Ideal Transformer: The flux link with the primary winding induces the emf E1 because of self-induction. The direction of the
Definition: The transformer which is free from all types of losses is known as an ideal transformer. It is an induced emf is inversely proportional to the applied voltage V1. The emf E2 induces in the secondary
imaginary transformer which has no core loss, no ohmic resistance and no leakage flux. The ideal winding of the transformer because of mutual induction.\
transformer has the following important characteristic.
Fig: Transformer Symbol Phasor Diagram of Ideal Transformer:
Here dN/dt1 is rate of change in speed without extra load whereas dN/dt2 is rate change in speed with 1. The resistance of their primary and secondary winding becomes zero. The phasor diagram of the ideal transformer is shown in the figure below. As the coil of the primary
extra electrical load which provides retarding torque. 2. The core of the ideal transformer has infinite permeability. The infinite permeable means less
Physically, there is no electrical connection between the two windings, but they are magnetically transformer is purely inductive the magnetising current induces in the transformer lag 90º by the input
connected. Therefore, the electrical power is transferred from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit magnetising current requires for magnetising their core. voltage V1. The E1 and E2 are the emf induced in the primary and secondary winding of the transformer.
UNIT IV
through mutual inductance. The induced emf in the primary and secondary windings depends upon the 3. The leakage flux of the transformer becomes zero, i.e. the whole of the flux induces in the core of The direction of the induces emf inversely proportional to the applied voltage
SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERS rate of change of flux linkage that is (N dϕ/dt). the transformer links with their primary and secondary winding.
4. The ideal transformer has 100 percent efficiency, i.e., the transformer is free from hysteresis
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A TRANSFORMER: dϕ/dt is the change of flux and is same for both the primary and secondary windings. The induced emf E1 and eddy current loss.
The basic principle on which the transformer works is Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction or in the primary winding is proportional to the number of turns N1 of the primary windings (E1 ∞ N1).
Similarly induced emf in the secondary winding is proportional to the number of turns on the secondary The above mention properties are not possible in the practical transformer. In an ideal transformer, there
mutual induction between the two coils. The working of the transformer is explained below. The
transformer consists of two separate windings placed over the laminated silicon steel core. side. (E2 ∞ N2). is no power loss. Therefore, the output power is equal to the input power.
Transformer on DC supply:
As discussed above, the transformer works on AC supply, and it cannot work not DC supply. If the rated
The winding to which AC supply is connected is called primary winding and to which load is connected
DC voltage is applied across the primary winding, a constant magnitude flux will set up in the core of the
is called secondary winding as shown in the figure below. It works on the alternating current only because Phasor Diagram of an Ideal Transformer
transformer and hence there will not be any self-induced emf generation, as for the linkage of flux with
an alternating flux is required for mutual induction between the two windings.
the secondary winding there must be an alternating flux required and not a constant flux.
Point to Remember
According to Ohm’s Law The input energy of the transformer is equal to their output energy. The power loss in the ideal
transformer becomes zero.
Since El ∞ N2 and E1 ∞ N1, also E1 is similar to V1 and E2 is similar to V2
EMF EQUATION OF A TRANSFORMER:
Therefore, transformation ratio will be given by the equation shown below When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to the primary winding of a transformer, alternating flux ϕ m sets up
in the iron core of the transformer. This sinusoidal flux links with both primary and secondary winding.

92 | P a g e 93 | P a g e 94 | P a g e 95 | P a g e

The function of flux is a sine function. The rate of change of flux with respect to time is derived (To minimize this leakage reactance, primary and secondary windings are not placed on separate legs, Since the transformation ratio is K, primary resistive and reactive drop as referred to secondary side will
mathematically. refer the diagram of core type and shell type transformer from construction of transformer.) be K times, i.e., K I1R1 and K I1X1 respectively. If I1 is substituted equal to KI2 then we have primary
resistive and reactive drop referred to secondary side equal to K2I2R1 and K2I2X1 respectively.
The derivation of EMF Equation of the transformer is shown below. Let Similarly
Practical Transformer with Resistance and Leakage Reactance
 ϕm be the maximum value of flux in Weber In the following figure, leakage reactance and resistance of the primary winding as well as secondary
 f be the supply frequency in Hz winding are taken out, representing a practical transformer.
 N1 is the number of turns in the primary winding
 N2 is the number of turns in the secondary winding
Φ is the flux per turn in Weber
Now, equating the equation (8) and (9) we get

The Total resistive drop in a transformer

Fig; Practical Transformer with Resistance And Leakage Reactance Total reactive drop in a transformer
Fig: Flux waveform
The above equation is called the turn ratio where K is known as transformation ratio.
As shown in the above figure that the flux changes from + ϕm to – ϕm in half a cycle of 1/2f seconds. Where, R1 and R2 = resistance of primary and secondary winding respectively
The equation (8) and (9) can also be written as shown below using the relation
By Faraday’s Law X1 and X2 = leakage reactance of primary and secondary winding resp.
(ϕm = Bm x Ai) where Ai is the iron area and Bm is the maximum value of flux density. The term
Let E1 is the emf induced in the primary winding Z1 and Z2 = Primary impedance and secondary impedance resp.

Z1 = R1 + jX1 ...and Z2 = R2 + jX 2 . represent the equivalent resistance and reactance of the

For a sinusoidal wave transformer referred to the secondary side.
Where Ψ = N1ϕ
The impedance in each winding lead to some voltage drop in each winding. Considering this voltage drop
the voltage equation of transformer can be given as –
TRANSFORMER ON NO-LOAD CONDITION:
When the transformer is operating at no load, the secondary winding is open circuited, which means there
Since ϕ is due to AC supply ϕ = ϕm Sinwt V1 = E1 + I1(R1 + jX1 ) -------- primary side
is no load on the secondary side of the transformer and, therefore, current in the secondary will be zero,
Magnetic Leakage flux: V2 = E2 - I2(R2 + jX2 ) -------- secondary side
while primary winding carries a small current I0 called no load current which is 2 to 10% of the rated
In a transformer it is observed that, all the flux linked with primary winding does not get linked with current. This current is responsible for supplying the iron losses (hysteresis and eddy current losses) in the
secondary winding. A small part of the flux completes its path through air rather than through the core (as where, V1 = supply voltage of primary winding
core and a very small amount of copper losses in the primary winding. The angle of lag depends upon the
shown in the fig at right), and this small part of flux is called as leakage flux or magnetic leakage in V2 = terminal voltage of secondary winding
losses in the transformer. The power factor is very low and varies from 0.1 to 0.15.
transformers. This leakage flux does not link with both the windings, and hence it does not contribute to
transfer of energy from primary winding to secondary winding. But, it produces self induced emf in each E1 and E2 = induced emf in primary and secondary winding respectively.
So the induced emf lags flux by 90 degrees. winding. Hence, leakage flux produces an effect equivalent to an inductive coil in series with each
Maximum valve of emf winding. And due to this there will be leakage reactance. Resistance and Reactance of the Transformer:
The Resistance of the transformer is defined as the internal resistance of both primary and secondary
windings. In an actual transformer, the primary and the secondary windings have some resistance
But w = 2πf represented by R1 and R2 and the reactances by X1 and X2. Let K be the transformation ratio. To make
the calculations easy the resistances and reactances can be transferred to either side that means either all
Root mean square RMS value is the primary terms are referred to the secondary side, or all the secondary terms are referred to the primary Fig: Transformer is operating at no load
side.
The resistive and the reactive drops in the primary and secondary side are represented as follows The no load current consists of two components
 Resistive drop in the secondary side = I2R2  Reactive or magnetizing component Im
Putting the value of E1max in equation (6) we get  Reactive drop in the secondary side = I2X2 (It is in quadrature with the applied voltage V1. It produces flux in the core and does not consume
 Resistive drop in the primary side = I1R1 any power)
 Reactive drop in the primary side = I1X1  Active or power component Iw, also known as working component
Putting the value of π = 3.14 in the equation (7) we will get the value of E1 as Fig: Magnetic Leakage flux (It is in phase with the applied voltage V1. It supplies the iron losses and a small amount of
Primary Side Referred to Secondary Side primary copper loss)

96 | P a g e 97 | P a g e 98 | P a g e 99 | P a g e
 The following steps are given below to draw the phasor diagram Now, N1I1’ = N2I2  The resistance and the leakage reactance of the windings result in a voltage drop, and hence secondary
1. The function of the magnetizing component is to produce the magnetizing flux, and thus, it will terminal voltage V2 is the phasor difference of E2and voltage drop.
be in phase with the flux. V2 = E2 – voltage drops
2. Induced emf in the primary and the secondary winding lags the flux ϕ by 90 degrees. I2 R2 is in phase with I2 and I2X2 is in quadrature with I2.
3. The primary copper loss is neglected, and secondary current losses are zero as I2 = 0. Therefore, Therefore,  The total current flowing in the primary winding is the phasor sum of I1’ and I0.
the current I0 lags behind the voltage vector V1 by an angle ϕ0 called no-load power factor angle  Primary applied voltage V1 is the phasor sum of V1’ and the voltage drop in the primary winding.
shown in the phasor diagram above.  The phasor difference between V1 and I1 gives the power factor angle ϕ1 of the primary side of the  Current I1’ is drawn equal and opposite to the current I2
4. The applied voltage V1 is drawn equal and opposite to the induced emf E1 because the difference transformer. V1 = V1’ + voltage drop
between the two, at no load, is negligible.  The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type of load connected to the transformer. I1R1 is in phase with I1 and I1XI is in quadrature with I1.
5. Active component Iw is drawn in phase with the applied voltage V1.  If the load is inductive as shown in the above phasor diagram, the power factor will be lagging, and if the  The phasor difference between V1 and I1 gives the power factor angle ϕ1 of the primary side of the
6. The phasor sum of magnetizing current Im and the working current Iw gives the no load current I0. load is capacitive, the power factor will be leading.The total primary current I1 is the vector sum of the transformer.
current I0 and I1’. i.e  The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type of load connected to the transformer.
 If the load is inductive as shown in the above phasor diagram, the power factor will be lagging, and if the
load is capacitive, the power factor will be leading. Where I1R1 is the resistive drop in the primary
Fig: Operation of the Transformer on Load Condition
windings

 When the load is connected to the secondary of the transformer, the I2current flows through their
I2X2 is the reactive drop in the secondary winding
secondary winding. The secondary current induces the magnetomotive force N2I2 on the secondary Phasor Diagram of Transformer on Inductive Load:
winding of the transformer. This force set up the flux φ2 in the transformer core. The flux φ2 oppose the The phasor diagram of the actual transformer when it is loaded inductively is shown below
Phasor Diagram of Transformer on Capacitive Load
flux φ, according to Lenz’s law
The Transformer on Capacitive load (leading power factor load) is shown below in the phasor
diagram.

Fig: Phasor diagram drawn

TRANSFORMER ON LOAD CONDITION:

Fig: Operation of the Transformer on Load Condition
When the transformer is on loaded condition, the secondary of the transformer is connected to load. The
load can be resistive, inductive or capacitive. The current I2 flows through the secondary winding of the  As the flux φ2 opposes the flux φ, the resultant flux of the transformer decreases and this flux reduces the
transformer. The magnitude of the secondary current depends on the terminal voltage V 2 and the load induces EMF E1. Thus, the strength of the V1 is more than E1 and an additional primary current Phasor Diagram of the Transformer on Inductive Load
impedance. The phase angle between the secondary current and voltage depends on the nature of the load. I’1 drawn from the main supply. The additional current is used for restoring the original value of the flux
in the core of the transformer so that the V1 = E1. The primary current I’1 is in phase opposition with the Phasor Diagram of the Transformer on Capacitive Load
Steps to draw the phasor diagram
Operation of the Transformer on Load Condition secondary current I2. Thus, it is called the primary counter balancing current.
 Take flux ϕ a reference
 The additional current I’1 induces the magnetomotive force N1I’1. And this force set up the flux φ’1. The Steps to draw the phasor diagram at capacitive load
The Operation of the Transformer on Load Condition is explained below  Induces emf E1 and E2 lags the flux by 90 degrees.
direction of the flux is same as that of the φ and it cancels the flux φ2 which induces because of the MMF
 The component of the applied voltage to the primary equal and opposite to induced emf in the primary
N2I2  Take flux ϕ a reference
 When secondary of the transformer is kept open, it draws the no-load current from the main supply. The winding. E1 is represented by V1’.
 Induces emf E1 and E2 lags the flux by 90 degrees.
no-load current induces the magneto motive force N0I0 and this force set up the flux Φ in the core of the  Current I0 lags the voltage V1’ by 90 degrees.
 The component of the applied voltage to the primary equal and opposite to induced emf in the primary
 The power factor of the load is lagging. Therefore current I2 is drawn lagging E2 by an angle ϕ2.
transformer. The circuit of the transformer at no load condition is shown in the figure below. winding. E1 is represented by V1’.
 Current I0 lags the voltage V1’ by 90 degrees.
100 | P a g 100 | P a g e 101 | P a g e 102 | P a g e
e

 The power factor of the load is leading. Therefore current I2 is drawn leading E2 The terminal voltage V2 across the load is equal to the induced emf E2 in the secondary winding less The equivalent resistance referred to secondary side is given as If the secondary terminals of the transformer are open circuited or no load is connected to the secondary
 The resistance and the leakage reactance of the windings result in a voltage drop, and hence secondary voltage drop in the secondary winding. terminals, the no-load current flows through it. If the no current flows through the secondary terminals of
terminal voltage V2 is the phasor difference of E2and voltage drop. Primary reactance referred to secondary side is given as the transformer, the voltage drops across their resistive and reactive load become zero. The voltage drop
V2 = E2 – voltage drops Equivalent Circuit when all the Quantities are referred to Primary side: across the primary side of the transformer is negligible.
I2 R2 is in phase with I2 and I2X2 is in quadrature with I2. In this case to draw the equivalent circuit of the transformer all the quantities are to be referred to the
 Current I1’ is drawn equal and opposite to the current I2 primary as shown in the figure below The equivalent reactance referred to secondary side is given as If the transformer is fully loaded, i.e., the load is connected to their secondary terminal, the voltage drops
 The total current I1 flowing in the primary winding is the phasor sum of I1’ and I0. appear across it. The value of the voltage regulation should always be less for the better performance of
 Primary applied voltage V1 is the phasor sum of V1’ and the voltage drop in the primary winding. transformer.
V1 = V1’ + voltage drop No load current I0 is hardly 3 to 5% of full load rated current, the parallel branch consisting of resistance
I1R1 is in phase with I1 and I1XI is in quadrature with I1. R0 and reactance X0 can be omitted without introducing any appreciable error in the behavior of the
transformer under the loaded condition.
 The phasor difference between V1 and I1 gives the power factor angle ϕ1 of the primary side of the
Further simplification of the equivalent circuit of the transformer can be done by neglecting the parallel
transformer.
branch consisting R0 and X0. The simplified circuit diagram of the transformer is shown below
 The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type of load connected to the transformer.

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSFORMER: Fig: Circuit Diagram of Transformer when all the Secondary Quantities are Referred to Primary Side
The equivalent circuit diagram of any device can be quite helpful in predetermination of the behaviour of
The following are the values of resistance and reactance given below
the device under the various condition of operation. It is simply the circuit representation of the equation Fig: Equivalent Circuit of transformer
Secondary resistance referred to primary side is given as
describing the performance of the device.
From the circuit diagram shown above, the following conclusions are made
The simplified equivalent circuit of a transformer is drawn by representing all the parameters of the  The primary voltage of the transformer is always greater than the emf induces on the primary side. V1>E1
transformer either on the secondary side or on the primary side. The equivalent circuit diagram of the  The secondary terminal voltage at no load is always greater than the voltage at full load condition. E2>V2
The equivalent resistance referred to primary side is given as
transformer is shown below Fig: Simplified Equivalent Circuit Diagram of a Transformer By considering the above circuit diagram, the following equations are drawn

Secondary reactance referred to primary side is given as VOLTAGE REGULATION OF A TRANSFORMER:

Definition: The voltage regulation is defined as the change in the magnitude of receiving and sending the
voltage of the transformer. The voltage regulation determines the ability of the transformer to provide the
The equivalent reactance referred to primary side is given as constant voltage for variable loads. The approximate expression for the no-load secondary voltage for the different types of load is

When the transformer is loaded with continuous supply voltage, the terminal voltage of the transformer For inductive load:
varies. The variation of voltage depends on the load and its power factor.
Equivalent Circuit when all the Quantities are referred to Secondary side: Mathematically, the voltage regulation is represented as
The equivalent circuit diagram of the transformer is shown below when all the quantities are referred to the
Fig: Equivalent circuit diagram of a transformer secondary side.

Let the equivalent circuit of a transformer having the transformation ratio K = E2/E1

The induced emf E1 is equal to the primary applied voltage V1 less primary voltage drop.This voltage
causes current I0 no load current in the primary winding of the transformer. The value of no-load current
Where,
is very small, and thus, it is neglected. Hence, I1 = I1’. The no load current is further divided into two
E2 – secondary terminal voltage at no load
components called magnetizing current (Im) and working current (Iw).
V2 – secondary terminal voltage at full load

These two components of no-load current are due to the current drawn by a noninductive resistance
The voltage regulation by considering the primary terminal voltage of the transformer is expressed as,
R0 and pure reactance X0 having voltage E1 or (V1 – primary voltage drop). Fig: Circuit Diagram of Transformer When All the Primary Quantities are Referred to Secondary Side Where,

The secondary current I2 is The following are the values of resistance and reactance given below
Primary resistance referred to secondary side is given as Let us understand the voltage regulation by taking an example explained below

103 | P a g e 104 | P a g e 105 | P a g e 106 | P a g e

For Capacitive load: proper connection of the transformer. There are two types of polarity one is Additive, and another  If the reading of the V3 shows the addition of the value of V1 and V2 that is V2= V1+V2 the transformer is The value of no-load current is very small as compared to the full rated current. The copper loss occurs
is Subtractive. said to be connected in additive polarity. only on the primary winding of the transformer because the secondary winding is open. The reading of
 If the reading of the V3 is the subtraction of the readings of V1 and V2, then the transformer is said to be the wattmeter only represents the core and iron losses. The core loss of the transformer is same for all
Additive Polarity: In additive polarity the same terminals of the primary and the secondary windings of connected in subtractive or negative polarity. types of loads.
the transformer are connected
RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT: Calculation of open circuit test:
Subtractive Polarity: In subtractive polarity different terminals of the primary and secondary side of the
transformer are connected. This test is a verification that proper sizes of conductors have been used and that the joints have Let,
been made properly. Since this test is indicative in nature, there is no tolerance applicable to the measured W0 – wattmeter reading
Explanation with Connection Diagram: resistances. Resistances of the windings are measured by using 'Resistance Bridge'. V1 – voltmeter reading
Each of the terminals of the primary as well as the secondary winding of a transformer is alternatively I0 – ammeter reading
positive and negative with respect to each other as shown in the figure below. Let A 1 and A2 be the This test also serves two other important testing functions:
positive and negative terminal respectively of the transformer primary and a1, a2 are the positive and (a) The measured resistance is used for obtaining I2 R, which is used in the 'Load loss' test. Then the iron loss of the transformer Pi = W0 and
ALL DAY EFFICIENCY OF A TRANSFORMER:
negative terminal of the secondary side of the transformer. (b) Measurements of cold resistance and hot resistance are used for calculation of temperature rise of
Definition: All day efficiency means the power consumed by the transformer throughout the day. It is windings during the Temperature Rise Test.
defined as the ratio of output power to the input power in kWh or Wh of the transformer over 24 hours. If A1 is connected to a1 and A2 is connected to a2 that means similar terminals of the transformer are The no-load power factor is
connected, then the polarity is said to be additive. If A1 is connected to a2 and A2 to a1, that means the The measurement of resistance is done at room temperature but corrected to a reference temperature
Mathematically, it is represented as opposite terminals are connected to each other, and thus the voltmeter will read the subtractive polarity. which is 20 degrees higher than the temperature class of the unit. For example : the reference temperature
is 75 0C for 55 0C rise oil-filled units, or is 85 0C for 65 0C rise units. For dry type transformers the
typical rises are 800C, 115 0C and 150 0C.
OPEN CIRCUIT AND SHORT CIRCUIT TEST ON TRANSFORMER
The open circuit and short circuit test are performed for determining the parameter of the transformer like
their efficiency, voltage regulation, circuit constant etc. These tests are performed without the actual
All day efficiency of the transformer depends on their load cycle. The load cycle of the transformer means loading and because of this reason the very less power is required for the test. The open circuit and the Working component Iw is
the repetitions of load on it for a specific period. short circuit test gives the very accurate result as compared to the full load test.

Open Circuit Test:

The ordinary or commercial efficiency of a transformer define as the ratio of the output power to the input Putting the value of W0 from the equation (1) in equation (2) you will get the value of working
power. The purpose of the open circuit test is to determine the no-load current and losses of the transformer component as
because of which their no-load parameter are determined. This test is performed on the primary winding
of the transformer. The wattmeter, ammeter and the voltage are connected to their primary winding. The
Fig: Polarity test nominal rated voltage is supplied to their primary winding with the help of the ac source.
Magnetizing component is
What is the need of All Day Efficiency? It is essential to know the relative polarities at any instant of the primary and the secondary terminals for
Some transformer efficiency cannot be judged by simple commercial efficiency as the load on certain making the correct connections if the transformers are to be connected in parallel or they are used in a
transformer fluctuates throughout the day. For example, the distribution transformers are energised for 24 three phase circuit. No load parameters are given below
hours, but they deliver very light loads for the major portion of the day, and they do not supply rated or
full load, and most of the time the distribution transformer has 50 to 75% load on it. In the primary side, the terminals are marked as A1 and A2 and from the secondary side the terminals are Equivalent exciting resistance is
As we know, there are various losses in the transformer such as iron and copper loss. The iron loss takes named as a1 and a2. The terminal A1 is connected to one end of the secondary winding, and a voltmeter is
place in the core of the transformer. Thus, the iron or core loss occurs for the whole day in the distribution connected between A2 and the other end of the secondary winding.
transformer. The second type of loss known as copper loss takes place in the windings of the transformer
also known as the variable loss. It occurs only when the transformers are in the loaded condition. When the voltmeter reads the difference that is (V1 – V2), the transformer is said to be connected with Equivalent exciting reactance is
Hence, the performance of such transformers cannot be judged by the commercial or ordinary efficiency, opposite polarity know as Subtractive polarity and when the voltmeter reads (V 1 + V2), the transformer is
but the efficiency is calculated or judged by All Day Efficiency also known as operational efficiency or said to have additive polarity. Fig: Circuit Diagram of Open Circuit Test on Transformer
energy efficiency which is computed by energy consumed during 24 hours.
The iron losses measured by the open circuit test are used for calculating the efficiency of the transformer.
Steps to Perform Polarity Test: The secondary winding of the transformer is kept open and the voltmeter is connected to their terminal.
POLARITY TEST OF TRANSFORMER:  Connect the circuit as shown in the above circuit diagram figure and set the autotransformer to zero This voltmeter measures the secondary induced voltage. As the secondary of the transformer is open the
Polarity means the direction of the induced voltages in the primary and the secondary winding of the position. no-load current flows through the primary winding.
transformer. If the two transformers are connected in parallel, then the polarity should be known for the  Switch on the single phase supply
 Records the values of the voltages as shown by the voltmeter V1, V2 and V3.

107 | P a g e 108 | P a g e 109 | P a g e 110 | P a g e

Determination of Iron Loss

The wattmeter W1 measures the power loss which is equal to the iron loss of the transformer. For
determining the iron loss, the primary circuit of the transformer is kept closed. Because of the primary
Equivalent resistance referred to secondary side is closed circuit, no current flows through the secondary windings of the transformer. The secondary
Short Circuit Test:
The short circuit test is performed for determining the below mention parameter of the transformer. winding behaves like an open circuit. The wattmeter is connected to their secondary terminal for the
measurement of iron loss.
 It determines the copper loss occur on the full load. The copper loss is used for finding the efficiency Equivalent impedance referred to the secondary side is given by
of the transformer. Determination of Copper Loss
The copper loss of the transformer is determined when the full load current flows through their primary
 The equivalent resistance, impedance, and leakage reactance are known by the short circuit test.
The short circuit test is performed on the secondary or high voltage winding of the transformer. The and secondary windings. The additional regulating transformer is used for exciting the secondary
measuring instrument like wattmeter, voltmeter and ammeter are connected to the High voltage The Equivalent reactance referred to the secondary side is given by windings. The full load current flows from the secondary to the primary winding. The wattmeter
winding of the transformer. Their primary winding is short circuited by the help of thick strip or W2 measures the full load copper loss of the two transformers.
ammeter which is connected to their terminal. The above figure shows that the terminal B and C are connected to each other, and the voltage is
The voltage regulation of the transformer can be determined at any load and power factor after knowing
PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMERS
measured across the terminal A and D.
The low voltage source is connected across the secondary winding because of which the full load current the values of Zes and Res. Sometimes, it becomes necessary to connect more than one transformer’s in parallel, for example, for
flows from both the secondary and the primary winding of the transformer. The full load current is Finding Losses with Sumpner's Test on Transformer supplying excess load of the rating of existing transformer. If two or more transformers are connected to a
measured by the ammeter connected across their secondary winding. In the short circuit test the wattmeter record, the total losses including core loss but the value of core loss The secondaries of the transformer are so connected that their potentials are in opposition to each other. same supply on the primary side and to a same load on the secondary side, then it is called as parallel
are very small as compared to copper loss so, the core loss can be neglected. This would so if VAB = VCD and A is joined to C whilst B is joined to D. In that case, there would be no operation of transformers.
The circuit diagram of the short circuit test is shown below secondary current flowing around the loop formed by the two secondaries. T is an auxiliary low-voltage
BACK-TO-BACK TEST (SUMPNER’S TEST) ON TRANSFORMER transformer [Regulation Transformer].which can be adjusted to give a variable voltage and hence current Necessity of Parallel Operation of Transformers:
in the secondary loop circuit. By proper adjustment of T, full-load secondary current I2 can be made to Why parallel operation of transformers is needed?
Definition: The full load test on a small transformer is very convenient, but on the large transformer, it is
flow as shown. It is seen, that I2 flows from D to C and then from A to B. Flow of I1 is confined to the  Increased Load: When load is increased and it exceeds the capacity of existing transformer,
very difficult. The maximum temperature rise in a large transformer is determined by the full load test.
loop FEJLGHMF and it does not pass through W1. Hence, W1continues to read the core loss and another transformer may be connected in parallel with the existing transformer to supply the
This test is called, back-to-back test, regenerative test or Sumpner’s test.
W2 measures full-load Cu loss (or at any other load current value I2). Obviously, the power taken in is increased load.
twice the losses of a single transformer.  Non-availability of large transformer: If a large transformer is not available which can meet the
The suitable load which absorbs the full load power of a large transformer will not easily be available. total requirement of load, two or more small transformers can be connected in parallel to increase
Hence a large amount of energy will be wasted. The back-to-back test determines the maximum i.e. copper loss per transformer PCu = W2/2. the capacity.
temperature rise in a transformer, and hence the load is chosen according to the capability of the i.e. iron loss per transformer Pi = W1/2.  Increased reliability: If multiple transformers are running in parallel, and a fault occurs in one
transformer. transformer, then the other parallel transformers still continue to serve the load. And the faulty
transformer can be taken out for the maintenance.
Fig: Circuit Diagram of Short Circuit Test on Transformer Back to Back Test Circuit: From results of sumpner's test, the full load efficiency of each transformer can be given as  Transportation is easier for small transformers: If installation site is located far away, then
The two identical transformers are used for the back to back test. Consider the T r1and Tr2 are the primary transportation of smaller units is easier and may be economical.
The low voltage source is applied across the secondary winding which is approximately 5 to 10% of the windings of the transformer connected parallel to each other. The nominal rated voltage and frequency is
normal rated voltage. The flux is set up in the core of the transformer. The magnitude of the flux is small supplied to their primary winding. The voltmeter and ammeter are connected on their primary side for the Conditions for parallel operation of Transformers:
as compared to the normal flux. measurement of the input voltage and current. There are various conditions that must fulfill for the successful operation of transformers as follows.
The secondary winding of the transformer is connected in series with the each other but with opposite 1. The line voltage ratio of two transformers must be equal.
The iron loss of the transformer depends on the flux. It is less occur in the short circuit test because of the polarity. The voltmeter V2 is connected to the terminal of the secondary winding for the measurement of Advantages of Sumpner's Test 2. The per unit impedance of each transformer should be equal and they should have same ratio of
low value of flux. The reading of the wattmeter only determines the copper loss occur on their windings. the voltage. 1. Low power is required to conduct this test. Because no external load is connecting equivalent leakage reactance to the equal resistance(X/R).
The voltmeter measures the voltage applied to their high voltage winding. The secondary current induces The series opposition of the secondary winding is determined by connecting there any two terminals; the 2. Full load copper losses and iron losses of both transformers determined. 3. The transformers should have same secondary winding polarity.
in the transformer because of the applied voltage. voltmeter is connected across their remaining terminals. If it is connected in series opposition, the 3. Increase in transformer temperature can be found. 4. The Transformers should have same phase sequence (Three phase transformer)
voltmeter gives the zero reading. The open terminal is used for measuring the parameter of the 5. The transformers should have the zero relative phase replacement between the secondary line
transformer. Determination of Temperature Rise voltages.(Three phase transformers)
Calculation of Short Circuit Test
Let, The temperature rise of the transformer is determined by measuring the temperature of their oil after
Wc – Wattmeter reading every particular interval of time. The transformer is operating back to back for the long time which 1) The line voltage ratios of the two transformers must be equal
V2sc – voltmeter reading increases their oil temperature. By measuring the temperature of their oil the withstand capacity of the This condition is used to avoid the inequality EMF induction at the two secondary windings. If the two
I2sc – ammeter reading transformer under high temperature is determined. transformers connected in parallel have slightly different voltage ratios, then due the inequality of induced
emfs in the secondary voltages, a circulating current will flow in a loop format in the secondary windings.
Then the full load copper loss of the transformer is given by This current is greater than the no load current and will be quite high due to less leakage impedance

111 | P a g e 112 | P a g e 113 | P a g e 114 | P a g e

 UNIT V the supply is maintained by this type of connection. These are used in mines because easier to transport Shell Type Construction: Likewise, in three phase system where any two conductors acts as return for the current in third
individual single phase transformers. In shell type, three phases are more independent because each phase has independent magnetic circuit conductor, any two legs acts as a return path of the flux for the third leg if the center leg is removed in
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS compared with core type transformer. The construction is similar to the single phase shell type case of three phase transformer. Therefore, while designing the three phase transformer, this principle is
transformer built on top of another. The magnetic circuits of this type of transformer are in parallel. Due used.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
to this, the saturation effects in common magnetic paths are neglected. However, shell type constructed These fluxes induce the secondary EMFs in respective phase such that they maintain their phase angle
Three phase transformers are more economical for supplying large loads and large power distribution.
transformers are rarely used in practice. between them. These EMFs drives the currents in the secondary and hence to the load. Depends on the
Even though most of the utilization equipments are connected by the single phase transformers, these are
type of connection used and number of turns on each phase, the voltage induced will be varied for
not preferred for large power distribution in the aspect of economy.
obtaining step-up or step-down of voltages.

The three phase power is used in almost all fields of electrical power system such as power generation,
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS:
transmission and distribution sectors, also all the industrial sectors are supplied or connected with three
phase system. Therefore, to step-up (or increase) or step-down (or decrease) the voltages in the three Three phase transformer connections in three phase system, the three phases can be connected in either
phase systems, three phase transformers are used. As compared with the single phase transformer, there star or delta configuration. In case you are not familiar with those configurations, study the following
are numerous advantages with 3 phase transformer such as smaller and lighter to construct for the same image which explains star and delta configuration. In any of these configurations, there will be a phase
power handling capacity, better operating characteristics, etc. difference of 120° between any two phases.
Fig: Three phase transformer

Instead of using three single phase transformers, a three phase bank can be constructed with a single three
phase transformer consisting of six windings on a common multi-legged core. Due to this single unit,
weight as well as the cost is reduced as compared to three units of the same rating and also windings, the
amount of iron in the core and insulation materials are saved. Space required to install a single unit is less
compared with three unit bank. But the only disadvantage with single unit three phase transformer is if the Fig: Shell Type
fault occurs in any one of the phase, then entire unit must be removed from the service.
Working of Three Phase Transformers:
Construction of Three Phase Transformers: Consider the below figure in which the primary of the transformer is connected in star fashion on the
A three phase transformer can be constructed by using common magnetic core for both primary and cores. For simplicity, only primary winding is shown in the figure which is connected across the three
secondary windings. As we discussed in the case of single phase transformers, construction can be core phase AC supply. The three cores are arranged at an angle of 120 degrees to each other. The empty leg of
type or shell type. So for a bank of three phase core type transformer, three core type single phase each core is combined in such that they form center leg as shown in figure.
transformers are combined. Similarly, a bank of three phase shell type transformer is get by properly
combining three shell type single phase transformers. In a shell type transformer, EI laminated core
surrounds the coils whereas in core type coil surrounds the core.

Core Type Construction: Three Phase Transformer Connections

In core type three phase transformer, core is made up of three limbs or legs and two yokes. The magnetic Windings of a three phase transformer can be connected in various configurations as (i) star-star, (ii)
Fig: Three Phase Transformer path is formed between these yokes and limbs. On each limb both primary and secondary windings are delta-delta, (iii) star-delta, (iv) delta-star, (v) open delta and (vi) Scott connection. These configurations
wounded concentrically. Circular cylindrical coils are used as the windings for this type of transformer. are explained below.
Three phase transformers are used to step-up or step-down the high voltages in various stages of power The primary and secondary windings of one phase are wounded on one leg. Under balanced condition, the Star-Star (Y-Y)
transmission system. The power generated at various generating stations is in three phase nature and the magnetic flux in each phase of the leg adds up to zero. Therefore, under normal conditions, no return leg  Star-star connection is generally used for small, high-voltage transformers. Because of star
voltages are in the range of 13.2KV or 22KV. In order to reduce the power loss to the distribution end, the is needed. But in case of unbalanced loads, high circulating current flows and hence it may be best to use connection, number of required turns/phase is reduced (as phase voltage in star connection is 1/√3
power is transmitted at somewhat higher voltages like 132 or 400KV. Hence, for transmission of the three single phase transformers. times of line voltage only). Thus, the amount of insulation required is also reduced.
Fig: Working of Three Phase Transformer
power at higher voltages, three phase step-up transformer is used to increase the voltage. Also at the end  The ratio of line voltages on the primary side and the secondary side is equal to the transformation
of the transmission or distribution, these high voltages are step-down to levels of 6600, 400, 230 volts, ratio of the transformers.
etc. For this, a three phase step down transformer is used. Working of a transformer:  Line voltages on both sides are in phase with each other.
A three phase transformer can be built in two ways; a bank of three single phase transformers or single When the primary is excited with the three phase supply source, the currents IR, IY and IB are starts  This connection can be used only if the connected load is balanced.
unit of three phase transformer. flowing through individual phase windings. These currents produce the magnetic fluxes ΦR, ΦY and ΦB
in the respective cores. Since the center leg is common for all the cores, the sum of all three fluxes are Delta-Delta (Δ-Δ)
The former one is built by suitably connecting three single phase transformers having same ratings and carried by it. In three phase system, at any instant the vector sum of all the currents is zero. In turn, at the  This connection is generally used for large, low-voltage transformers. Number of required
Fig: Core Type transformer instant the sum of all the fluxes is same. Hence, the center leg doesn’t carry any flux at any instant. So
operating characteristics. In this case if the fault occurs in any one of the transformers, the system still phase/turns is relatively greater than that for star-star connection.
retained at reduced capacity by other two transformers with open delta connection. Hence, continuity of even if the center leg is removed it makes no difference in other conditions of the transformer.  The ratio of line voltages on the primary and the secondary side is equal to the transformation ratio
of the transformers.
116 | P a g e 117 | P a g e 118 | P a g e 119 | P a g e

 This connection can be used even for unbalanced loading. The illustration shows how an open delta transformer is connected. On both the primary and secondary
 Another advantage of this type of connection is that even if one transformer is disabled, system can THREE PHASE TO SIX PHASE CONVERSION there are only two windings. Even in this configuration, it is still possible to transform a three phase VA=3VLIph
continue to operate in open delta connection but with reduced available capacity. voltage. And for the open delta connection:
Star-Delta OR Wye-Delta (Y-Δ) In certain applications like thyristors and rectifiers six phase supply is required. Therefore it
 The primary winding is star (Y) connected with grounded neutral and the secondary winding is becomes necessary to convert three phase a.c. supply into six phase. By using three identical single phase VA= Iph
delta connected. transformers suitably interconnected this can be achieved. The primary winding is connected in delta
 This connection is mainly used in step down transformer at the substation end of the transmission whereas its secondary winding is split up into two halves. Thus conversion from 3 phase to six phase can Taking the ratio of open delta to closed delta power, gives:
line. be obtained by having two similar secondary windings for each of the primaries of the three phase
 The ratio of secondary to primary line voltage is 1/√3 times the transformation ratio. transformer. This is showing in the Fig. 1. =0.577(or 57.7%)
 There is 30° shift between the primary and secondary line voltages. Open delta transformers are three phase devices, with only two windings on each of the primary and
The three phase supply is given to primaries of the three transformers and six phase output can be secondary sides. While cheaper than a conventional three winding transformer, the open delta will only
Delta-Star OR Delta-Wye (Δ-Y) obtained from the six secondaries as shown. There are many ways of connecting these secondaries. Some deliver 57.7% of the power of a conventional transformer (not two thirds, 66.7% as may be expected).
 The primary winding is connected in delta and the secondary winding is connected in star with of them are i) double delta ii) double star iii) dimetrical. The dimetrical connection is generally used in There is limited adoption of open delta transformers, although they can be useful in certain situations.
neutral grounded. Thus it can be used to provide 3-phase 4-wire service. practice.
Open Delta Transformer
 This type of connection is mainly used in step-up transformer at the beginning of transmission line. Power Factor with Two Transformers in 3-Phase Open-Delta Configuration:
 The ratio of secodary to primary line voltage is √3 times the transformation ratio.
Open delta transforms are not the commonly used. Typically they would be used for small loads where
 There is 30° shift between the primary and secondary line voltages. The power factor of a typical T/F is 0.866, so the max output (KVA) of a T/F will be 86.6% of its rated
cost is important. Alternatively, they could be used as an emergency measure, should one winding only
of a transformer fail. capacity. Suppose we have three transformers each having the same rating (50 KVA). Then the total
Above transformer connection configurations are shown in the following figure. capacity is equal to 150 * 0.866=130 KVA and not 150 KVA. (The factor 0.866 is called the Utility
Sometimes you may hear an open delta transformer referred to as a V-connection transformer.
Factor.)
Power Delivered:
Sometimes the power delivered by an open delta transformer is compared to that of an equivalent three If one transformer is removed, the total output of two T/Fs will be 100 * 0.866=86.6 KVA. From this
winding transformer. Typically figures like having 57.7% of the capacity of an equivalent three winding calculation, we see that output capacity is reduced when a Delta-Delta configuration is operated as an
transformer or 87% of two transformers (same winding size) are quoted. While you can think of the Open-Delta connection, i.e. with one T/F removed.
transformer in this manner, it is more fruitful not to consider comparisons but to the necessary
calculations on the open delta transformer. Let say the two T/Fs of Open-Delta configuration are supplying 3-phase power to a load having power
factor Cosα. The power factor of one T/F is Cos(30-α) and the other is Cos(30+α).

Power (T/F1)=KVA Cos(30-α) and

Power(T/F2)= KVACos(30+α)

 Case (i): When phase angle (α=0) is zero, mean load p.f=1 - each transformer has power factor =
Cos30 = 0.866
 Case (ii):When phase angle is 30(α=30), mean load p.f=0.866, one T/F will have p.f of cos(30-30) =
Cos0 = 1 and the other will be operating at p.f of Cos(30+30) = Cos60 = 0.866
 Case(iii):When phase angle is 60 (α=60), mean load p.f=0.5, then one T/F will have p.f of Cos(30-60)
= 0.866 and other will have a p.f of Cos(30+60) = Cos90 = 0.

From the third scenario we conclude that if we have a transformer Open-Delta configuration in which one
Fig. 1 The double delta connection
T/F is transferring power to an entire load at a p.f of 0.866, then the other one will not provide any load.

Applications of Open-Delta configurations:

 Widely used for small 3-phase loads.
Consider the illustration, showing the output from both a close delta and open delta transformer. Note,  Used in applications where the current load is less, and may increase in future.
that in the delta connection to line current is √3 times the phase current, whereas in the open delta, they  There is no relative shift in output, so can be used for unbalanced loads and where harmonics are
are the same. involved.
Fig: Three phase transformer connections
The transformer output power (in VA) is for a balanced transformer system for the closed delta
connection (using phase current), this give:

120 | P a g e 121 | P a g e 124 | P a g e 125 | P a g e

 The D divides the primary BC of the main transformers into two halves and hence the number of turns in Thus, the secondaries of both transformers should have equal voltage ratings.The V2t and V2m are equal in 3. The Scott-T connection is used to link a 3-phase system with a two–phase system with the flow of
SCOTT CONNECTION OF TRANSFORMERS: portion BD = the number of turns in portion DC = T p/2.The voltage VBD and VDC are equal, and they are magnitude and 90º apart in time; they result in the balanced 2-phase system. power in either direction.
Definition: The Scott-T Connection is the method of connecting two single phase transformer to perform in phase with VBC.
the 3-phase to 2-phase conversion and vice-versa. The two transformers are connected electrically but not Position of Neutral Point (N) The Scott-T connection permits conversions of a 3-phase system to a two-phase system and vice versa.
magnetically. One of the transformers is called the main transformer, and the other is called the auxiliary But since 2-phase generators are not available, the converters from two phases to three phases are not
The primary of the two transformers may have a four wire connection to a 3-phase supply if the tapping N used in practice.
or teaser transformer.
is provided on the primary of the teaser transformer such that
The voltage between A and D is
The figure below shows the Scott-T transformer connection. The main transformer is centre tapped at D AUTOTRANSFORMER
and is connected to the line B and C of the 3-phase side. It has primary BC and secondary a1a2. The teaser The voltage across AN = VAN = phase voltage = Vl/√3.
transformer is connected to the line terminal A and the centre tapping D. It has primary AD and the A Transformer, in which a part of the winding is common to both the Primary and Secondary circuit,
secondary b1b2 Since the voltage across the portion AD. is called an Auto Transformer. It shall be noted that in Two Winding Transformer, Primary and
Secondary windings are electrically isolated but in Auto Transformer, the two windings are not
electrically isolated.

Why do we need to go for Auto Transformer?

The teaser transformer has the primary voltage rating that is √3/2 or 0.866 of the voltage ratings of the We have some advantages of auto-transformer over normal two winding transformers.
main transformer. Voltage VAD is applied to the primary of the teaser transformer and therefore the the voltage across the portion ND
secondary of the voltage V2tof the teaser transformer will lead the secondary terminal voltage V 2m of the 1. Autotransformers usually smaller in size, because one winding is eliminated.
main transformer by 90º as shown in the figure below. 2. As size is small cost also low(so cheap in cost)
3. As the winding is same so leakage reactance will be less.
4. Increased kVA rating.

The same voltage turn in portion AN, ND and AD are shown by the equations, PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF AUTOTRANSFORMER:
The principle of operation of the transformer is the same as the one of the common transformer, and then
the relation between input and output voltages and input and output currents and the ratio of number of
turns between the primary and the secondary winding is the same.

The currents of the primary and secondary windings are flowing on the opposite directions, so the total
current flowing through the common part of the winding is equal to the difference between the current on
the low-voltage winding and the current on the high-voltage winding.
The identical, interchangeable transformers are used for Scott-T connection in which each transformer has
a primary winding of Tp turns and is provided with tapping at 0.289Tp , 0.5Tpand 0.866 Tp. A simplified diagram of a Step-down Auto Transformer is shown in figure below.

Fig: secondary Phasor diagram

Phasor Diagram of Scott Connection Transformer
The line voltages of the 3-phase system VAB, VBC, and VCA which are balanced are shown in the figure
below. The same voltage is shown as a closed equilateral triangle. The figure below shows the primary Then,
windings of the main and the teaser transformer. The equation above shows that the neutral point N divides the primary of the teaser transformer in ratio.

AN : ND = 2 : 1

Applications of Scott Connection:

The following are the applications of the Scott-T connection.

1. The Scott-T connection is used in an electric furnace installation where it is desired to operate two
single-phase together and draw the balanced load from the three-phase supply.
2. It is used to supply the single phase loads such as electric train which are so scheduled as to keep
For keeping the voltage per turn same in the primary of the main transformer and the primary of the teaser
the load on the three phase system as nearly as possible. Fig: Auto transformer
transformer, the number of turns in the primary of the teaser transformer should be equal to √3/2T p.

126 | P a g e 127 | P a g e 128 | P a g e 129 | P a g e

we have 1. Off-load tap changing transformer

Transformed VA = VAB IAB V1 = E1 + I1(r1 + jxl1) − (I2 − I1)(r2 + jxl2) 2. On-load tap changing transformer

= (V1-V2) I1 .....................................(2) Note that the resistance r1 and leakage reactance xl1 refer to that part of the winding where only the Off-load tap-changing transformer:
primary current flows. Similarly on the load side
In this method, the transformer is disconnected from the main supply when the tap setting is to be
Now, total VA input = V1 I1 we have,
changed. The tap setting is usually done manually. The off load tap changing transformer is shown in the
E2 = V2 + (I2 − I1)(r2 + jxl2)
figure below
Therefore,
The voltage ratio V1 : V2 = E1 : E2 = T1 : T2 = a where T1 is the total turns of the primary. Then E1 =
Transformed VA / Input VA = [(V1-V2) I1] / V1I1 aE2 and I2 = aI1

= 1 – V2/V1 The magnetization branch can now be hung across the mains for completeness. The above equivalent
circuit can now be compared with the approximate equivalent circuit of a two winding case Re = r1 + a 2
= 1-k r2 and Xe = xl1 + a 2xl2. Thus in the case of an auto transformer total value of the short circuit
impedance is lower and so also the percentage resistance and reactance. Thus the full load regulation is
Thus we see that out of total input VA, only a part of it is transformed by Transformer action and lower. Having a smaller value of short circuit impedance is sometimes considered to be a disadvantage.
remaining is therefore transferred by conduction. That is because the short circuit currents become very large in those cases. The efficiency is higher in
auto transformers compared to their two winding counter part at the same load. The phasor diagram of
Fig: Phasor Diagram
So, operation for the auto transformer drawing a load current at a lagging power factor angle of θ2 is shown
in Fig. 32. The magnetizing current is omitted here again for simplicity. On-load tap-changing transformer:
Conducted VA = Total Input – Transformed VA
Advantages of Auto transformer:
 Less costly In order that the supply may not be interrupted, on-load tap changing transformer is used. Such a
 Better regulation transformer is known as a tap-changing under load transformer. While tapping, two essential conditions
= V1I1 – (V1-V2) I1 ............................ From equation (1)
 Low losses as compared to ordinary two winding transformer of the same rating. are to be fulfilled.

= V2I1
So, Disadvantages of Auto transformer:  The load circuit should not be broken to avoid arcing and prevent the damage of contacts.
There are various advantages of the auto transformer, but then also one major disadvantage, why auto  No parts of the windings should be short–circuited while adjusting the tap.
Conducted VA / Input VA = V2I1/ V1I1 transformer is not widely used, is that

= V2/V1= k  The secondary winding is not insulated from the primary winding.
Thus in an Auto Transformer, a part of input power is delivered to the load by Transformer action while If an auto transformer is used to supply low voltage from a high voltage and there is a break in the
the remaining is by conduction method. Power transfer because of conduction method is possible in Auto secondary winding, the full primary voltage comes across the secondary terminal which is dangerous
Transformer because a part of winding is common to both the primary as well as secondary circuit. to the operator and the equipment. So the auto transformer should not be used to for interconnecting
high voltage and low voltage system.
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF AUTOTRANSFORMER: Fig: Equivalent Circuit  Used only in the limited places where a slight variation of the output voltage from input voltage is
From the foregoing study it is seen that there are several advantages in going in for the autotransformer required.
type of arrangement. The voltage/current transformation and impedance conversion aspects of a two
winding transformer are retained but with lesser material (and hence lesser weight) used. The losses are Applications of Auto transformer:
reduced increasing the efficiency. Reactance is reduced resulting in better regulation characteristics. All  It is used as a starter to give upto 50 to 60% of full voltage to the stator of a squirrel cage induction
these benefits are enhanced as the voltage ratio approaches unity. The price that is required to be paid is motor during starting.
loss of electrical isolation and a larger short circuit current (and larger short circuit forces on the winding).  It is used to give a small boost to a distribution cable, to correct the voltage drop.
 It is also used as a voltage regulator
 Used in power transmission and distribution system and also in the audio system and railways. The tap changing employing a center tapped reactor R show in the figure above. Here S is the diverter
switch, and 1, 2, 3 are selector switch. The transformer is in operation with switches 1 and S closed. To
TAP-CHANGING TRANSFORMERS change to tap 2, switch S is opened, and 2 is closed. Switch 1 is then opened, and S closed to complete the
Fig: Auto transformer on load The change of voltage is affected by changing the numbers of turns of the transformer provided with taps. tap change. It is to be noted that the diverter switch operates on load, and no current flows in the selector
For sufficiently close control of voltage, taps are usually provided on the high voltage windings of the switches during tap changing. During the tap change only half of the reactance which limits the
As mentioned earlier the magnetizing current can be neglected, for simplicity. Writing the Kirchoff’s transformer. There are two types of tap-changing transformers
equation to the primary and secondary

131 | P a g e 132 | P a g e 133 | P a g e 134 | P a g e

It is to be noted that the diverter switch operates on load, and no current flows in the selector switches
during tap changing. During the tap change, only half of the reactance which limits the current is
connected in the circuit.

HARMONICS IN THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

The harmonic is the distortion in the waveform of the voltage and current. It is the integral multiple of
some reference waves. The harmonic wave increases the core and copper loss of the transformer and
hence reduces their efficiency. It also increases the dielectric stress on the insulation of the transformer.

In a three-phase transformer, the non-sinusoidal nature of magnetising current produces sinusoidal flux
which gives rise to the undesirable phenomenon. The phase magnetising currents in transformer should
contain third harmonics and higher harmonics necessary to produce a sinusoidal flux.

Fig: Harmonics in transformers

If the phase voltage across each phase is to remain sinusoidal, then the phase magnetising currents must
be of the following form.

It is seen from equation (1), (2), and (3) that the third harmonics in the three currents are co-phase, that is
they have the same phase. The fifth harmonics have different phases.

Delta Connection

135 | P a g e