Subject Name : Quantitative

techniques
Unit 4: Presentation and Collection of
Data
 Presentation and collection of Data - Introduction

An important function of statistics is the

presentation of complex mass of data in a simple

way so that it becomes easier to understand.

Classification and tabulation are the techniques

that help in presenting the data in an intelligible

form. But with increase in volume of data, it

becomes more and more inconvenient to

understand even after its classification and

tabulation.
2 Presentation and Collection of Data - Introduction
Diagrammatic Presentation – Advantages

1. Diagrams are attractive and impressive: Data presented in the form of diagrams are able to attract the attention of even
a common man. It may be difficult for a common man to understand and remember the data presented in the form of figures,
but diagrams create a lasting impression upon his mind. Due to their attractive and impressive character, the diagrams are
very frequently used by various newspapers and magazines for the explanation of certain phenomena. Diagrams are also
useful in modern advertising campaign.

2. Diagrams simplify data: Diagrams are used to represent a huge mass of complex data in simplified and intelligible form
which is easy to understand.

3. Diagrams give more information: In addition to the depiction of the characteristics of data, the diagrams may bring out
other hidden facts and relations which are not possible to know from the classified and tabulated data.

3 Diagrammatic Presentation – Advantages

Diagrammatic Presentation – Advantages

4. Diagrams save time and labour: A lot of time is required to study the trend and
significance of voluminous data. The same data, when presented in the form of diagrams, can
be understood in practically no time.

5. Diagrams are useful in making comparisons: Many a times the objective of the
investigation is to compare two or more situations either with respect to time or places. The
task of comparison can be very conventionally done by the use of diagrams.

6. Diagrams have universal applicability: Diagrams are used in almost in every field of
study like economics, business, administration, social institutions, and other fields.

4 Diagrammatic Presentation – Advantages

Diagrammatic Presentation – Limitations

• 1. Diagrams give only a vague idea of the problem which may be useful for a common man but not for
an expert who wishes to have an exact idea of the problem.

• 2. Diagrams can at best be a supplement to the tabular presentation but not an alternative to it.

• 3. The information given by the diagrams vis-a-vis classification and tabulation is limited.

• 4. The level of precision of values indicated by diagrams is very low.

• 5. Diagrams are helpful only when comparisons are desired. They do not lead to any further analysis
of data.

5 Diagrammatic Presentation – Limitations

Diagrammatic Presentation – Limitations

6. Diagrams can portray only limited number of characteristics. Larger the number of
characteristics the more difficult it is to understand them using diagrams.

7. Diagrams are liable to be misused for presenting an illusory picture of the problem.

8. Diagrams do not give a meaningful look when different measurements have wide
variations.

9. Diagrams drawn on a false base line should be analysed very carefully.

6 Diagrammatic Presentation – Limitations

General Rules for Making Diagrams

1. Appropriate title and footnote: Every diagram must have a suitable title written at its top.
The title should be able to convey the subject matter in brief and unambiguous manner. The
details about the title, if necessary, should be provided below the diagram in the form of a
footnote.

2. Attractive presentation: A diagram should be constructed in such a way that it has an

immediate impact on the viewer. It should be neatly drawn, and an appropriate proportion
should be maintained between its length and breadth. The size of the diagram should neither
be too big nor too small. Different aspects of the problem may be emphasised by using
various shades or colours.

3. Accuracy: Diagrams should be drawn accurately by using proper scales of measurements.

Accuracy should not be compromised to attractiveness.

7 General Rules for Making Diagrams

General Rules for Making Diagrams

4. Selection of an appropriate diagram: There are various types of geometrical figures and
pictures which can be used to present statistical data.

5. Index: When a diagram depicts various characteristics distinguished by various shades and
colours, an index explaining these should be given for clear identification and understanding.

6. Source-Note: As in case of tabular presentation, the source of data must also be indicated if
the data have been acquired from some secondary source.

7. Simplicity: As far as possible, the constructed diagram should be simple so that even a
layman can understand it without any difficulty

8 General Rules for Making Diagrams

Choice of A suitable Diagram

• Diagrammatic presentation of data can be done in various ways. The choice of a suitable
diagram is a practical problem and should be done in the light of the following
considerations:
1. The nature of data
2. Purpose of the diagram
3. The calibre of the persons to whom the information is to be communicated.

Before the choice of a suitable diagram, it is very necessary to know the level of education of
the person for whom the diagram is to be suitable. Further, if the data are related to different
geographical areas, the cartograms may be the most appropriate drawn. For persons with
little knowledge of statistics, the pictograms or cartograms may be more choice.

9 Choice of a suitable diagram

Bar Diagrams

One-dimensional diagrams are also known as bar diagrams. Different types of bar diagrams are:
• Line Diagram
• Simple Bar Diagram
• Multiple Bar Diagram
• Sub-divided or Component Bar Diagram
• Percentage Sub-divided Bar Diagram
• Deviation Bar Diagram
• Duo-directional Bar Diagram
• Sliding Bar Diagram
• Pyramid Diagram
• Broken-Scale Bar Diagram
• Histogram
• Frequency Polygon
• Frequency Curve
• 'Ogive' or Cumulative Frequency Curve

10 Bar Diagrams
Bar Diagrams

• Line Diagram
In case of a line diagram, different values are represented by the length of the lines, drawn vertically or horizontally.
The gap between the successive lines is kept uniform. The comparison of values of various items is done by the
length of these lines. Although the comparison is easy, the diagram is not very attractive. This diagram is used when
the number of items is relatively large

11 Bar Diagrams
Bar Diagrams

• Simple Bar Diagram

In case of a simple bar diagram, the vertical or horizontal bars, with height proportional to the value of the item, are
constructed. The width of a bar is chosen arbitrarily and is kept constant for every bar. Different bars are drawn so
that the gap between the successive bars is same. Bar diagrams are particularly suitable for presenting individual
series, such as time and spatial series.

12
Bar Diagrams
Bar Diagrams

• Multiple Bar Diagram

This type of diagram, also known as compound bar diagram, is used when comparisons are to be shown between
two or more sets of data. A set of bars for a period or a related phenomena are drawn side by side without gaps while
various sets of bars are separated by some arbitrarily chosen constant gap. Different bars are distinguished by
different shades or colours. In order that various bars are comparable, it is necessary to draw them on the same
scale.

13
Bar Diagrams
Bar Diagrams

• Sub-Divided or Component Bar Diagram

In case of a sub-divided bar diagram, the bar corresponding to each phenomenon is divided into various components.
The portion of the bar occupied by each component denotes its share in the total.

14
Bar Diagrams
Bar Diagrams

• Percentage Sub-Divided Bar Diagram

A sub-divided diagram is used to show absolute magnitudes of various components. These magnitudes can be
changed into relative by converting them as a percentage of the total. The length of each bar is taken as 100 and
length of each component is denoted by its percentage value. As before the different components are distinguished
from each other by different type of shades or colours.

15
Bar Diagrams
Bar Diagrams

• Percentage Sub-Divided Bar Diagram

The information from the previous slides can be imputed into Percentage Sub- Divided Bar Diagrams as Follows

16
Bar Diagrams
Bar Diagrams

• Deviation Bar Diagram

This diagram represents net quantities like profit and loss, positive and negative balance of trade, surplus and deficit,
etc. Positive quantities are shown above X-axis and negative quantities are shown below it.

17
Bar Diagrams
Bar Diagrams

• Duo Directional Bar Diagram

This diagram is used to show an aggregate of two components. One of the components is shown above X-axis and
the other below it. Both the components added together give total value.

18
Bar Diagrams
Bar Diagrams

• Duo Directional Bar Diagram

The information from the previous slide can be inputted into a Duo Directional Bar Diagram as follows:

19
Bar Diagrams
Bar Diagrams

• Sliding Bar Diagram

Sliding bar diagrams are similar to duo-directional bar diagrams. Whereas absolute values are shown by duo-

directional bar diagrams, the percentage is shown using sliding bar diagrams. The length of each sliding bar is same,

which represents 100%. The bars can be drawn horizontally or vertically.

Note: An example of Sliding Bar Diagram has been depicted on the following slide.

20
Bar Diagrams
Bar Diagrams

21
Bar Diagrams
Bar Diagrams

• Pyramid Diagram
This diagram is used to represent the distribution of population according to sex, age, occupation, education, etc. The
bars are drawn adjacently one above the other so as to look like a pyramid, as shown in the diagram.

22
Bar Diagrams
Bar Diagrams

• Broken Scale Bar Diagram

When there are one or more figures of unusually high magnitude while the majority of the figures are of low
magnitude, the diagrammatic representation is done by using a broken scale as shown in the following example.

23
Bar Diagrams
Bar Diagrams

• Histogram
A histogram is a graph of a frequency distribution in which the class intervals are plotted on X- axis and their
respective frequencies on Y- axis. On each class, a rectangle is erected with its height proportional to the frequency
density of the class.
(a) Construction of a Histogram when Class Intervals are equal: In this case the height of each rectangle is taken
to be equal to the frequency of the corresponding class. The construction of such a histogram is illustrated by the
following example.

24
Bar Diagrams
Bar Diagrams

• Histogram

25
Bar Diagrams
Bar Diagrams

• Histogram

(b) Construction of a Histogram when Class Intervals are not equal: When different classes of a frequency

distribution are not equal, the frequency density (frequency width) of each class is computed. The product of

frequency density and the width of the class having shortest interval is taken as the height of the corresponding

rectangle.

Note: The depiction of the construction of a Histogram when Class Intervals are not equal is on the following slide.

26
Bar Diagrams
Bar Diagrams

• Histogram

27
Bar Diagrams
Bar Diagrams

• Frequency Polygon
- A frequency polygon is another method of representing a frequency distribution on a graph. Frequency polygons are more
suitable than histograms whenever two or more frequency distributions are to be compared.

- A frequency polygon is drawn by joining the mid-points of the upper widths of adjacent rectangles, of the histogram of the
data, with straight lines. Two hypothetical class intervals, one in the beginning and the other in the end, are created. The
ends of the polygon are extended up to base line by joining them with the mid-points of hypothetical classes.

- This step is necessary for making area under the polygon to be approximately equal to the area under the histogram.
Frequency polygon can also be constructed without making rectangles.

- The points of frequency polygon are obtained by plotting mid-points of classes against the heights of various rectangles,
which will be equal to the frequencies if all the classes are of equal width.

28
Bar Diagrams
Bar Diagrams

• Frequency Polygon

29
Bar Diagrams
Bar Diagrams

• Frequency Curve

- When the vertices of a frequency polygon are joined by a smooth curve, the resulting figure is known
as a frequency curve. As the number of observations increases, there is need of having more and more
classes to accommodate them and hence the width of each class will become smaller and smaller.
- In such a situation the variable under consideration tend to become continuous and the frequency
polygon of the data tends to acquire the shape of a frequency curve. Thus, a frequency curve may be
regarded as a limiting form of frequency polygon as the number of observations become large.
- The construction of a frequency curve should be done very carefully by avoiding, as far as possible,
the sharp and sudden turns.
- A frequency curve can be used for estimating the rate of increase or decrease of the frequency at a
given point. It can also be used to determine the frequency of a value (or of values in an interval) of the
variable.
- This method of determining frequencies is popularly known as interpolation method.

30
Bar Diagrams
Bar Diagrams

• Cumulative Frequency Curve or Ogive

The curve obtained by representing a cumulative frequency distribution on a graph is known as cumulative frequency curve
or ogive. Since a cumulative frequency distribution can of ‘less than’ or ‘greater than’ type and, accordingly, there are two
type of ogive, ‘less than ogive’ and ‘more than ogive’.

31
Bar Diagrams
Bar Diagrams

• Cumulative Frequency Curve or Ogive

The ogive or cumulative frequency curve of the previous slides data can be drawn as follows:

32
Bar Diagrams
Circular of Pie Diagram

33
Circular of Pie Diagram
Circular of Pie Diagram

In order to show proportions of various components, a circle can also be partitioned into sections in a similar
manner as in component bar diagrams. Since there are 360º at the centre of a circle, these are divided in
proportions to the magnitude of values of different items. The diagram thus obtained is known as Angular Sector
Diagram or more popularly as Pie Diagram. The construction of a pie diagram is explained by the following
example:

34
Circular of Pie Diagram
Circular of Pie Diagram

This slide demonstrates

the solution of the
question in the previous
slide.

35
Circular of Pie Diagram
Pictogram and Cartogram (Map Diagram)

When numerical figures are represented by pictures, we get pictogram. Although such diagrams are
very attractive and easier to understand, they are difficult to be drawn by everybody. The following
pictogram represents the number of students in a college during the four academic sessions.

36 Pictogram and Cartogram (Map Diagram)

Pictogram and Cartogram (Map Diagram)

Cartograms are used to represent data relating to a particular country or to a geographical area. Such
a diagram can be used to represent various types of characteristics like density of population, yield of a
crop, amount of rainfall, etc.

37 Pictogram and Cartogram (Map Diagram)

Collection of Data – Introduction

• The collection and analysis of data constitute the main stages of execution of any statistical
investigation.
• The procedure for collection of data depends upon various considerations such as objective, scope,
nature of investigation, etc.
• Availability of resources like money, time, manpower, etc., also affect the choice of a procedure. Data
may be collected either from a primary or from a secondary source.
• Data from a primary source are collected, for the first time, keeping in view the objective of
investigation. Secondary data, on the other hand, are available from certain publications or reports.
• Such data are already collected by some other agency in the past for some other purpose.
• Thus, the primary data collected with a specified objective of investigation, are likely to be more
reliable as compared to secondary data. The use of secondary data, whenever necessary, must be
done very carefully.
• The cost of collection of primary data, however, are much higher.

38 Collection of Data - Introduction

Methods of Collecting Data

For collection of primary data, the investigator may choose any one or a combination of the following methods:

1. Direct Personal observation

2. Indirect Oral Interview

3. Information through Local Agencies or Correspondents

4. Information through Questionnaires filled by Respondents

5. Information through Schedules filled by Investigators

39 Methods of Collecting Data

Methods of Collecting Data

Direct Personal observation : Under this method, the investigator collects data by having direct contact with the units
of investigation.

Merits Demerits

(a) Original data are collected. (a) In the absence of direct contact between
(b) Collected data are more accurate and reliable. investigator and the respondent, it may happen
(c) The investigator can modify or put indirect that many important points remain unnoticed.
questions in order to extract satisfactory (b) As compared with direct personal observation,
information. the degree of accuracy of the data is likely to be
(d) The collected data are often homogeneous lower.
and comparable. (c) The persons, providing the information, may
(e)Some additional information may also get be prejudiced or biased.
collected, along with the regular information, (d) Since the interest of the person, providing the
which may prove to be helpful in future information, is not at stake, the collected
information is often vague and unreliable.
investigations.

40 Methods of Collecting Data

Methods of Collecting Data

Indirect Oral Interview : This method is used when the area of investigation is very large, or the respondents are
reluctant to part with the information due to various reasons.

Merits Demerits

(a) This method is suitable when the area of (a) This method is expensive and time consuming,
investigation is large or when the respondents are particularly when the field of investigation is large.
reluctant to part with the information. (b) It is not possible to properly train a large team
(b) It is economical in terms of time, money and of investigators.
manpower. (c) The bias or prejudice of investigators can
(c) Since the information is collected from the affect the accuracy of data to a large extent.
persons who are well aware of the situation, it is (d) Data are collected as per the convenience and
likely to be unbiased and reliable. willingness of the respondents.
(d) This method is particularly suitable for the
collection of confidential information. For example,
a person may not like to reveal his habit of
drinking, smoking, gambling, etc., which may be
revealed by others.

41 Methods of Collecting Data

Methods of Collecting Data

Information through Local Agencies or Correspondents: Under this method, local agents or correspondents are appointed in
different parts of the area under investigation. These agents send the desired information at regular intervals of time.

Merits Demerits

(a) This method is useful in situations where (a) The collected information lacks
the area of investigation is very large and originality.
periodic information is to be collected from (b) The information is likely to be affected by
the distant places. the bias of the correspondents.
(b) It is economical in terms of time, money, (c) It is not possible to obtain results with
and labour. high degree of accuracy.
(d) The information supplied by different
correspondents often lacks homogeneity
and hence, not comparable.

42 Methods of Collecting Data

Methods of Collecting Data

Information through Questionnaires Filled by Respondents: The information, in this method, is collected through the
filling of questionnaires by the respondents. A questionnaire consists of a list of questions pertaining to the
investigation. Blank spaces are left for writing answers.

Merits Demerits

(a) This method is useful for the collection of (a) Very often, there is problem of ‘non-
information from an extensive area of response’ as the respondents are not willing
investigation. to provide answers to certain questions.
(b) This method is economical as it requires (b) The respondents may provide wrong
less time, money and labour. information if the questions are not properly
(c) The collected information is original and understood.
more reliable. (c) It is not possible to collect information if
(d) It is free from the bias of the investigator. the respondents are not educated.
(d) Since it is not possible to ask
supplementary questions, the method is not
flexible.

43 Methods of Collecting Data

Methods of Collecting Data

Information through Schedules Filled by Investigators: The information obtained through mailing the questionnaires to
the respondents is generally incomplete and unrepresentative.

Merits Demerits

(a) This method is suitable for an extensive (a) This method is very expensive and time
area of investigation. consuming.
(b) Since the investigator has a direct (b) The collected information is affected, to a
contact with the respondents, it is possible to large extent, by the bias of the investigator.
get accurate and reliable information. (c) If the investigators are negligent or not
(c) By asking cross questions it is possible to properly trained, the results of investigations
test the truth of the supplied information. are likely to be misleading.
(d) The problem of non-response is
minimised.

44 Methods of Collecting Data

Drafting a Questionnaire or a Schedule

• A questionnaire or a schedule is a list of questions relating to the problem under investigation. There is no basic
difference between a questionnaire and a schedule.
• Although, there are no hard and fast rules to be followed, but the following general points must always be kept in
mind to draft a good questionnaire or schedule:

1. The questions should be simple, unambiguous, and precise.

2. The number of questions should be as small as possible. Only those questions which have a direct relevance to
the problem be included.

3. The question should be framed in such a manner that their answers are specific and precise.

4. The questions should be capable of being easily answered by the respondents. The questions that rely too much
on the memory of the respondent should be avoided.

45 Drafting a Questionnaire or a Schedule

Drafting a Questionnaire or a Schedule

5. The questions affecting the pride and sentiments of the respondents should be avoided. Similarly, the questions pertaining
to private affairs of the respondents should never be asked.

6. The questions relating to mathematical computations should be avoided.

7. The questions should follow a logical sequence so that a natural and spontaneous reply to each question is induced.

8. The questions should be directly related to the objective(s) of investigation.

9. Certain corroborative questions must also be asked to verify the accuracy of the supplied information.

10. Necessary instructions for filling the questionnaire should also be given in simple and precise form.

11. Enough space should be provided for answers. The questionnaire should look as attractive as possible.

46 Drafting a Questionnaire or a Schedule

Sources of Secondary Data

• The data collected and used by some other person or agency for an investigation in the past, when
used for the investigation of a current problem, is known as secondary data.

• Secondary data may be available in published or unpublished form. In published form, the data are
available in magazines, research papers, newspapers, government publications, international
publications, etc.

• Before using any secondary data, the user must satisfy himself regarding the following points:

1. Are data suitable for the current investigation?

2. Are data adequate for the current investigation?

3. Are data reliable?

47 Sources of Secondary Data

 Thank You

48