I

The Compass

5.1. INTRODUCTION
Chain surveying can be used when the area to be surveyed is comparatively small
and is fairly flat. However, when large areas are involved, methods o f chain surveying
alone are not sufficient and convenient. I n such cases, it becomes essential to use some
sort o f instrument which enables angles or directions of the survey lines to be observed.
In engineering practice, following are the instruments used for such measurements :

(a) Instruments for the direct measurement of directions :

(i) Surveyor's Compass
(it) Prismatic Compass

(b) Instruments for measurements of angles

(0 Sextant
(i*0 Theodolite
Traverse Survey. Traversing is that type o f survey in which a number o f connected
survey lines form the framework and the directions and lengths of the survey line are
measured with the help o f an angle (or direction) measuring instrument and a tape (or
chain) respectively. When the lines form a circuit which ends at the starting point, it is
known as a closed traverse. I f the circuit ends elsewhere, it is said to be an open traverse.
The various methods o f traversing have been dealt with in detail in Chapter 7.
Units of Angle Measurement. A n angle is the difference in directions o f two intersecting
lines. There are three popular systems o f angular measurement :
(a) Sexagesimal System 1 circumference - 360°(degrees o f arc)
1 degree = 60'(minutes o f arc)
1 minute : 60" (second o f arc)
(b) Centesimal System 1 circumference = 400 8 (grads)
1 grad = 100" (centigrads)
1 centigrad = 100 (centicentigrads)
tc

(c) Hours System circumference = 24 h (hours o f time)

hour = 6 0 (minutes of time
m

1 minute = 60 (seconds o f time)

s

(109)
no SURVEYING

The sexagesimal system is widely used in United States, Great Britain, India and
other parts o f the world. More complete tables are available in this system and most surveying
instruments are graduated according to this system. However, due to facility in computation
and interpolation, the centesimal system is gaining more favour in Europe. The Hours system
is mostly used in astronomy and navigation.
5.2. B E A R I N G S AND A N G L E S
The direction o f a survey line can either be established (a) with relation to each
other, or (b) with relation to any meridian. The first w i l l give the angle between two
lines while the second w i l l give the bearing of the line.
Bearing. Bearing of a line is its direction relative to a given meridian. A meridian
is any direction such as (1) True Meridian (2) Magnetic Meridian (3) Arbitrary Meridian.
(1) True Meridian. True meridian through a point is the line in which a plane,
passing that point and the north and south poles, intersects with surface o f the earth. It,
thus, passes through the true north and south. The direction o f true meridian through a
point can be established by astronomical observations.
True Bearing. True bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which it makes with
the true meridian through one o f the extremities o f the line. Since the direction o f true
meridian through a point remains fixed, the true bearing o f a line is a constant quantity.
(2) Magnetic Meridian. Magnetic meridian through a point is the direction shown
by a freely floating and balanced magnetic needle free from all other attractive forces.
The direction o f magnetic meridian can be established with the help of a magnetic compass.
Magnetic Bearing. The magnetic bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which
it makes with the magnetic meridian passing through one o f the extremities o f the line.
A magnetic compass is used to measure it.
(3) Arbitrary Meridian. Arbitrary meridian is any convenient direction towards a
permanent and prominent mark or signal, such as a church spire or top o f a chimney.
Such meridians are used to determine the relative positions o f lines in a small area.
Arbitrary Bearing. Arbitrary bearing o f a
line is the horizontal angle which it makes with i

any arbitrary meridian passing through one o f the

extremities. A theodolite or sextant is used to measure /B
it.
IV < ^ 1
DESIGNATION O F BEARINGS
The common systems o f notation o f bearings
w 1 E
are :
(a) The whole circle bearing system (W.C.B.) \ V / i
or Azimuthal system.
(b) The Quadrantal bearing (Q.B.) system. D \
ill —-^\ II
(a) The Whole Circle Bearing System. (Az-
imuthal system).
s
I n this system, the bearing o f a line is measured
with magnetic north (or with south) in clockwise p i G 5 1 w C B SYSTEM
THE COMPASS 111

direction. The value o f the bearing thus varies from 0° to 360°. Prismatic compass is
graduated on this system. In India and U . K . , the W . C . B . is measured clockwise with magnetic
north.
Referring to Fig. 5 . 1 , the W . C . B . of AB is 0, , o f AC is 0 , of AD
2 is 0 3 and
of AF is 0 . 4

(b) The Quadrantal Bearing System: (Reduced bearing)

In this system, the bearing o f a line is measured eastward or westward from north
or south, whichever is nearer. Thus, both North
and South are used as reference meridians and
the directions can be either clockwise or anti-
clockwise depending upon the position o f the line.
In this system, therefore, the quadrant, in which
the line lies, w i l l have to be mentioned. These
bearings are observed by Surveyor's compass.
Referring Fig. 5.2, the Q.B. o f the line
AB is cc and is written as N a E, the bearing
being measured with reference to North meridian
(since it is nearer), towards East. The bearing
of AC is p and is written as S P E, it being
measured with reference o f South and i n an-
ticlockwise direction towards East. Similarly, the
bearings o f AD and AF are respectively S O W
and N <>
j W.
FIG. 5.2 Q.B. SYSTEM.
Thus, in the quadrantal system, the reference
meridian is prefixed and the direction o f measurement (Eastward or Westward) is affixed
to the numerical value o f the bearing. The Q.B. o f a line varies from 0° to 90° . The
bearings o f this system are known as Reduced Bearings (R.B.)
CONVERSION O F BEARINGS FROM ONESYSTEM TO THE OTHER
The bearing o f a line can be very easily converted from one system to the other,
with the aid o f a diagram. Referring to Fig. 5 . 1 , the conversion o f W . C . B . into R.B.
can be expressed in the following Table :
T A B L E 5.1. CONVERSION O F W.C.B. INTO R . B .

Line W.C.B. between Rule for R.B. Quadrant

AB 0° and 90° R.B.= W.C.B. NE

AC 90° and 180° R.B.= 1 8 0 ° - W . C . B . SE

AD 180° and 270° R.B.= W.C.B.- 180°. sw

AF 270° and 360° R.B = 360° - W.C.B. NW

i
112 SURVEYING

Similarly, referring to Fig. 5.2, the conversion o f R . B . into W . C . B . can be expressed

int the following Table :
T A B L E 5.2. CONVERSION O F R . B . INTO W . C . B .

Line R.B. Rule for W.C.B. W.C.B. between

AB N a E W.C.B. =R.B. 0° and 90°

AC S |3E W.C.B. = 180° - R.B. 90° and 180°

AD sew W.C.B. =180° + R.B. 180° and 270°

AF N$ W W.C.B. =360°-R.B. 270° and 360°

F O R E AND B A C K B E A R I N G
The bearing o f line, whether expressed in W . C . B . system or in Q.B. system, differs
according as the observation is made from one end o f the line or from the other. I f
the bearing o f a line AB is measured from A towards B, it is known as forward bearing
or Fore Bearing (F.B). I f the bearing o f the line AB is measured from B towards A,
it is known as backward bearing or Back Bearing (B.B.), since it is measured in backward
direction.
Considering first the W . C. B.
system and referring to Fig. 5.3
(a), the back bearing o f line AB
is (j) and fore bearing o f AB is
0 . Evidently = 180 ° + 0. Simi-
larly, from Fig. 5.3 (b), the back (a) (b)
bearing of CD is <>
| and fore bearing
FIG. 5.3 FORE AND BACK BEARINGS.
9, hence, $ = 0 - 180 °. Thus, in
general, it can be stated that
B.B.= F.B. ± 180°, using plus sign when F.B. is less than 180 0 and minus sign when
F.B. is greater than 180 °.
Again, considering the Q . B . system and
referring to Fig. 5.4 (a), the fore bearing o f
line AB is N0E and, therefore, the back bearing
is equal to SOW. Similarly, from Fig. 5.4 (b),
the fore bearing o f the line CD is SOW and
back bearing is equal to N0E. Thus, it can
be stated that to convert the fore bearing to
back bearing, it is only necessary to change
the cardinal points by substituting N for S,
and E for W and vice versa, the numerical
value of the bearing remaining the same. (b)
FORE AND BACK BEARINGS.
THE COMPASS 113

CALCULATION OF ANGLES FROM BEARINGS

Knowing the bearing o f two
lines, the angle between the two
can very easily be calculated with
the help of a diagram,
Ref. to Fig. 5.5 (a), the i n
A
eluded angle a between the lines
AC and/15 = 0 - 9, = F.B. of one
2

A
line - F.B. o f the other line, both
bearings being measured from a
common point A. Ref. to Fig.
5.5 (b), the angle (b)
a = ( 1 8 0 ° + . 0 , ) - 0 = B. B. o f
2

FIG. 5.5 CALCULATION OF ANGLES FROM BEARINGS.

previous line - F.B. o f next line.
Let us consider the quadrantal bearing. Referring to Fig. 5.6 (a) i n which both the
bearings have been measured to the same side o f common meridian, the included angle
a = 0 - 9,. I n Fig. 5.6 (b), both the bearings have been measured to the opposite sides
2

li

J
A / /
a
/ u
2

c
(d)

FIG. 5.6 CALCULATION OF ANGLES FROM BEARINGS.

of the common meridian, and included angle a = 0, + 0 . In Fig. 5.6 (c) both the bearings
2

have been measured to the same side of different meridians and the i n c l u d e d angle
a = 180° - ( 0 + 0i). I n Fig. 5.6 (d), both the bearings have been measured to the opposite
2

sides of different meridians, and angle a = 180 ° - (0, - 0 ) .

2

CALCULATION OF BEARINGS FROM ANGLES

In the tase o f a traverse i n which included angles between successive lines have
been measured, the bearings o f the lines can be calculated provided the bearing of any
one line is also measured.
Referring to F i g .
5.7, let a , (3 , y , 8, be
the included angles meas-
ured clockwise from back
stations and 0, be the meas-
ured bearing o f the line
AR
FIG. 5.7. CALCULATION OF BEARINGS FROM ANGLES.
114 SURVEYING

The bearing of the next line BC = 0 = 9i + a - 180° 2 '•' ...(1)

The bearing of the next line CD = 0 = 0 + B - 180°
3 2 ...(2)
The bearing of the next line DE = 0 = 0 + y - 180°
4 3 ...(3)
The bearing of the next line EF = 0 = 0 + 5 + 180°
5 4 ...(4)
As is evident from Fig. 5.7, (0! + a) , (0 + B), and (0 + y) are more than 180° while
2 3

(04 + 5) is less than 180°. Hence in order to calculate the bearing of the next line, the
following statement can be made :
"Add the measured clockwise angles to the bearing of the previous line. If the
sum is more than 180°, deduct 180°. If the sum is less than 180°, add 180° ".
In a closed traverse, clockwise angles w i l l be obtained if we proceed round the
traverse in the anti-clockwise direction.
EXAMPLES ON ANGLES AND BEARINGS
Example 5.1. (a) Convert the following whole circle bearings to quadrantal bearings:
(i) 22° 30' (ii) 170° 12' (Hi) 211° 54' (iv) 327° 24'.
(b) Convert the following quadrantal bearing to whole circle bearings :
(i) N 12° 24'E (ii) S 31° 36'E (Hi) S68°6'W (iv) N 5° 42' W.
Solution.
(a) Ref. to Fig. 5.1 and Table 5.1 we have
(i) R.B.= W . C . B . = 22° 30' = N 22° 30' E .
(ii) R.B.= 1 8 0 ° - W . C. B . = 180°-170° 12' = S 9° 48' E .
(ill) R.B.= W . C. B. - 180° = 211° 54 - 180° = S 31° 54' W .
(iv) R.B.= 360° - W . C . B . = 360° - 327° 24' = N 32° 36' W .
(b) Ref. to Fig. 5.2 and Table 5.5 we have
(/) W.C.B.= R.B.= 12° 24'
(ii) W . C . B . = 180° - R.B.= 180° - 31° 36' = 148° 24'
(Hi) W . C . B . = 180° + R.B.= 180° + 68° 6' = 248° 6'
(iv) W . C . B . = 360° - R.B. = 360° - 5° 42' = 354° 18'
Example 5.2. The following are observed fore-bearings of the lines (i) AB 12° 24' (ii)
BC 119° 48' (Hi) CD 266° 30' (iv) DE 354° 18' (v) PQN18°0'E (vi) QRS12°24'E (vii)
RSS59°18'W (viii) ST N86° 12'W. Find their back bearings.
Solution : B.B.= F.B. ± 180°, using + sign when F.B. is less than 180° and - sign
when it is more than 180°.
(0 B.B. of AB = 12° 24' + 180° = 192° 24'
07) B.B. of BC = 119° 48' + 180° = 299° 48'
(Hi) B.B. of CD = 266° 30' - 180° = 86° 30'
(iv) B.B. of DE = 354° 18' - 180° = 174° 18'
(v) B.B. of PQ = S 18° 0' W
(vi) B.B. of QR = N 12° 24' W
(vii) B.B. of RS - N 59° 18' E
(viii) B.B. of ST- = S 86° 12' E
THE COMPASS 115

Example 5.3. The following bearings were observed with a compass. Calculate the
interior angles.
Line Fore Bearing
AB 60° 30'
BC 122° 0'
CD 46° 0'
DE 205° 30'
EA 300° 0'.
Solution. Fig. 5.8 shows the plotted traverse.

FIG. 5.8.

Included angle = Bearing o f previous line - Bearing of next line

/.A = Bearing o f AE - Bearing of AB
= (300° - 180°) - 60° 30' = 59° 30'.
AB = Bearing of BA - Bearing of BC
* (60° 30' + 180°) - 122° = 118° 30'.
Z C = Bearing of CB - Bearing of CD
= (122° + 180°) - 46° = 256°
ZD = Bearing of DC- Bearing o f DE
= (46° + 180°) - 205° 30' = 20° 30'.
ZE = Bearing of ED - Bearing of EA
= (205° 30' - 180°) - 300°+ 360° = 85° 30'

Sum = 5 4 0 ° 00'.
Check : (In - 4) 90° = (10 - 4) 90° = 540°.
Example 5.4. The following interior angles were measured with a sextant in a closed
traverse. The bearing of the line AB was measured as 60° 00' with prismatic compass.
116 SURVEYING

Calculate the bearings of all other line if ZA = 140° 10'; ZB = 99° 8'; 'ZC = 60°22';
ZD = 69° 20'.
Solution.
Fig. 5.9 shows the plotted traverse.
To find the bearing of a line, add
the measured clockwise angle to the bearing
of the previous line. I f the sum is more
than 180°, deduct 180°. I f the sum is
less than 180°, add 180°.
Clockwise angles will be obtained
i f we proceed i n the anticlockwise direction
round the traverse. D
Starting with A and proceeding to-
ward D, C, B etc., we have
Bearing o f AD = Bearing of BA + 140° 10' - 180°
= (180° + 60°) + 140° 10' - 180° = 200° 10'
.-. Bearing o f DA = 20° 10'
Bearing o f DC= Bearing o f AD + 69° 20' - 180°
= 200° 10' + 69° 20' - 180° = 89° 30'
.-. Bearing o f CD = 269° 30'
Bearing o f CB = Bearing o f DC + 60° 22' + 180°
= 89° 30' + 60° 22' + 180° = 329° 52'
Bearing o f BC = 149° 52'
Bearing o f BC= Bearing o f CB + 90° 8' - 180°
= 329° 52' + 90° 8' - 180° = 240 6

.-. Bearing o f AB = 60° (check).

5.3. T H E T H E O R Y O F MAGNETIC COMPASS
Magnetic compass gives directly the magnetic bearings o f lines. The bearings may
either be measured in the W . C . B . system or i n Q.B. system depending upon the form
of the compass used. The bearings so measured are entirely independent on any other measurement.
The general principle o f all magnetic compass depends upon the fact that i f a long,
narrow strip o f steel or iron is magnetised, and is suitably suspended or pivoted about
a point near its centre so that it can oscillate freely about the vertical axis, it w i l l tend
to establish itself i n the magnetic meridian at the place o f observation.
The most essential features o f a magnetic compass are :
(a) Magnetic needle, to establish the magnetic meridian.
(b) A line of sight, to sight the other end o f the line.
(c) A graduated circle, either attached to the box or to the needle, to read
the directions of the lines.
(d) A compass box to house the above parts.
In addition, a tripod or suitable stand can be used to support the box.
THE COMPASS 117

The various compasses exhibiting the above features are :

(1) Surveyor's compass
(2) Prismatic compass
(3) Transit or Level Compass.
Earth's Magnetic Field and Dip
The earth acts as a powerful magnet and like any magnet, forms a field of magnetic
force which exerts a directive influence on a magnetised bar o f steel or iron. I f any slender
symmetrical bar magnet is freely suspended at its centre of gravity so that it is free to
turn in azimuth, it w i l l align itself i n a position parallel to the lines o f magnetic force
of the earth at that point.
The lines o f force o f earth's magnetic
field run generally from South to North
(Fig. 5.10). Near the equator, they are
parallel to the earth's surface. The horizontal
projections o f the lines of force define the Long.100° W
magnetic meridian. The angle which these
lines of force make with the surface o f Long.80° E
the earth is called the angle of dip or
simply the dip o f the needle. I n elevation,
these lines o f force (i.e. the North end
of the needle), are inclined downward towards
the north i n the Northern hemisphere and
downward towards South in Southern hemi-
sphere. A t a place near 70° North latitude
and 96° W e s t l o n g i t u d e , i t w i l l d i p
90°. This area is called North magnetic
pole. A similar area in Southern hemisphere
is called the South magnetic pole. A t any
other place, the magnetic needle w i l l not
point towards the North magnetic pole, but
it w i l l take a direction and dip i n accordance
with the lines o f force at the point. Since FIG. 5.10. CROSS-SECTION OF EARTH'S MAGNETIC
the lines of force are parallel to the surface FIELD.
of the earth only at equator, the dip o f the needle will be zero at equator and the needle
will remain horizontal. A t any other place, one end o f the needle w i l l dip downwards.
By suitably weighting the high end o f the needle may be brought to a horizontal position.

The Magnetic needle

The compass needle is made of a slender symmetrical bar o f magnetised steel or
iron. It is hung from a conical jewel bearing supported on a sharp, hardened steel pivot.
Before magnetisation, the needle is free to rotate both vertically and horizontally and does
not tend to move away from any direction i n which it is originally pointed. When it
is magnetised, it w i l l dip downwards and take a definite direction o f magnetic meridian.
A small coil of brass wire is wrapped around it to balance the force tending 10 make
U8 SURVEYING

the needle dip. The position o f the coil is Jewel

adjustable for the dip in the locality where N
the compass is to be used.
Fig. 5.11 shows a typical needle in counter
Pivot
section, which can either be a "broad needle" weight
or "edge bar" needle type. IFIG. 5.11. THE MAGNETIC NEEDLE.
The pivot is a sharp and hard point
and the slightest jar w i l l break its tip or make it blunt. A lever arrangement is usually
provided for lifting the needle off its bearing when not in use, so as to prevent unnecessary
wear o f the bearing with consequent increase in friction.
Requirements of a Magnetic Needle
The following are the principal requirements of a magnetic needle :
(1) The needle should be straight and symmetrical and the magnetic axis o f the needle
should coincide with the geometrical axis. I f not, the bearing reading w i l l not be with
reference to the magnetic axis, and, therefore, w i l l be wrong. However, the included angles
calculated from the observed bearings w i l l be correct.
(2) The needle should be sensitive. It may loose its sensitivity due to (a) loss of
polarity, (b) wear o f the pivot. I f the polarity has been lost, the needle should be remagnetised.
The pivot can either be sharpened with the help o f very fine oil stone or it may be
completely replaced. Suitable arrangement should be provided to lift the needle off the pivot
when not in use.
(3) The ends o f the needle should lie in the same horizontal and vertical planes
as those o f ' the pivot point. I f the ends are not i n the same horizontal plane as that
of the pivot point, they w i l l be found to quiver when the needle swings, thus causing
inconvenience in reading.
(4) For stability, the centre of the gravity o f the needle should be as far below
the pivot as possible.
In addition to the above requirements of the needle, the compass box along with
other accessories should be o f non-magnetic substance so that needle is uninfluenced by
all other attractive forces except that o f the earth's.
5.4. T H E PRISMATIC COMPASS
Prismatic compass is the most convenient and portable form o f magnetic compass
which can either be used as a hand instrument or can be fitted on a tripod. The main
parts o f the prismatic compass are shown in Fig. 5.12.
As illustrated in the diagram, the magnetic needle is attached to the circular ring
or compass card made up o f aluminium, a non-magnetic, substance. When the needle is
on the pivot, it w i l l orient itself in the magnetic meridian and, tfierefore, the N and S
ends of the ring w i l l be in this direction. The line o f sight is defined by the object
vane and the eye slit, both attached to the compass box. The object vane consists of
a vertical hair attached to a suitable frame while the eye slit consists o f a vertical slit
cut into the upper assembly of the prism unit, both being hinged to the box. When an
object is sighted, the sight vanes w i l l rotate with respect to the NS end of ring through
THE COMPASS 119

1. Box 7. Prism cap 13. Mirror

2. Needle 8. Glass cover 14. Pivot
3. Graduated ring 9. Lifting pin 15. Agate cap
4. Object vane 10. Lifting lever 16. Focusing stud
5. Eye vane 11. Brake pin 17. Sun glass
6. Prism 12. Spring brake
FIG. 5.12. THE PRISMATIC COMPASS.

an angle which the line makes with the magnetic meridian. A triangular prism is fitted
below the eye slit, having suitable arrangement for focusing to suit different eye sights.
The prism has both horizontal and vertical faces convex, so that a magnified image of
the ring graduation is formed. When the line of sight is also in the magnetic meridian,
the South end o f the ring comes vertically below the horizontal face of the prism. The
0° or 360° reading is, therefore, engraved on the South end of the ring, so that bearing
of the magnetic meridian is read as 0° with the help of the prism which is vertically

Angle
reqd (330°

. Angle
read (330°

Prism

(a) (b)
FIG. 5.13. SYSTEM OF GRADUATION IN PRISMATIC COMPASS.
121' SURVEYING

above South end in this particular position. The readings increase in clockwise direction
from 0° at South end to 90° at West end, 180° at North end and 270° at East end.
This has been clearly illustrated in Fig. 5.13 (a) and (b).
When not in use, the object vane frame can be folded on the glass l i d which covers
the top o f the box. The object vane, thus presses against a bent lever which lifts the
needle off the pivot and holds it against the glass l i d . By pressing knob or brake-pin
placed at the base of the object vane, a light spring fitted inside the box can be brought
into the contact with the edge o f the graduated ring to damp the oscillations of the needle
when about to take the reading. The prism can be folded over the edge o f the box.
A metal cover fits over the circular box, when not in use. To sight the objects which
are too high or too low to be sighted directly, a hinged mirror capable o f sliding over
the object vane is provided and the objects sighted by reflection. When bright objects are
sighted, dark glasses may be interposed into the line o f sight.
The greatest advantage of prismatic compass is that both sighting the object as well
as reading circle can be done simultaneously without changing the position of the eye.
The circle is read at the reading at which the hair line appears to cut the graduated ring.
Adjustment of Prismatic compass
The following are the adjustments usually necessary i n the prismatic compass.
(a) Station or Temporary Adjustments:
(i) Centring (ii) Levelling (Hi) Focusing the prism.
(b) Permanent Adjustments. The permanent adjustments of prismatic compass are almost
the same as that o f the surveyor's compass except that there are no bubble tubes to be
adjusted and the needle cannot be straightened. The sight vanes are generally not adjustable.
(See the permanent adjustments of Surveyor's compass).
Temporary Adjustments
Temporary adjustments are those adjustments which have to be made at every set
up o f the instrument. They comprise the following:
(i) Centring. Centring is the process of keeping the instrument exactly over the
station. Ordinary prismatic compass is not provided with fine centring device as is generally
fitted to engineer's theodolite. The centring is invariably done by adjusting or manipulating
the legs of the tripod. A plumb-bob may be used to judge the centring and i f it is not
available, it may be judged by dropping a pebble from the centre of the bottom of
the instrument.
(ii) Levelling. I f the instrument is a hand instrument, it must be held in hand in
such a way that graduated disc is swinging freely and appears to be level as judged from
the top edge o f the case. Generally, a tripod is provided with ball and socket arrangement
with the help o f which the top o f the box can be levelled.
(ii) Focusing the Prism. The prism attachment is slided up or down for focusing
till the readings are seen to be sharp and clear.
5.5. T H E S U R V E Y O R ' S COMPASS
Fig. 5.14 shows the essential parts of a surveyor's compass. As illustrated in the
figure, the graduated ring is directly attached to the box, and not with needle. The edge
T H E COMPASS 12;

1. Box 7. Counter weight

2. Magnetic needle 8. Metal pin
3. Sight vanes 9. Circular graduated arc
4. Pivot 10. Lifting pin
5. Jewel bearing 11. Lifting lever
6. Glass top
FIG. 5.14. T H E SURVEYOR'S COMPASS.

bar needle freely floats over the pivot. Thus, the

graduated card or ring is not oriented in the magnetic
meridian, as was the case in the prismatic compass.
The object vane is similar to that o f prismatic compass.
The eye vane consists o f a simple metal vane with
a fine slit. Since no prism is provided, the object
is to be sighted first with the object and eye vanes
and the reading is then taken against the North
end of the needle, by looking vertically through
the top glass. Fig. 5.15 shows the plan view of
a surveyor's compass.
When the line o f sight is in magnetic meridian,
the North and South ends o f the needle w i l l be
over the 0° N and 0° S graduations of the graduated
card. The card is graduated in quadrantal system
having 0° at N and S ends and 90° at East and
West ends. Let us take the case o f a line AB
which is in North-East quadrant. I n order to sight
the point B, the box w i l l have to be rotated about
the vertical axis. In doing so, the pointer o f the
needle remains fixed in position (pointing always FIG. 5.15. SURVEYOR'S COMPASS (PLAN).
122 SURVEYING

to the magnetic meridian) while the 0° N graduation o f the card moves i n a clockwise
direction. I n other words, the North end o f the needle moves in the anti-clockwise direction
with relation to the 0° N graduation of the card. Taking the extreme case when the line
has a bearing o f 90° in East direction, the pointer appears to move by 90° from the
0° N graduation i n anti-clockwise direction ; in this position, therefore, the pointer must
read the reading 90° E. Thus, on the graduated card, the East and West are interchanged.
See Fig. 5.16 (a) and (b).
•Line of sight

IE.V.

(a) Line of sight in (b) Line of sight towards B

magnetic meridian bearing N 30° E
FIG. 5.16. SYSTEM OF GRADUATIONS I N THE SURVEYOR'S COMPASS.

The difference between surveyor's and prismatic compass is given i n Table 5.3.
TABLES 5.3. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SURVEYOR'S AND PRISMATIC COMPASS

Item Prismatic Compass Surveyor's Compass

(1) Magnetic The needle is of 'broad needle' type. The needle The needle is of ' edge bar ' type. The needle acts
Needle does not act as index. as the index also.
(2) Graduated (i) The graduated card ring is attached with the (0 The graduated card is attached to the box and
Card needle. The ring does not rotate along with the line not to the needle. The card rotates along with the line
of sight. of sight.
(it) The graduations are in W.C.B. system, having (ii) The graduations are in Q.B. system, having
0° at South end, 90° at West, 180° at North and 0° at N and S and 90° at East and West. East and
270° at East. West are interchanged.
(Hi) The graduations are engraved inverted. (Hi) The graduations are engraved erect.
(3) Sighting (i) The object vane consists of metal vane with a (i) The object vane consists of a metal vane with a
Vanes vertical hair. vertical hair.
(ii) The eye vane consists of a small metal vane (ii) The eye vane consists of a metal vane with a
with siit. fine slit,
(4) Reading (0 The reading is taken with the help of a prism (i) The reading is taken by directly seeing through
provided at the eye slit. the top of the glass.
(ii) Sighting and reading taking can be done (ii) Sighting and reading taking cannot be done
simultane-ously from one position of the observer. simultaneously from one position of the observer.
(5) Tripod Tripod may or may not be provided. The The instrument cannot be used without a tripod.
instrument can be used even by holding suitably in
hand.
THE COMPASS 12?

Temporary Adjustments. Same as for prismatic compass, except for the focusing
of the prism.
Permanent Adjustments of Surveyor's Compass
Permanent adjustments are those adjustments which are done only when the fundamental
relations between the parts are disturbed. They are, therefore, not required to be repeated
at every set up o f the instrument. These consist o f :
(0 Adjustment o f levels. (ii) Adjustment o f sight vanes.
(Hi) Adjustment o f needle. (vi) Adjustment o f pivot point.
(0 Adjustment of levels
Object To make the levels, when they are fitted, perpendicular to the vertical axis.
Test. Keep the bubble tube parallel to two foot screws and centre the bubble. Rotate
the instrument through 90° about the vertical axis, till it comes over the third foot screw
and centre the bubble. Repeat till it remain central in these two positions. When the bubble
is central in any o f these positions, turn the instrument through 180° about vertical axis.
I f the bubble remains central, it is in adjustment. I f not,
Adjustment. Bring the bubble half way by foot screws and half by adjusting the
screws o f the bubble tube.
Note. I f the instrument is not fitted with the levelling head, the bubble is levelled
with the help of ball and socket arrangement, turned through 180° and tested. In case
it needs adjustment, it is adjusted half way by the adjusting screw o f the bubble tube
and half by the ball and the socket. Generally, this adjustment is an unnecessary refinement
and the levels are not provided on the instrument.
(ii) Adjustment of Sight Vanes
Object. To bring the sight vanes into a vertical plane when the instrument is levelled.
Test. Level the instrument properly. Suspend a plumb line at some distance and look
at it, first through one o f the sight vanes and then through the other.
Adjustment. I f the vertical hair in the object vane or the slit in the eye vane is
not seen parallel to the plumb line, remove the affected vane and either file the higher
side o f the bed or insert a suitable packing under the lower side.
(ii) Adjustment of Needle
The needle is adjusted for : (a) Sensitivity, (b) Balancing the needle, (c) Straightening
vertically, and (d) Straightening horizontally.
(a) Sensitivity. The needle may loose its sensitivity either by the loss o f its magnetism
or by the pivot becoming blunt. To test i t , level the instrument and lower the needle
on its pivot. I f it comes to rest quickly, it shows the sign o f sluggishness. To adjust
it find the reason, whether it is due to loss o f magnetism or due to the blunt pivot.
Remagnetise the needle, i f necessary. The pivot point can be sharpened with the help o f
fine o i l stone or can be completely replaced.
(b) Balancing the needle. Due to the effect o f the dip, the needle may not the
balanced on its pivot. To test it, level the instrument and lower the needle on its pivot.
Note the higher end, remove the compass glass and slide the counter weight towards the
higher end, till it balances.
124 SURVEYING

(c) Straightening the needle vertically. I f the needle is bent vertically, a vertical
seesaw motion of the ends will take place with its horizontal swing when the needle is
lowered on the pivot. I n such a case, the needle may be taken off the pivot and may
be suitably bent i n the vertical direction so that the seesaw motion ceases.
(iv) Straightening Horizontally
Object. To straighten the needle so that its two ends shall lie i n the same vertical
plane as that of its centre.
Test. Note the reading o f both ends o f the needle i n different positions o f the graduated
arc.
I f the difference between both end readings is always some constant quantity other
than 180°, the needle is bent horizontally but the pivot coincides the centre o f the graduations.
On the other hand, i f the difference varies, the error may be both i n the needle as well
as in the pivot. I n order to know, in such a case, whether the needle is straight or
not, level the instrument and read both ends o f the needle i n any position. Revolve the
compass until the South end o f the needle comes against the previous reading o f the North
end; read the North end now. I f the reading at the North end is the same as that of
the South end in the previous position, the needle is not bent. Otherwise, it is bent and
needs adjustment.
Adjustment. I f not, note the difference. Remove the needle from the pivot and bend
the North end halfway towards the new position of the original reading at the South end.
Replace and repeat till correct.
(v) Adjustment of the Pivot
Object. To bring the pivot point exactly in the centre of the graduated circle.
Test and Adjustment. (1) Bring the North end o f the needle against the North 0°
mark o f the graduated circle. Note the reading of the South end of the needle. I f it does
not read 0 ° , correct the error by bending the pivot pin slightly in a direction at right
angles to the line between the North and South zeros.
(2) Bring the North end o f the needle exactly against 90° mark, and note the reading
against the South end. I f it does not read 90°, correct the error by bending the pivot
pin i n a direction at right angles to the line between the two 90° marks. Repeat (1)
and (2) until the readings for the opposite ends of the needle agree for any position of
the needle.
5.6. W I L D B3 P R E C I S I O N C O M P A S S
Fig. 5.18 shows the photograph o f W i l d B3 tripod compass. It is a precision compass
for simple, rapid surveys. It is particularly valuable whenever a small, light weight survey
instrument is required. It derives its precision from the fine pivot system, the balanced
circle and the strong magnet.
The B3 is set up on a tripod and levelled with foot screws and circular bubble
like other surveying instruments. On pulling out the circular clamp, the magnet brings the
zero graduation o f the circle to magnetic north, and the magnetic bearing to the target
can be read to 0 . 1 ° . On releasing the clamp, after the reading has been taken, the circle
THE COMPASS 125

is lifted automatically off the pivot and is held again in a fixed position so that the damage
to the pivot cannot occur during transport.
With the circle in the clamped position, the B3 can be used as a simple angle
measuring instrument. The small vertical arc alongside the telescope allows slopes to be
measured within a range of ± 7 0 % .
The circle has a spring mounted sappire bearing. The pivot is sharp and made of
extremely hard metal. The instrument can be adjusted for earth's magnetic field (i.e. for
dip) by moving tiny adjustment weights, thus balancing the circle so that it w i l l swing
horizontally in any part of the w o r l d .
The small sighting telescope has 2 X magnification and stadia hairs for approximate
distance measurement from a staff.
5.7. MAGNETIC DECLINATION
Magnetic declination at a place is the horizontal angle between the true meridian
and the magnetic meridian shown by the needle at the time of observation. I f the magnetic
meridian is to the right side (or eastern side) of the true meridian, declination is said
to be eastern or positive [see Fig. 5.19 (a)]; i f it to be the left side (or western side),
the declination is said to be western or negative [see Fig. 5.19 (b)].
Mariners call declination by the name
True Magnetic M.M. ATM.
variation. meridian meridian
The declination at any particular location (T.M) (M.M)
can be obtained by establishing a true meridian
from astronomical observations and then read-
ing the compass while sighting along the
true meridian.
Isogonic line is the line drawn through
(a) Declination east (b) Declination west
the points of same declination. The distribution
of earth's magnetism is not regular and con-
FIG. 5.19. MAGNETIC DECLINATION.
sequently, the isogonic lines do not form com-
plete great circles, but radiating from the North and South magnetic regions they follow
irregular paths. Agonic line is the line made up of points having a zero declination.
Variations in Declination : The value of declination at a place never remains constant
but changes from time to time. There are four types of variations in declination
(a) Diurnal variation (b) Annual variation (c) Secular variation (d) Irregular variation.
(a) Diurnal Variation : The diurnal variation or daily variation is the systematic
departure of the declination from its mean value during a period of 24 hours. It generally
varies with the phase of the sunspot period. The difference in declination between morning
and afternoon is often as much as 10' of arc. The extent of daily variations depend upon
the following factors:
(0 The Locality : More at magnetic poles and less at equator.
(ii) Season of the year : Considerably more in summer than in winter.
(Hi) Time: More in day and less in night. The rate of variation during 24 hours
is variable.
12b SURVEYING

(iv) The amount o f daily variation changes from year to year.

(b) Annual Variation
The variation which has a yearly period is known as annual variation. The declination
has a yearly swing o f about 1' or 2' i n amplitude. It varies from place to place.
(c) Secular Variation
Due to its magnitude, secular variation is the most important i n the work o f surveyor.
It appears to be of periodic character and follows a roller-coaster (sine-curve) pattern. It
swings like a pendulum. For a given place, the compass needle after moving continuously
for a period of years i n one direction with respect to the true North, gradually comes
to a stand still and then begins to move i n opposite direction. Secular change from year
to year is not uniform for any given locality and is different for different places. Its period
is approximately 250 years. I n Paris, the records show a range from 11° E i n 1680 to
22° W in 1820. This magnitude of secular variation is very great, it is very important
in the work o f the surveyor, and unless otherwise specified, it is the change commonly
referred to.
(d) Irregular Variation
The irregular variations are due to what are known as 'magnetic storms', earthquakes
and other solar influences. They may occur at any time and cannot be predicted. Change
of this kind amounting to more than a degree have been observed.
Determination of True Bearing.
A l l important surveys are plotted with reference to true meridian, since the direction
of magnetic meridian at a place changes with time. I f however, the magnetic declination
at a place, at the time of observation is known, the true bearing can be calculated from
the observed magnetic bearing by the following relation (Fig. 5.19):
True bearing = magnetic bearing ± declination.
Use plus sign i f the declination is to the East and minus sign i f it is to the West.
The above rule is valid for whole circle bearings only. I f however, a reduced bearing
has been observed, it is always advisable to draw the diagram and calculate bearing.
Example 5.5. The magnetic bearing of a line is 48° 24' . Calculate the true bearing
if the magnetic declination is 5° 38' East.
Solution. Declination = + 5° 38'
.-. True bearing = 48° 2 4 ' + 5° 38'= 54° 02'.
E x a m p l e 5 . 6 . The magnetic bearing of a line AB is S
28 ° 30' E. Calculate the true bearing if the declination is 7 ° 30'
West.
Solution. The positions of true meridian, magnetic meridian
and the line have been shown in Fig. 5.20. Since the declination
is to be West, the magnetic meridian w i l l be to the West o f
true meridian.
Hence, true bearing = S 28° 30' E + 7 ° 30'.
= S 36° 00' E .
THE COMPASS 127

Example 5.7. In an old map, a line AB was drawn to a magnetic bearing of

5° 30' the magnetic declination at the time being 1° East. To what magnetic bearing should
the line be set now if the present magnetic declination is 8° 30' East.
Solution
True bearing o f the line = 5° 30' + 1° = 6° 30'
Present declination = + 8° 30' (East)
Now, True bearing = Magnetic bearing + 8° 30'
.'. Magnetic bearing = True bearing - 8° 30'
= 6° 30' - 8° 30' = - 2° (i.e. 2° i n the anti-clockwise direction)
= 358°.
Example 5.8. Find the magnetic declination at a place if the magnetic bearing of
the sun at noon is (a) 184 ° (b) 350° 20'.
Solution, (a) A t noon, the sun is exactly on the geographical meridian. Hence, the
true bearing o f the sun at noon is zero or 180° depending upon whether it is to the
North o f the place or to the South o f the place. Since the magnetic bearing o f the sun
is 184°, the true bearing will be 180°.
Now , True bearing = Magnetic bearing + Declination
180° = 184° + Declination
or Declination = - 4° = 4° W
(b) Since the magnetic bearing o f the sun is 350° 20', it is at the North of the
place and hence the true bearing o f the sun, which is on the meridian, w i l l be 360°.
Now, True bearing = Magnetic bearing + Declination
360° = 350° 20' +Declination
or Declination = 360° - 350° 20' = 9° 40' = 9° 40' E .
5.8. LOCAL ATTRACTION
A magnetic meridian at a place is established by a magnetic needle which is uninfluenced
by other attracting forces. However, sometimes, the magnetic needle may be attracted and
prevented from indicating the true magnetic meridian when it is in proximity to certain
magnetic substances. Local attraction is a term used to denote any influence, such as the
above, which prevents the needle from pointing to the magnetic North in a given locality.
Some of the sources o f local attraction are : magnetite i n the ground, wire carrying electric
current, steel structures, railroad rails, underground iron pipes, keys, steel-bowed spectacles,
metal buttons, axes, chains, steel tapes etc., which may be lying on the ground nearby.
Detection of Local Attraction. The local attraction at a particular place can be
detected by observing the fore and back bearings o f each line and finding its difference.
I f the difference between fore and back bearing is 180°, it may be taken that both the
stations are free from local attraction, provided there are no observational and instrumental
errors. I f the difference is other than 180°, the fore bearing should be measured again
to find out whether the discrepancy is due to avoidable attraction from the articles on
person, chains, tapes etc. It the difference still remains, the local attraction exists at one
or both the stations.
128 SURVEYING

Strictly speaking, the term local attraction does not include avoidable attraction due
to things about the person or to other sources not connected with the place where the
needle is read.
Elimination of Local Attraction. I f there is local attraction at a station, all the
bearings measured at that place w i l l be incorrect and the amount of error will be equal
in all the bearings. There are two methods for eliminating the effects o f local attraction.
First Method. I n this method, the bearings o f the lines are calculated on the basis
of the bearing o f that line which has a difference of 180 i n its fore and back bearings.
0

It is, however, assumed that there are no observational and other instrumental errors. The
amount and direction o f error due to local attraction at each of the affected station is
found. If, however, there is no such line i n which the two bearings differ by 1 8 0 ° , the
corrections should be made from the mean value o f the bearing o f that line in which
there is least discrepancy between the back sight and fore sight readings.
I f the bearings are expressed i n quadrantal system, the corrections must be applied
in proper direction. I n 1st and 3rd quadrants, the numerical value of bearings increase
in clockwise direction while they increase i n anti-clockwise direction i n 2nd and 4th quadrants.
Positive corrections are applied clockwise and negative corrections counter-clockwise.
Examples 5.9, 5.10 and 5.11 completely illustrate the procedure for applying the
corrections by the first method.
Second Method. This is more a general method and is based on the fact that though
the bearings measured at a station may be incorrect due to local attraction, the included
angle calculated from the bearings w i l l be correct since the amount o f error is the same
for all the bearings measured at the station. The included angles between the lines are
calculated at all the stations. I f the traverse is a closed one, the sum o f the internal included
angles must be (2n - 4) right angles. I f there is any discrepancy i n this, observational and
instrumental errors also exist. Such error is distributed equally to all the angles. Proceeding
now with the line, the bearings o f which differ by 180°, the bearings of all other lines
are calculated, as illustrated i n example 5.12.
Special case : Special case o f local attraction may arise when we find no line which
has a difference o f 180° i n its fore and back bearings. I n that case select the line i n
which the difference i n its fore and back bearings is closest to 180°. The mean value
of the bearing o f that line is found by applying half the correction to both the fore and
back bearings of that line, thus obtaining the modified fore and back bearings of that line
differing exactly by 180°. Proceeding with the modified bearings of that line, corrected
bearings o f other lines are found. See example 5.13 for illustration.
Example 5.9. The following bearings were observed while traversing with a compass.

Line F.B. B.B. Line F.B. B.B.

AB 45° 45' 226° 10' CD 29° 45' 209° 10'
BC 96° 55' 277° 5' DE 324° 48' 144° 48'

Mention which stations were affected by local attraction and determine the corrected
bearings. (U.B.)
THE C O M P A S S 129

Solution. On examining the observed bearings of the lines, it will be noticed that
difference between back and fore bearings of the line DE is exactly 180°. Hence both
statipns D and E are free from local attraction and all other bearings measured at these
stations are also correct. Thus, the observed bearing of DC (i.e 209° 10') is correct. The
correct bearing of CD w i l l , therefore, be 209° 10 ' - 180° = 29 ° 10 ' while the observed bearing
is 29 ° 45'. The error at C is therefore + 35' and a correction - 35' must be applied to
a l l the bearings measured at C. T h e c o r r e c t bearings o f CB thus becomes 277°
5' - 35' = 276° 30' and that of BC as 276° 30' - 180 ° = 96° 30'. The observed bearing o f BC
is 96° 55' . Hence the error at B is + 25' and a correction of - 25' must be applied
to a l l the b e a r i n g s measured at B. The c o r r e c t b e a r i n g o f BA thus becomes
226° 10' - 25' = 225° 45', and that o f AB as 225° 45'-180 ° = 45° 45' which is the same as
the observed one. Station A is, therefore, free from local attraction.
The results may be tabulated as under
Line Observed bearing Correction Corrected bearing Remarks

AB 45° 45' 0 at A 45° 45'

BA 226° 10' -25' atS 225° 45'

BC 96° 55' -25'atB 96° 30' Stations B and

C are affected
CB 277° 5' - 35' at C 276° 30'
by local attraction
CD 29° 45' -35'atC 29 ° 10'

DC 209° 10' 0 atD 209 ° 10'

DE 324° 48' 0 atD ' 324° 48'

ED 144° 48' 0 at£ . 144° 48'

V ^ * * Example 5.10. Apply the corrections if the bearings of the previous example are
measured in the quadrantal system as under :

Line F.B. B.B. Line F.B. B.B.

AB N45°45'E S46°10'W CD N29°45'E S 29° 10'W

BC S83°05'E N82°55'W\ N 35° 12' W S 35° 12'E

Solution By inspection of the observed bearings, stations D and E are free from
local attraction and hence bearings of ED, DE and DC are correct. The correct bearing of
CD w i l l , therefore, be N 29 ° 10' E. Since the observed bearing o f CD is N 29 ° 45' E,
the magnetic needle at C is deflected by 35' towards West. The corrected bearings of
CB w i l l , therefore, be N 82° 5 5 ' W + 3 5 ' = N 83° 3 0 ' W .
The corrected bearing of BC w i l l be S 83° 30' E. Since the observed bearing of BC
is S 83° 05' E, the needle at B is deflected by 25' towards East. Hence the corrected bearing
of BA w i l l be S 46° 1 0 ' W - 2 5 ' = S 45° 4 5 ' W . The b e a r i n g o f l i n e AB w i l l be N
45° 45' E, which is the same, as the observed one. Station A is, therefore, not affected
by local attraction.
130 SURVEYING

Example 5.11. The following bearings were observed in running a closed traverse:
Line F.B., B.B.

AB ... 75° 5' 254° 20'

BC ... 115° 20' 296° 35'

CD ... 165° 35' 345° 35'

DE ... 224° 50' 44° 5'

EA ... 304° 50' 125° 5'

At what stations do you suspect the local attraction ? Determine the correct magnetic
bearings. If declination was 5° 10' E, what are the true bearings ?
Solution.
By inspection o f the observed bearings it w i l l be noticed that stations C and D
are free from local attractions since the B.B. and F.B. of CD differ by 180°. A l l the
bearings measured at C and D are, therefore, correct. Thus, the observed bearing o f CB
(i.e. 296° 35') is correct. The correct bearing of BC will be 296° 35' - 180° = 116° 35'. Since
the observed bearing o f BC is 115° 20', a correction of + 1° 15' will have to be applied to
the bearing of BA measured at B. Thus, the correct bearing of BA becomes 254° 20'.+ 1° 15'
= 255° 35'. The correct bearing o f AB w i l l , therefore, be 255° 35' - 180 0 = 75° 35'. Since
the observed bearing o f AB is 75° 5' a correction of + 30' w i l l . b e have to be applied
to the bearing o f AE measured at A. Thus, correct bearing of AE becomes 125° 5 ' + 30'"
= 125° 35'. The corrected bearing o f EA w i l l be 125° 35' + 180° = 305° 35'. Since the observed
bearing o f EA is 304° 50', a correction o f + 4 5 ' w i l l have to be applied to the bearing
of ED measured at E. The correct bearing o f ED w i l l thus be 44° 5 ' + 4 5 ' = 44° 50'
The correct bearing o f DE w i l l be 44° 50' + 180° = 224° 50', which is the same as the
observed one, since the station D is not affected by local attraction.
Thus, results may be tabulated as given below. Since the magnetic declination is
+ 5° 10' E, the true bearings o f the lines w i l l be obtained by adding 5° 10' to corrected
magnetic bearings.
Line Observed Correction Corrected True Remarks
bearing bearing bearing
AB 75° 5' + 30' at A 75° 35' 80° 45'
BA 254° 20' + 1° 15' at B 255° 35' 260° 45'
BC 115° 20' + 1° 15' atS 116° 35' 121° 45'
CB 296° 35' Stations A , B and E are affected by
0 at C 296° 35' 301° 45'
local attraction
CD 165° 35' 0 at C 165° 35' 170° 45'
DC 345° 35' 0 atD 345° 35' 350° 45'
DE 224° 50' 0 atD 224° 50' 230° 0'
ED 44° 5' + 45' at E 44° 50' 50° 0'
EA 304° 50' + 45' at E 305° 35' 310° 45'
AE 125" 5' + 30' at A 125° 35' 130° 45'
THE COMPASS 131

xample 5.12. The following are bearings taken on a closed compass traverse :
Line F.B. B.B.
AB 80° 10' 259 ° 0'
BC 120 ° 20' 301 ° 50'
CD 170° 50' 350 0 50'
DE 230° 10' 49° 30'
EA 310° 20' 130° 15'
Compute the interior angles and correct them for observational errors. Assuming the
observed bearing of the line CD to be correct adjust the bearing of the remaining sides.
Solution. ZA = Bearing of AE - Bearing of AB = 130° 15' - 80° 10' = 50° 5'
ZB = Bearing of BA - Bearing of BC = 259° - 120° 20' = 138° 40'
ZC= Bearing of CB - Bearing of CD = 301° 50' - 170° 50' = 131° 0'
ZD = Bearing of DC- Bearing of DE = 350° 50' - 230° 10' = 120° 40'
ZE = Bearing of ED - Bearing of EA = 49° 30' - 310° 20' + 360° = 99° 10'
ZA + ZB + ZC+ ZD + ZE = 50° 5' + 138° 40' + 131° 0' + 120° 40' + 99° 10' = 539° 35'
Theoretical sum = (In - 4) 90 ° = 540 °
Error = - 25'
Hence a correction of + 5' is applied to all the angles. The corrected angles are:
ZA = 50° 10'; ZB = 138° 45'; ZC=131° 5'; ZD = 120° 45' and ZE = 99 ° 15'
Starting with the corrected bearing of CD, all other bearings can be calculated as under:
Bearing of DE= Bearing of DC - ZD = 350° 50' - 120° 45 = 230° 5'
.-. Bearing of ED = 230° 5' - 180 ° = 50° 5'
.-. Bearing o f EA = Bearing of ED - ZE = 50° 5' - 99° 15' + 360° = 310° 50'
.;. Bearing of AE= 310° 50' - 180° = 130° 50'
Bearing of AB = Bearing of AE - ZA = 130° 50' - 50° 10' = 80° 40'
.-. Bearing of BA = 80° 40' + 180° = 260° 40'
Bearing o f BC= Bearing of BA - ZB = 260° 40' - 138° 45' = 121° 55'
.-. Bearing o f CB = 121° 55 + 180° = 301° 55'
Bearing of CD = Bearing of CB - ZC = 301° 55' - 131° 5' = 170 ° 50'
.-. Bearing of DC = 170 ° 50' + 180 ° = 350 ° 50'. (Check)
Example 5.13. The following bearings were observed in running a closed traverse.
Line F.B. B.B.
AB 71°05' 250° 20'
BC 110° 20' 292° 35'
CD 161°35' 341°45'
DE 220° 50' 40° 05'
EA 300°50' 121°W
Determine the correct magnetic bearings of the lines.
132 SURVEYING

Solution
By inspection, we find that there is no line whose F.B. and B.B. differ exactly
by 180°. However, the F.B. and B.B. of line CD differ by 180°10\e difference being
only + 1 0 ' . Hence the correct F.B. of CD is obtained by adding half the difference.

r iio°2o r

61°35'

220°50'

300°50'

FIG. 5.21

Hence corrected F.B. of CD = 161°35' + 5' = 161°40'

and corrected B.B. of CD = 341°45' - 5' = 341°40'

Difference = 180°0'
ZABC = 250° 20' - 110° 20' = 140° 0'
ZBCD = 292°35' - 161°35' = 131°0'
ZCDE = 341°45' - 220°50' = 120°55'
ZDEA = 300°50' - 40°05' = 260M5' (Exterior)
= 99°15' (Interior)
ZEAB = 121°10' - 71°5' = 50°5'

Sum = 541°15'
Theoretical sum = (2N - 4) 90° = 540°
Error = 541°15' - 540° = 1°15'
..Correction for each angle = - 15'
Hence the corrected angles are
T H E COMPASS 133

ZABC = 140°0' -- 15' = 139°45'

ZBCD = 131°0' -• 15' = 130°45'
ZCDE = 120°55' - 15' = 120°40'
ZDEA = 99°15' -- 15' = 99°00'
ZEAB = 5 0 ° 0 5 ' - - 15' = 49°50'

sura = 540°00'

The corrected bearings of all the lines are obtained from the included angles and
the corrected bearin g o f CD

Corrected F.B. of DE = 3 4 1 ' 4 0 ' - - 120°40' = 221 °00'

B.B. of DE = 221°00' -- 180° = 41° 00'
F.B. of EA = 41°00' + 261° = 302°00'
B.B. of EA = 302°00' -- 180° = 122° 00'
F.B. of AB = 1 2 2 ° 0 0 ' -- 49°50' = 72°10'
B.B. of AB = 72°10' + 180° = 252°10'
F.B. of BC = 252°10' -- 139°45' = 112°25'
B.B. of BC = 112°25' + 180° = 292°25'
F.B. of CD = 2 9 2 ° 2 5 ' -- 130°45' = 161 °40' (check)
5.9. E R R O R S IN COMPASS SURVEY
The errors may be classified as :
(a) Instrumental errors :
(b) Personal errors
(c) Errors due to natural causes.
(a) Instrumental errors. They are those which arise due to the faulty adjustments
of the instruments. The may be due to the following reasons :
(1) The needle not being perfectly straight.
(2) Pivot being bent.
(3) Sluggish needle.
(4) Blunt pivot point.
(5) Improper balancing weight.
(6) Plane o f sight not being vertical.
(7) Line of sight not passing through the centres of the right.
(b) Personal errors. They may be due to the following reasons:
(1) Inaccurate levelling o f the compass box.
(2) Inaccurate centring.
(3) Inaccurate bisection o f signals.
(4) Carelessness in reading and recording.
134 SURVEYING

(c) Natural errors. They may be due to the following reasons:

(1) Variation in declination.
(2) Local attraction due to proximity of local attraction forces.
(3) Magnetic changes in the atmosphere due to clouds and storms.
(4) Irregular variations due to magnetic storms etc.

PROBLEMS

1. Explain, with the help of neat sketch, the graduations of a prismatic compass and a surveyor's
compass.
2. Give, in a tabular form, the difference between prismatic compass and surveyor's compass.
3. What are the sources of errors in compass survey and what precautions will you take
to eliminate them ?
4. What is local attraction ? How is it detected and eliminated?
5. Define the terms : True and magnetic bearing, local attraction, back bearings and magnetic
declination. (A.M.I.E.)
6. Determine the values of included angles in the closed compass traverse ABCD conducted
in the clockwise direction, given the following fore bearings of their respective lines :
Line F.B.
AB 40°
BC 70°
CD 210°
DA 280°
Apply the check. (U.B.)
7. The following angles were observed in clockwise direction in an open traverse :
ZABC = 124° 15' ; ABCD = 156° 30' ; ZCDE =102° 0'; ZDEF=95°15' ; ZEFG = 215° 45'.
Magnetic bearing of the line AB was 241° 30'. What would be the bearing of line FG ?
(G.U.)
8. In an old survey made when the declination was 4° W, the magnetic bearing of a given
line was 210°. The declination in the same locality is now 10° E What are the true and present
magnetic bearings of the line? (U.B.j
9. The magnetic bearing of line as observed by the prismatic compass at a survey station
is found to be 272°. If the local attraction at this station is known to be 5° E and the declination
is 15° West, what is the true bearing of the line ? (P-U.)
10. (a) What is back bearing and what are the advantages of observing it in a traverse ?
(b) At a place the bearing of sun is measured at local noon and found to be 175° 15'. What
is the magnitude and direction of magnetic declination of the place ?
(c) Show by a neat diagram the graduations on the circle of a prismatic compass.
11. The following bearings were taken in running a compass traverse
T H E COMPASS 135

Line. F.B. B.B. Line F.B. B.B

AB 124° 30' 304° 30' CD 310° 30' 135° 15'

BC 6 8 ° 15' 246° 0' DA 200° 15' 17° 4 5 '

At what stations do you suspect local attraction ? Find the correct bearings of the lines and
also compute the included angles.
12. The following fore and back bearings were observed in traversing with a compass in
place where local attraction was suspected.
Line F.B. B.B. Line F.B. B.B
AB 38° 3 0 ' 2 1 9 ° 15' CD 25° 45' 2 0 7 ° 15'

BC 100° 4 5 ' 2 7 8 ° 30' DE 325° 15' 145' 15'

Find the corrected fore and back bearings and the true bearing of each of the lines given
that the magnetic declination was 10° W.
13. The following are the bearings taken on a closed compass traverse:
Line F.B. B.B. Line F.B. B.B
AB S 37° 3 0 ' E N 37°30' W DE N 12 ° 45' E S 13° 15' W
BC S 4 3 ° 15' W N 4 4 ° 15' E EA N 60° 0 0 ' E S 59° 00' W

CD N 73° 00' W S 7 2 ° 15' E

Compute the interior angles and correct them for observational errors. Assuming the observed
bearing of the line AB to be correct, adjust the bearing of the remaining sides.
14. (a) Derive rules to calculate reduced bearing from whole circle bearing for all the quadrants.
(b) The following bearings were observed with a compass :
AB 74° 0' BA 254° 0'

BC 9 1 ° 0' CB 2 7 1 ° 0'
CD 166° 0' DC 343° 0'

DE 177° 0' ED 0°0'

EA 189° 0' AE 9°0'

Where do you suspect the local attraction ? Find the correct bearings.

ANSWERS

6. ZA = 60° ; ZB = 150° ; ZC = 40° : ZD = 110° ; sum = 360°

7. 35° 35'
8. T.B. = 206°0'; M B . = 196° 0'.
9. 262°
10. (b) 4 ° 4 5 ' £
11. Stations C and D.
Line F.B. B.B. Line F.B. B.B

AB 124° 30' 3 0 4 ° 30' j CD 312° 4 5 ' 132° 4 5 '

BC 6 8 ° 15' 248° 15' i DA 197°45' 17° 4 5 '

ZA = 106° 45' ZB= 123° 45' ; ZC = 64° 30' ZD = 65°.

136 SURVEYING

(Note : Take F.B. of CD = 310° 30')

12, Line F.B. B.B. True F.B
AB 38° 30' 218° 30' 28° 30'
BC 100° 0' 280° 0' 90° 0'
CD 27° 15' 207° 15' 17° 15'
DE 325° 15' 145° 15' 315° 15'
13. Summation error + 1° 15'.
Line F.B. B.B. Line F.B. BB
BC S 43° 30' W N 43° 30' E DE N 11°45'E S 11° 45'W
CD N 73° 30' W S 73° 30' E EA N 58° 45' E S 58° 45' W

14. (b) AB 74° 0' BA 254° 0'

BC 91° 0' CB 271° 0'
CD 166° 0' DC 346° 0'
DE 180° 0' ED 0° 0'
EA 189° 0' AE 9° 0'