UNIT4: DATA VISUALIZATION AND

INTERPRETATION
Structure Page Nos.
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Different types of plots
4.3 Histograms
4.4 Box plots
4.5 Scatter plots
4.6 Heat map
4.7 Bubble chart
4.8 Bar chart
4.9 Distribution plot
4.10 Pair plot
4.11 Line graph
4.12 Pie chart
4.13 Doughnut chart
4.14 Area chart
4.15 Summary
4.16 Answers
4.17 References

4.0 INTRODUCTION
The previous units of this course covers details on different aspects of data analysis,
including the basics of data science, basic statistical concepts related to data science and
data pre-processing. This unit explains the different types of plots for data visualization
and interpretation. This unit covers the details of the plots for data visualization and
further discusses their constructions and discusses the various use cases associated with
various data visualization plots. This unit will help you to appreciate the real-world
need for a workforce trained in visualization techniques and will help you to design,
develop, and interpret visual representations of data. The unit also defines the best
practices associated with the construction of different types of plots.

4.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
• Explain the key characteristics of various types of plots for data visualization;
• Explain how to design and create data visualizations;
• Summarize and present the data in meaningful ways;
• Define appropriate methods for collecting, analysing, and interpreting the
numerical information.

4.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF PLOTS

As more and more data are available to us today, there are several varieties of charts
and graphs than before. In reality, the amount of data that we produce, acquire, copy,
and use now will be nearly doubled by 2025. Data visualisation is therefore crucial and
serves as a powerful tool for organisations. One can benefit from graphs and charts in
the following ways:
• Encouraging the group to act proactively.
• Showcasing progress toward the goal to the stakeholders
 • Displaying core values of a company or an organization to the audience.

Moreover, data visualisation can bring heterogeneous teams together around new
objectives and foster the trust among the team members. Let us discuss about various
graphs and charts that can be utilized in expression of various aspects of businesses.

4.3 HISTOGRAMS
A histogram visualises the distribution of data across distinct groups with continuous
classes. It is represented with set of rectangular bars with widths equal to the class
intervals and areas proportional to frequencies in the respective classes. A histogram
may hence be defined as a graphic of a frequency distribution that is grouped and has
continuous classes. It provides an estimate of the distribution of values, their extremes,
and the presence of any gaps or out-of-the-ordinary numbers. They are useful in
providing a basic understanding of the probability distribution.

Constructing a Histogram: To construct a histogram, the data is grouped into specific

class intervals, or “bins” and plotted along the x-axis. These represent the range of the
data. Then, the rectangles are constructed with their bases along the intervals for each
class. The height of these rectangles is measured along the y-axis representing the
frequency for each class interval. It's important to remember that in these
representations, every rectangle is next to another because the base spans the spaces
between class boundaries.

Use Cases: When it is necessary to illustrate or compare the distribution of specific

numerical data across several ranges of intervals, histograms can be employed. They
can aid in visualising the key meanings and patterns associated with a lot of data. They
may help a business or organization in decision-making process. Some of the use cases
of histograms include-

• Distribution of salaries in an organisation

• Distribution of height in one batch of students of a class, student performance
on an exam,
• Customers by company size, or the frequency of a product problem.
Best Practices

• Analyse various data groups: The best data groupings can be found by
creating a variety of histograms.
• Break down compartments using colour: The same chart can display a
second set of categories by colouring the bars that represent each category.
Types of Histogram
Normal distribution: In a normal distribution, the probability that points will occur on
each side of the mean is the same. This means that points on either side of the mean
could occur.

Example: Consider the following bins shows the frequency of length of wings of
housefly in 1/10 of millimetre.

Bin Frequency Bin Frequency

36-38 2 46-48 19
38-40 4 48-50 15
40-42 10 50-52 10
42-44 15 52-54 4
 44-46 19 54-56 2

Bimodal Distribution: This distribution has two peaks. In the case of a bimodal
distribution, the data must be segmented before being analysed as normal distributions
in their own right.
Example:

Variable Frequency
0 2
1 6
2 4
3 2
4 4
5 6
6 4

Bimodal Distribution
8
6
freq

4
2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
variable

Right-skewed distribution: A distribution that is skewed to the right is sometimes

referred to as a positively skewed distribution. A right-skewed distribution is one that
has a greater percentage of data values on the left and a lesser percentage on the right.
Whenever the data have a range boundary on the left side of the histogram, a right-
skewed distribution is frequently the result.
Example:
Left-skewed distribution: A distribution that is skewed to the left is sometimes
referred to as a negatively skewed distribution. A distribution that is left-skewed will
have a greater proportion of data values on the right side of the distribution and a lesser
proportion of data values on the left. When the data have a range limit on the right side
of the histogram, a right-skewed distribution commonly results. An alternative name
for this is a right-tailed distribution.
Example:

A random distribution: A random distribution is characterised by the absence of any

clear pattern and the presence of several peaks. When constructing a histogram using a
random distribution, it is possible that several distinct data attributes will be blended
into one. As a result, the data ought to be partitioned and investigated independently.
Example:

Edge Peak Distribution: When there is an additional peak at the edge of the
distribution that does not belong there, this type of distribution is called an edge peak
distribution. Unless you are very positive that your data set has the expected number of
outliers, this almost always indicates that you have plotted (or collected) your data
incorrectly (i.e. a few extreme views on a survey).
Comb Distribution: Because the distribution seems to resemble a comb, with
alternating high and low peaks, this type of distribution is given the name "comb
distribution." Rounding off an object might result in it having a comb-like form. For
instance, if you are measuring the height of the water to the nearest 10 centimetres but
your class width for the histogram is only 5 centimetres, you may end up with a comb-
like appearance.

Example
Histogram for the population data of a group of 86 people:

Age Group (in years) Population Size

20-25 23
26-30 18
31-35 15
36-40 6
41-45 11
46-50 13
TOTAL 86
 Population data of a group of 100 people
Histogram

Population Size (Frequency)

25 23

20 18
15
15 13
11
10
6
5

0
20-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50
Population Size 23 18 15 6 11 13
Age Group (Bins)

Check Your Progress 1

1. What is the difference between a Bar Graph and a Histogram?
……………………………………………………………………………………

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2. Draw a Histogram for the following data:

Class Interval Frequency

0 − 10 35
10 − 20 70
20 − 30 20
30 − 40 40
40 − 50 50

3. Why is histogram used?

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4. What do histograms show?
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4.4 BOX PLOTS

When displaying data distributions using the five essential summary statistics of
minimum, first quartile, median, third quartile, and maximum, box-and-whisker plots,
also known as boxplots, are widely employed. It is a visual depiction of data that aids
in determining how widely distributed or how much the data values change. These
boxplots make it simple to compare the distributions since it makes the centre, spread,
and overall range understandable. They are utilised for data analysis wherein the
graphical representations are used to determine the following:
 1. Shape of Distribution
2. Central Value
3. Variability of Data
Constructing a Boxplot: The two components of the graphic are described by their
names: the box, which shows the median value of data along with the first and third
quartiles (25 percentile and 75 percentile), and the whiskers, which shows the remaining
data. The 3rd quartile's difference from the first quartile of data is called the interquartile
range. The highest and minimum points in the data can also be displayed using the
whiskers. The points beyond 1.5 ´ interquartile range can be identified as suspected
outliers.

Use Cases: A boxplot is frequently used to demonstrate whether a distribution is

skewed and whether the data set contains any potential outliers, or odd observations.
Boxplots are also very useful for comparing or involving big data sets. Examples of box
plots include plotting the:
• Gas efficiency of vehicles
• Time spent reading across readers
Best Practices
• Cover the points within the box: This aids the viewer in concentrating on the
outliers.
• Box plot comparisons between categorical dimensions: Box plots are
excellent for quickly comparing dataset distributions.
Example

Subject Section A Section B Section C

English 59 65 82
Math 96 73 66
Science 78 57 81
Economics 96 79 73
English 65 55 94
Math 78 65 56
Science 68 61 85
Economics 96 98 56
English 85 63 85
Math 93 88 68
Science 94 66 94
Economics 67 59 86
English 82 66 96
Math 64 79 63
Science 55 90 97
Economics 73 89 95
English 89 66 75
Math 57 81 73
Science 67 92 88
Economics 78 65 69
The boxplots clearly shows that Section B has performed poorly in English, whereas
section C has performed poorly in Maths. Section A has mostly balanced performance,
but the marks of the students are most dispersed.
Check Your Progress 2
1. How to correctly interpret a boxplot?
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2. What are the most important parts of a box plot?
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3. What is the uses of box plot?

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4. How do you describe the distribution of a box plot?

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4.5 SCATTER PLOTS

Scatter plot is the most commonly used chart when observing the relationship between
two quantitative variables. It works particularly well for quickly identifying possible
correlations between different data points. The relationship between multiple variables
can be efficiently studied using scatter plots, which show whether one variable is a good
predictor of another or whether they normally fluctuate independently. Multiple distinct
data points are shown on a single graph in a scatter plot. Following that, the chart can
be enhanced with analytics like trend lines or cluster analysis. It is especially useful for
quickly identifying potential correlations between data points.

Constructing a Scatter Plot: Scatter plots are mathematical diagrams or plots that rely
on Cartesian coordinates. In this type of graph, the categories being compared are
represented by the circles on the graph (shown by the colour of the circles) and the
numerical volume of the data (indicated by the circle size). One colour on the graph
allows you to represent two values for two variables related to a data set, but two colours
can also be used to include a third variable.

Use Cases: Scatter charts are great in scenarios where you want to display both
distribution and the relationship between two variables.
• Display the relationship between time-on-platform (How Much Time Do
People Spend on Social Media) and churn (the number of people who stopped
being customers during a set period of time).
• Display the relationship between salary and years spent at company
Best Practices
• Analyze clusters to find segments: Based on your chosen variables, cluster
analysis divides up the data points into discrete parts.
• Employ highlight actions: You can rapidly identify which points in your
scatter plots share characteristics by adding a highlight action, all the while
keeping an eye on the rest of the dataset.
• mark customization: individual markings Add a simple visual hint to your
graph that makes it easy to distinguish between various point groups.

Example

Temperature (in deg C) Sale of Ice-Cream

17 ₹ 1,750.00
18 ₹ 1,603.00
22 ₹ 1,500.00
29 ₹ 2,718.00
27 ₹ 2,667.00
28 ₹ 3,422.00
31 ₹ 3,681.00
23 ₹ 2,734.00
24 ₹ 2,575.00
25 ₹ 2,869.00
35 ₹ 3,057.00
36 ₹ 3,846.00
38 ₹ 3,500.00
41 ₹ 3,496.00
42 ₹ 3,984.00
29 ₹ 4,109.00
39 ₹ 5,336.00
35 ₹ 5,197.00
42 ₹ 5,426.00
45 ₹ 5,365.00
 Relationship between the Temperature and the
Sale of Ice-Cream
₹6,000.00 SCATTER PLOT
₹5,000.00

SALE OF ICE-CREAM
₹4,000.00

₹3,000.00

₹2,000.00

₹1,000.00

₹-
0 10 20 30 40 50
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREE C

Please note that a linear trendline has been fitted to scatter plot, indicating a positive
change in sales of ice-cream with increase in temperature.
Check Your Progress 3

1. What are the characteristics of a scatter plot?

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2. What components make up a scatter plot?

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3. What is the purpose of a scatter plot?

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4. What are the 3 types of corelations that can be inferred from scatter plots?
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4.6 HEAT MAP

Heatmaps are two-dimensional graphics that show data trends through colour
shading. They are an example of part to whole chart in which values are represented
using colours. A basic heat map offers a quick visual representation of the data. A
user can comprehend complex data sets with the help of more intricate heat maps.
Heat maps can be presented in a variety of ways, but they all have one thing in
common: they all make use of colour to convey correlations between data
values. Heat maps are more frequently utilised to present a more comprehensive
view of massive amounts of data. It is especially helpful because colours are simpler
to understand and identify than plain numbers.

Heat maps are highly flexible and effective at highlighting trends. Heatmaps are
naturally self-explanatory, in contrast to other data visualisations that require
 interpretation. The greater the quantity/volume, the deeper the colour (the higher
the value, the tighter the dispersion, etc.). Heat Maps dramatically improve the
ability of existing data visualisations to quickly convey important data insights.

Use Cases: Heat Maps are primarily used to better show the enormous amounts of
data contained inside a dataset and help guide users to the parts of data
visualisations that matter most.
• Average monthly temperatures across the years
• Departments with the highest amount of attrition over time.
• Traffic across a website or a product page.
• Population density/spread in a geographical location.
Best Practices
• Select the proper colour scheme: This style of chart relies heavily on
colour, therefore it's important to pick a colour scheme that complements
the data.
• Specify a legend: As a related point, a heatmap must typically contain a
legend describing how the colours correspond to numerical values.

Example
Region-wise monthly sale of a SKU (stock-keeping unit)
MONTH
ZONE JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
NORTH 75 84 61 95 77 82 74 92 58 90 54 83
SOUTH 50 67 89 61 91 77 80 72 82 78 58 63
EAST 62 50 83 95 83 89 72 96 96 81 86 82
WEST 69 73 59 73 57 61 58 60 97 55 81 92

The distribution of sales is shown in the sample heatmap above, broken down by
zone and spanning a 12-month period. Like in a typical data table, each cell displays
a numeric count, but the count is also accompanied by a colour, with higher counts
denoting deeper hues.

Check Your Progress 4

1. What type of input is needed for a heat map?

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2. What kind of information does a heat map display?
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3. What can be seen in heatmap?
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4.7 BUBBLE CHART

Bubble diagrams are used to show the relationships between different variables. They
are frequently used to represent data points in three dimensions, specifically when the
bubble size, y-axis, and x-axis are all present. Using location and size, bubble charts
demonstrate relationships between data points. However, bubble charts have a restricted
data size capability since too many bubbles can make the chart difficult to read.
Although technically not a separate type of visualisation, bubbles can be used to show
the relationship between three or more measurements in scatter plots or maps by adding
complexity. By altering the size and colour of circles, large amounts of data are
presented concurrently in visually pleasing charts.

Constructing a Bubble Chart: For each observation of a pair of numerical variables

(A, B), a bubble or disc is drawn and placed in a Cartesian coordinate system
horizontally according to the value of variable A and vertically according to the value
of variable B. The area of the bubble serves as a representation for a third numerical
variable (C). Using various colours in various bubbles, you may even add a fourth
dataset (D: numerical or categorical).
By using location and proportions, bubble charts are frequently used to compare and
illustrate the relationships between circles that have been classified. Bubble Charts'
overall image can be utilised to look for patterns and relationships.

Use Cases: Usually, the positioning and ratios of the size of the bubbles/circles on this
chart are used to compare and show correlations between variables. Additionally, it is
utilised to spot trends and patterns in data.
• AdWords’ analysis: CPC vs Conversions vs share of total conversions
• Relationship between life expectancy, GD per capita and population size
Best Practices:
• Add colour: A bubble chart can gain extra depth by using colour.
• Set bubble size in appropriate proportion.
• Overlay bubbles on maps: From bubbles, a viewer can immediately determine
the relative concentration of data. These are used as an overlay to provide the
viewer with context for geographically-related data.
Example

Item Code Units Sold Sales (in Rs.) Profit %

PC001 325 ₹ 14,687.00 22%
PC002 1130 ₹ 16,019.00 18%
PC003 645 ₹ 16,100.00 25%
PC004 832 ₹ 12,356.00 9%
PC005 1200 ₹ 21,500.00 32%
PC006 925 ₹ 16,669.00 21%
PC007 528 ₹ 13,493.00 13%
PC008 750 ₹ 18,534.00 14%
PC009 432 ₹ 13,768.00 6%
PC0010 903 ₹ 22,043.00 11%

The three variables in this example are sales, profits, and the number of units sold.
Therefore, all three variables and their relationship can be displayed simultaneously
using a bubble chart.
 Sales and Profit versus the Quantity sold
BUBBLE CHART
₹30,000.00
₹25,000.00
Sales (in INR)

₹20,000.00
₹15,000.00
₹10,000.00
₹5,000.00
₹-
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Number of units sold

Check Your Progress 5

1. What is bubble chart?

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2. What is a bubble chart used for?
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3. What is the difference between scatter plot and bubble chart?
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4. What is bubble size in bubble chart?
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4.8 BAR CHART

A bar chart is a graphical depiction of numerical data that uses rectangles (or
bars) with equal widths and varied heights. In the field of statistics, bar charts
are one of the methods for handling data.

Constructing a Bar Chart: The x-axis corresponds to the horizontal line, and
the y-axis corresponds to the vertical line. The y-axis represents frequency in
this graph. Write the names of the data items whose values are to be noted along
the x-axis that is horizontal.
Along the horizontal axis, choose the uniform width of bars and the uniform
gap between the bars. Pick an appropriate scale to go along the y-axis that runs
vertically so that you can figure out how high the bars should be based on the
values that are presented. Determine the heights of the bars using the scale you
selected, then draw the bars using that information.

Types of Bar chart: Bar Charts are mainly classified into two types:
Horizontal Bar Charts: Horizontal bar charts are the type of graph that are
used when the data being analysed is to be depicted on paper in the form of
horizontal bars with their respective measures. When using a chart of this type,
the categories of the data are indicated on the y-axis.

Example:

Vertical Bar Charts: A vertical bar chart displays vertical bars on graph (chart)
paper. These rectangular bars in a vertical orientation represent the
measurement of the data. The quantities of the variables that are written along
the x-axis are represented by these rectangular bars.

Example:
We can further divide bar charts into two basic categories:

Grouped Bar Charts: The grouped bar graph is also referred to as the clustered
bar graph (graph). It is valuable for at least two separate types of data. The
horizontal (or vertical) bars in this are categorised according to their position.
If, for instance, the bar chart is used to show three groups, each of which has
numerous variables (such as one group having four data values), then different
colours will be used to indicate each value. When there is a close relationship
between two sets of data, each group's colour coding will be the same.

Example:

Stacked Bar Charts: The composite bar chart is also referred to as the stacked
bar chart. It illustrates how the overall bar chart has been broken down into its
component pieces. We utilise bars of varying colours and clear labelling to
determine which category each item belongs to. As a result, in a chart with
stacked bars, each parameter is represented by a single rectangular bar. Multiple
segments, each of a different colour, are displayed within the same bar. The
various components of each separate label are represented by the various
segments of the bar. It is possible to draw it in either the vertical or horizontal
plane.

Example:

Use cases: Bar charts are typically employed to display quantitative data. The
following is a list of some of the applications of the bar chart-
• In order to clearly illustrate the relationships between various variables,
bar charts are typically utilised. When presented in a pictorial format,
the parameters can be more quickly and easily envisioned by the user.
• Bar charts are the quickest and easiest way to display extensive
amounts of data while saving time. It is utilised for studying trends over
extended amounts of time.

Best Practices:
• Use a common zero valued baseline
• Maintain rectangular forms for your bars
• Consider the ordering of category level and use colour wisely.

Example:

Region Sales

East 6,123

West 2,053
 South 4,181

North 3,316

Sales By Region
North 3,316
East
South 4,181
West
West 2,053 South
East 6,123 North

- 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000

Check your progress 6:

1. When should we use bar chart?

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2. What are the different types of bar chart?
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3. Draw a vertical bar chart.
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4. Draw a horizontal bar chart.

Use the following data to answer the question 3 and 4:

4.9 DISTRIBUTION PLOT

Visually assessing the distribution of sample data, distribution charts do this by

contrasting the actual distribution of the data with the theoretical values expected from
a certain distribution. In addition to more traditional hypothesis tests, distribution plots
can be used to establish whether the data from the sample follows a particular
distribution. The distribution plot is useful for analysing the relationship between the
range of a set of numerical data and its distribution. The values of the data are
represented as points along an axis.

Constructing a Distribution Plot: You must utilise one or two dimensions, together
with one measure, in a distribution plot. You will get a single line visualisation if you
only use one dimension. If you use two dimensions, each value of the outer, second
dimension will produce a separate line.

Use Cases: Distribution of a data set shows the frequency of occurrence of each
possible outcome of a repeatable event observed many times. For instance:
• Height of a population.
• Income distribution in an economy
• Test scores listed by percentile.

Best Practices:
• It is advisable to have equal class widths.
• The class intervals should be mutually exclusive and non-overlapping.
• Open-ended classes at the lower and upper limits (e.g., <10, >100) should be
avoided.
Example

Sales Amount No. of Clients

1-1000 23
1001-2000 19
2001-3000 22
3001-4000 19
4001-5000 27
5001-6000 25
6001-7000 17
7001-8000 26
8001-9000 23
9001-10000 12
Grand Total 213

Sales Amount Distribution

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0

0
00

00
00

00

00

00

00

00

00

00
10

00
-2

-3

-4

-5

-6

-7

-8

-9
1-

-1
01

01

01

01

01

01

01

01

01
10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Check your progress 7:

Q.1 What is the distribution plot?

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Q.2 When should we use distribution plot?

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Q.3 What do distribution graphs show?

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4.10 PAIR PLOT

The pairs plot is an extension of the histogram and the scatter plot, which are both
fundamental figures. The scatter plots on the upper and lower triangles show the
relationship (or lack thereof) between two variables. The histogram along the diagonal
gives us the ability to see the distribution of a single variable, while the scatter plots on
the upper and lower triangles show the relationship (or lack thereof) between two
variables.

A pair plot can be utilised to gain an understanding of the optimum collection of

characteristics to describe a relationship between two variables or to create clusters
that are the most distinct from one another. Additionally, it is helpful to construct
some straightforward classification models by drawing some straightforward lines or
making linear separations in our data set.
Constructing a Pair Plot: If you have m attributes in your dataset, it creates a figure
with m x m subplots. Each attribute's univariate histograms (distributions) make up the
main-diagonal subplots. For a non-diagonal subplot, assume a position (i, j). The
dataset's samples are all plotted using a coordinate system with the characteristics i and
j as the axes. In other words, it projects the dataset on these two attributes only. This is
particularly interesting to visually inspect how the samples are spread with respect to
these two attributes ONLY. The "shape" of the spread can give you valuable insight on
the relation between the two attributes.

Use Cases: A pairs plot allows us to see both distribution of single variables and
relationships between two variables. It helps to identify the most distinct clusters or the
optimum combination of attributes to describe the relationship between two variables.
• By creating some straightforward linear separations or basic lines in our data
set, it also helps to create some straightforward classification models.
• Analysing socio-economic data of a population.

Best Practices:
• Use a different colour palette.
• For each colour level, use a different marker.
Example:
calories protein fat sodium fiber rating
70 4 1 130 10 68.40297
120 3 5 15 2 33.98368
70 4 1 260 9 59.42551
50 4 0 140 14 93.70491
110 2 2 180 1.5 29.50954
110 2 0 125 1 33.17409
130 3 2 210 2 37.03856
90 2 1 200 4 49.12025
90 3 0 210 5 53.31381
120 1 2 220 0 18.04285
110 6 2 290 2 50.765
120 1 3 210 0 19.82357
110 3 2 140 2 40.40021
110 1 1 180 0 22.73645
110 2 0 280 0 41.44502
100 2 0 290 1 45.86332
110 1 0 90 1 35.78279
110 1 1 180 0 22.39651
110 3 3 140 4 40.44877
110 2 0 220 1 46.89564
100 2 1 140 2 36.1762
100 2 0 190 1 44.33086
110 2 1 125 1 32.20758
110 1 0 200 1 31.43597
100 3 0 0 3 58.34514
120 3 2 160 5 40.91705
120 3 0 240 5 41.01549
110 1 1 135 0 28.02577
100 2 0 45 0 35.25244
110 1 1 280 0 23.80404
100 3 1 140 3 52.0769
110 3 0 170 3 53.37101
120 3 3 75 3 45.81172
120 1 2 220 1 21.87129
110 3 1 250 1.5 31.07222
110 1 0 180 0 28.74241
110 2 1 170 1 36.52368
140 3 1 170 2 36.47151
110 2 1 260 0 39.24111
100 4 2 150 2 45.32807
110 2 1 180 0 26.73452
100 4 1 0 0 54.85092
150 4 3 95 3 37.13686
150 4 3 150 3 34.13977
160 3 2 150 3 30.31335
100 2 1 220 2 40.10597
120 2 1 190 0 29.92429
140 3 2 220 3 40.69232
90 3 0 170 3 59.64284
130 3 2 170 1.5 30.45084
120 3 1 200 6 37.84059
100 3 0 320 1 41.50354
50 1 0 0 0 60.75611
50 2 0 0 1 63.00565
100 4 1 135 2 49.51187
100 5 2 0 2.7 50.82839
120 3 1 210 5 39.2592
100 3 2 140 2.5 39.7034
90 2 0 0 2 55.33314
110 1 0 240 0 41.99893
110 2 0 290 0 40.56016
80 2 0 0 3 68.23589
90 3 0 0 4 74.47295
90 3 0 0 3 72.80179
110 2 1 70 1 31.23005
110 6 0 230 1 53.13132
90 2 0 15 3 59.36399
110 2 1 200 0 38.83975
140 3 1 190 4 28.59279
100 3 1 200 3 46.65884
110 2 1 250 0 39.10617
110 1 1 140 0 27.7533
100 3 1 230 3 49.78745
100 3 1 200 3 51.59219
110 2 1 200 1 36.18756
The pair plot can be interpreted as follows:

Along the boxes of the diagonal, the variable names are displayed.
A scatterplot of the correlation between each pairwise combination of factors is shown
in each of the remaining boxes. For instance, a scatterplot of the values for rating and
sodium can be seen in the matrix's box in the top right corner. A scatterplot of values
for rating, that is positively connected with rating, and so forth may be seen in the box
in the upper left corner. We can see the association between each pair of variables in
our dataset from this single visualisation. For instance, calories and rating appear to
have a negative link but protein and fat appear to be unrelated.

Check your progress 8:

1. Why pair plot is used?

……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………

2. How do you read a pairs plot?

……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………

3. What does a pair plot show?

……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………

4.11 LINE GRAPH

A graph that depicts change over time by means of points and lines is known as a line
graph, line chart, or line plot. It is a graph that shows a line connecting a lot of points
or a line that shows how the points relate to one another. The graph is represented by
the line or curve that connects successive data points to show quantitative data between
two variables that are changing. The values of these two variables are compared along
a vertical axis and a horizontal axis in linear graphs.

One of the most significant uses of line graphs is tracking changes over both short and
extended time periods. It is also used to compare the changes that have taken place for
diverse groups over the course of the same time period. It is strongly advised to use a
line graph rather than a bar graph when working with data that only has slight
fluctuations.

As an illustration, the finance department of a company would want to visualise how

its current cash balance has changed over time. If so, they will plot the points over the
horizontal and vertical axis using a line graph. It typically refers to the time period that
the data span.

Following are the types of line graphs:

1. Simple Line Graph: Only a single line is plotted on the graph.

Example:

Time (hr) Distance (km)

0.5 180
1 360
1.5 540
2 720
2.5 900
3 1080

2. Multiple Line Graph: The same set of axes is used to plot several lines. An
excellent way to compare similar objects over the same time period is via a
multiple line graph.

Example:

Time(hr) Rahul dist.(km) Mahesh dist. (km)

0.5 180 200
1 360 400
1.5 540 600
2 720 800
2.5 900 1000
3 1080 1200
 3. Compound Line Graph: Whenever one piece of information may be broken
down into two or more distinct pieces of data. A compound line graph is the
name given to this particular kind of line graph. To illustrate each component
that makes up the whole, lines are drawn. The line at the top displays the total,
while the line below displays a portion of the total. The size of each component
can be determined by the distance that separates every pair of lines.

Example:

Time Cars Buses Bikes

1-2pm 37 45 42
2-3pm 44 34 26
3-4pm 23 39 27
4-5pm 29 41 48

Constructing a line graph: When we have finished creating the data tables, we will
then use those tables to build the linear graphs. These graphs are constructed by plotting
a succession of points, which are then connected together with straight lines to offer a
straightforward method for analysing data gathered over a period of time. It provides a
very good visual format of the outcome data that was gathered over the course of time.

Use cases: Tracking changes over both short and long time periods is an important
application of line graphs. Additionally, it is utilised to compare changes over the same
time period for various groups. Anytime there are little changes, using a line graph
rather than a bar graph is always preferable.

• Straight line graphs can be used to explain potential future contract

markets and business prospects.
• To determine the precise strength of medications, a straight-line graph
is employed in both medicine and pharmacy.
• The government uses straight line graphs for both research and
 budgetary planning.

• Chemistry and biology both use linear graphs.

• To determine whether our body weight is acceptable for our height,

straight line graphs are employed.
Best Practices

• Only connecting adjacent values along an interval scale should be done with
lines.
• In order to provide correct insights, intervals should be of comparable size.
• Select a baseline that makes sense for your set of data; a zero baseline might
not adequately capture changes in the data.
• Line graphs are only helpful for comparing data sets if the axes have the same
scales.

Example:

Sales 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

North 12000 13000 12500 14500 17300 16000 18200 22000
South 9000 9000 9000 9500 9500 9500 10000 9000
West 28000 27500 24000 25000 24500 24750 28000 29000
East 18000 8000 7000 22000 13000 14500 16500 17000

Check your progress 9:

Q.1 What is the line graph?

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

Q.2 Where can we use line graph?

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

Q.3 Draw a line chart from the following information:

4.12 PIE CHART

A pie chart, often referred to as a circle chart, is a style of graph that can be used to
summarise a collection of nominal data or to show the many values of a single variable
(e.g. percentage distribution). Such a chart resembles a circle that has been divided into
a number of equal halves. Each segment corresponds to a specific category. The overall
size of the circle is divided among the segments in the same proportion as the category's
share of the whole data set.

A pie chart often depicts the individual components that make up the whole. In order to
bring attention to a particular piece of information that is significant, the illustration
may, on occasion, show a portion of the pie chart that is cut away from the rest of the
diagram. This type of chart is known as an exploded pie chart.
Types of a Pie chart: There are mainly two types of pie charts one is 2D pie chart and
another is 3D pie chart. This can be further classified into flowing categories:

1. Simple Pie Chart: The most fundamental kind of pie chart is referred to simply as
a pie chart and is known as a simple pie chart. It is an illustration that depicts a pie
chart in its most basic form.

Example:

Pets Owners (%)

Cats 38
Dogs 41
Birds 16
Reptiles 3
Small Mammals 2

Owners(%)

Cats Dogs Birds Reptiles Small Mammals

2. Exploded Pie Chart: To create an exploding pie chart, you must first separate the
pie from the chart itself, as opposed to merging the two elements together. It is common
practise to do this in order to draw attention to a certain section or slice of a pie chart.

Example:

Pets Owners (%)

Cats 38
Dogs 41
Birds 16
Reptiles 3
Small Mammals 2
 Owners(%)

Cats Dogs Birds Reptiles Small Mammals

3.Pie of Pie: The pie of pie method is a straightforward approach that enables more
categories to be represented on a pie chart without producing an overcrowded and
difficult-to-read graph. A pie chart that is generated from an already existing pie chart
is referred to as a "pie of pie".

Example:

Pets Owners (%)

Cats 38
Dogs 41
Birds 16
Reptiles 3
Small Mammals 2

3. Bar of Pie: A bar of pie is an additional straightforward method for showing

additional categories on a pie chart while minimising space consumption on the pie
chart itself. The expansion that was developed from the already existing pie chart
was a bar graph rather than a pie of pie, despite the fact that both serve comparable
objectives.

Example:

Pets Owners (%)

Cats 38
Dogs 41
Birds 16
Reptiles 3
Small Mammals 2
Constructing a Pie chart: “The total value of the pie is always 100%”
To work out with the percentage for a pie chart, follow the steps given below:

• Categorize the data

• Calculate the total
• Divide the categories
• Convert into percentages
• Finally, calculate the degrees

Therefore, the pie chart formula is given as (Given Data/Total value of Data) × 360°

Use cases: If you want your audience to get a general idea of the part-to-whole
relationship in your data, and comparing the exact sizes of the slices is not as critical to
you, then you should use pie charts. And indicate that a certain portion of the whole is
disproportionately small or large.
• Voting preference by age group
• Market share of cloud providers

Best Practices

• Fewer pie wedges are preferred: The observer may struggle to interpret the chart's
significance if there are too many proportions to compare. Similar to this, keep the
overall number of pie charts on dashboards to a minimum.
Overlay pies on maps: Pie charts can be used to further deconstruct geographic
tendencies in your data and produce an engaging display.
Example

COMPANY MARKET SHARE

Company A 24%
Company B 13%
Company C 8%
Company D 33%
Company E 22%

MARKET SHARE

Company A
22% 24% Company B
Company C
13%
Company D
33%
8% Company E

Check your progress 10:

Q1. What is the pie chart?

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

Q2. What are the different type of pie charts?

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

Q.3 Draw a pie chart from the following information:

4.13 DOUGHNUT CHART

Pie charts have been superseded by a more user-friendly alternative called a doughnut
chart, which makes reading pie charts much simpler. It is recognised that these charts
express the relationship of 'part-to-whole,' which is when all of the parts represent one
hundred percent when collected together. It presents survey questions or data with a
limited number of categories for making comparisons.

In comparison to pie charts, they provide for more condensed and straightforward
representations. In addition, the canter hole can be used to assist in the display of
relevant information. You might use them in segments, where each arc would indicate
a proportional value associated with a different piece of data.

Constructing a Doughnut chart: A doughnut chart, like a pie chart, illustrates the
relationship of individual components to the whole, but unlike a pie chart, it can display
more than one data series at the same time. A ring is added to a doughnut chart for each
data series that is plotted within the chart itself. The beginning of the first data series
can be seen near the middle of the chart. A specific kind of pie chart called a doughnut
chart is used to show the percentages of categorical data. The amount of data that falls
into each category is indicated by the size of that segment of the donut. The creation of
a donut chart involves the use of a string field and a number, count of features, or
rate/ratio field.

There are two types of doughnut chart one is normal doughnut chart and another is
exploded doughnut chart. Exploding doughnut charts, much like exploded pie charts,
highlight the contribution of each value to a total while emphasising individual values.
However, unlike exploded pie charts, exploded doughnut charts can include more than
one data series.

Use cases: Doughnut charts are good to use when comparing sets of data. By using the
size of each component to reflect the percentage of each category, they are used to
display the proportions of categorical data. A string field and a count of features,
number, rate/ratio, or field are used to make a doughnut chart.
• Android OS market share
• Monthly sales by channel

Best Practices

• Stick to five slices or less because thinner and long-tail slices become unreadable
and uncomparable.
• Use this chart to display one point in time with the help of the filter legend.
• Well-formatted and informative labels are essential because the information
conveyed by circular shapes alone is not enough and is imprecise.
• It is a good practice to sort the slices to make it more clear for comparison.
Example:

Project Status
Completed 30%
Work in progress 25%
Incomplete 45%

Check your progress 11:

Q1. What is the doughnut chart?

…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………

Q.2 What distinguishes a doughnut chart from a pie chart?

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

Q.3 Draw a doughnut chart from the following information:

Product 2020 2021

x 40 50
y 30 60
z 60 70

4.14 AREA CHART

An area chart, a hybrid of a line and bar chart, shows the relationship between the
numerical values of one or more groups and the development of a second variable, most
often the passage of time. The inclusion of shade between the lines and a baseline,
similar to a bar chart's baseline, distinguishes a line chart from an area chart. An area
chart has this as its defining feature.

Types of Area Chart:

Overlapping area chart: An overlapping area chart results if we wish to look at how
the values of the various groups compare to one another. The conventional line chart
serves as the foundation for an overlapping area chart. One point is plotted for each
group at each of the horizontal values, and the height of the point indicates the group's
value on the vertical axis variable.
All of the points for a group are connected from left to right by a line. A zero baseline
is supplemented by shading that is added by the area chart between each line. Because
the shading for different groups will typically overlap to some degree, the shading itself
incorporates a degree of transparency to ensure that the lines delineating each group
may be seen clearly at all times.

The shading brings attention to group that has the highest value by highlighting group's
pure hue. Take care that one series is not always higher than the other, as this could
cause the plot to become confused with the stacked area chart, which is the other form
of area chart. In circumstances like these, the most prudent course of action will consist
of sticking to the traditional line chart.

Months (2016) Web Android IOS

June 0 -
July 70k -
Aug 55k 80k
Sep 60k 165k 80k
Oct 70k 165k 295k
Nov 80k 200k 290k
Dec 40k 125k 155k

Stacked area chart: The stacked area chart is what is often meant to be conveyed when
the phrase "area chart" is used in general conversation. When creating the chart of
overlapping areas, each line was tinted based on its vertical value all the way down to
a shared baseline. Plotting lines one at a time creates the stacked area chart, which uses
the height of the most recent group of lines as a moving baseline. Therefore, the total
that is obtained by adding up all of the groups' values will correspond to the height of
the line that is entirely piled on top.

When you need to keep track of both the total value and the breakdown of that total by
groups, you should make use of a stacked area chart. This type of chart will allow you
to do both at the same time. By contrasting the heights of the individual curve segments,
we are able to obtain a sense of how the contributions made by the various subgroups
stack up against one another and the overall sum.

Example:
A B C D
Printers Projectors White Boards
2017 32 45 28
2018 47 43 40
2019 40 39 43
2020 37 40 41
2021 39 49 39
 Stacked Area chart
150

100

50

0
1 2 3 4 5

Printers Projectors White Boards

Use Cases: In most cases, many lines are drawn on an area chart in order to create a
comparison between different groups (also known as series) or to illustrate how a whole
is broken down into its component pieces. This results in two distinct forms of area
charts, one for each possible application of the chart.
• Magnitude of a single quantitative variable's trend - An increase in a public
company's revenue reserves, programme enrollment from a qualified subgroup by
year, and trends in mortality rates over time by primary causes of death are just a
few examples.
• Comparison of the contributions made by different category members (or
group)- the variation in staff sizes among departments, or support tickets opened
for various problems.
• Birth and death rates over time for a region, the magnitudes of cost vs. revenue for
a business, the magnitudes of export vs. import over time for a country

Best Practices:

• To appropriately portray the proportionate difference in the data, start the y-axis at
0.
• To boost readability, choose translucent, contrasting colours.
• Keep highly variable data at the top of the chart and low variable data at the bottom
during stacking.
• If you need to show how each value over time contributes to a total, use a stacked
area chart.
• However, it is recommended to utilise 100% stacked area charts if you need to
demonstrate a part to whole relationship in a situation where the cumulative total is
unimportant.

Example:
The above Stacked area chart is belonging to tele-service offered by various television
based applications. In this data, there are different type of subscribers who are using
the services provided by tele-applications in different months.

Check your progress 12:

Q1. What is area chart?

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

Q2. What are types of area charts?

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

Q3. Draw an area chart from the following information:

Product A Product B Product C

2017 2000 600 75
2018 2200 450 85
2019 2100 500 125
2020 3000 750 123

4.15 SUMMARY
This Unit introduces you to some of the basic charts that are used in data science. The
Unit defines the characteristics of Histograms, which are very popular in univariate
frequency analysis of quantitative variables. It then discusses the importance and
various terms used in the box plots, which are very useful while comparing quantitative
variable over some qualitative characteristic. Scatter plots are used to visualise the
relationships between two quantitative variables. The Unit also discusses about the heat
map, which are excellent visual tools for comparing values. In case three variables are
to be compared then you may use bubble charts. The unit also highlights the importance
of bar charts, distribution plots, pair plots and line graphs. In addition, it highlights the
importance of Pie chart, doughnut charts and area charts for visualising different kinds
of data. In addition, there are many different kinds of charts that are used in different
analytical tool. You may read about them from reafferences.
4.16 ANSWERS

Check Your Progress 1

i. A bar graph is a pictorial representation using vertical and
horizontal bars in a graph. The length of bars are proportional
to the measure of data. It is also called bar chart. A histogram
is also a pictorial representation of data using rectangular bars,
that are adjacent to each other. It is used to represent grouped
frequency distribution with continuous classes.

ii.

iii. It is used to summarise continuous or discrete data that is

measured on an interval scale. It is frequently used to
conveniently depict the key characteristics of the data
distribution.

iv. A histogram is a graphic depiction of data points arranged into

user-specified ranges. The histogram, which resembles a bar
graph in appearance, reduces a data series into an intuitive
visual by collecting numerous data points and organising them
into logical ranges or bins.

Check Your Progress 2

1. Follow these instructions to interpret a boxplot. :
Step 1: Evaluate the major characteristics. Look at the distribution's
centre and spread. Examine the potential impact of the sample size on
the boxplot's visual appeal.
Step 2: Search for signs of anomalous or out-of-the-ordinary data.
Skewed data suggest that data may not be normal. Other situations in
your data may be indicated by outliers.
Step 3: Evaluate and compare groups. Evaluate and compare the centre
and spread of groups if your boxplot contains them.
2. A boxplot is a common method of showing data distribution based on a five-number
summary ("minimum," first quartile ("Q1"), median ("Q3"), and "maximum"). You
can learn more about your outliers' values from it.
3. Box plots are generally used for 3 purposes -
• Finding outliers in the data
• Finding the dispersion of data from a median
• Finding the range of data

4. The box plot distribution will reveal the degree to which the data are clustered, how
skewed they are, and also how symmetrical they are.
• Positively Skewed: The box plot is positively skewed if the distance from the me-
dian to the maximum is greater than the distance from the median to the mini-
mum.
• Negatively skewed: Box plots are said to be negatively skewed if the distance
from the median to the minimum is higher than the distance from the median to
the maximum.
• Symmetric: When the median of a box plot is equally spaced from both the maxi-
mum and minimum values, the box plot is said to be symmetric.

Check Your Progress 3

1.

• The most practical method for displaying bivariate (2-variable) data is a scatter plot.
• A scatter plot can show the direction of a relationship between two variables when
there is an association or interaction between them (positive or negative).
• The linearity or nonlinearity of an association or relationship can be ascertained
using a scatter plot.
• A scatter plot reveals anomalies, questionably measured data, or incorrectly plotted
data visually.

2.

• The Title- A brief description of what is in your graph is provided in the title.
• The Legend- The meaning of each point is explained in the legend.
• The Source- The source explains how you obtained the data for your graph.
• Y-Axis.
• The Data.
• X-Axis.

3. A scatter plot is composed of a horizontal axis containing the measured values of one
variable (independent variable) and a vertical axis representing the measurements of the
other variable (dependent variable). The purpose of the scatter plot is to display what
happens to one variable when another variable is changed.
4.

• Positive Correlation.
• Negative Correlation.
• No Correlation (None)

Check Your Progress 4

1. Three main types of input exist to plot a heatmap: wide format, correlation
matrix, and long format.
Wide format: The wide format (or the untidy format) is a matrix where
each row is an individual, and each column is an observation. In this case,
the heatmap makes a visual representation of the matrix: each square of the
heatmap represents a cell. The color of the cell changes according to its
value.
Correlation matrix: Suppose you measured several variables for n
individuals. A common task is to check if some variables are correlated.
You can easily calculate the correlation between each pair of variables, and
plot this as a heatmap. This lets you discover which variable is related to
the other.
Long format: In the tidy or long format, each line represents an
observation. You have 3 columns: individual, variable name, and value (x,
y and z). You can plot a heatmap from this kind of data.

2. A heat map is a two-dimensional visualisation of data in which colours

stand in for values. A straightforward heat map offers a quick visual
representation of the data. The user can comprehend complex data sets with
the help of more intricate heat maps.

3. Using one variable on each axis, heatmaps are used to display relationships
between two variables. You can determine if there are any trends in the
values for one or both variables by monitoring how cell colours vary across
each axis.

Check Your Progress 5

1. A bubble chart is a variant of a scatter chart in which the data points

are swapped out for bubbles, with the size of the bubbles serving as a
representation of an additional dimension of the data. A bubble chart
horizontal and vertical axes are both value axes.

2. To identify whether at least three numerical variables are connected or

exhibit a pattern, bubble charts are utilised. They could be applied in
specific situations to compare categorical data or demonstrate trends
across time.

3. In scatter charts, one numeric field is displayed on the x-axis and

another on the y-axis, making it simple to see the correlation between
the two values for each item in the chart. A third numerical field in a
bubble chart regulates the size of the data points.

4. Any bubbles between 0 and 5 pts on this scale will appear at 5 pt, and
all the bubbles on your chart will be between 5 and 20 pts. To construct
a chart that displays many dimensions, combine bubble size with
colour by value.

Check Your Progress 6

Answer 1:
In the process of statistics development, bar charts are typically employed to
display the data. The following is a list of some of the applications of the bar
chart:
To clearly illustrate the relationships between various variables, bar charts are
typically utilised. When presented in a pictorial format, the parameters can be
more quickly and easily envisioned by the user.
Bar charts are the quickest and easiest way to display extensive amounts of data
while also saving time.
The method of data representation that is most commonly utilised. As a result,
it is utilised in a variety of different sectors.
When studying trends over extended amounts of time, it is helpful to have this
information.

Answer 2:
Charts are primarily divided into two categories:

Horizontal Bar Charts:

Vertical Bar Charts

We can further divide into two types:

Grouped Bar Charts

Stacked Bar Charts
 Answer 3:

Answer4:

Check Your Progress 7:

1. For visually assessing the distribution of sample data, you can draw
distribution charts. Using these charts, you can contrast the actual
distribution of the data with the theoretical values expected from a
certain distribution.
2. The distribution plot is useful for analysing the relationship
between the range of a set of numerical data and its distribution.
You are only allowed to use one or two dimensions and one
measure when creating a distribution graphic.
3. These graphs show - how the data is distributed; how the data is
composed; how values relate to one another.

Check Your Progress 8:

1. We can visualise pairwise relationships between variables in a dataset
using pair plots. By condensing a lot of data into a single figure, this gives the
data a pleasant visual representation and aids in our understanding of the data.

2. A scatter plot of a and b, one of a and c, and finally one of a and d are
shown in the first line. b and a (symmetric to the first row) are in the second
row, followed by b and c, b and d, and so on. In pairs, no sums, mean squares,
 or other calculations are performed. That is in your data frame if you discover
it in your pairings plot.

3. Pair plots are used to determine the most distinct clusters or the best
combination of features to describe a connection between two variables. By
creating some straightforward linear separations or basic lines in our data set,
it also helps to create some straightforward classification models.

Check Your Progress 9:

1. A graph that depicts change over time by means of points and lines is known
as a line graph, line chart, or line plot. It is a chart that depicts a line uniting
numerous points or a line that illustrates the relation between the points. The
line or curve used to depict quantitative data between two changing variables
in the graph combines a sequence of succeeding data points to create a
representation of the graph.

2. Tracking changes over a short as well as a long period of time is one of the
most important applications of line graphs. Additionally, it is utilised to
compare the modifications that have occurred for various groups throughout
the course of the same period of time. When dealing with data that has only
minor variations, using a line graph rather than a bar graph is strongly
recommended. For instance, the finance team at a corporation may wish to
chart the evolution of the cash balance that the company now possesses
throughout the course of time.

3.

Check Your Progress 10:

1. A pie chart, often referred to as a circle chart, is a style of graph that can be used to
summarise a collection of nominal data or to show the many values of a single variable.
(e.g. percentage distribution).

2. There are mainly two types of pie charts one is 2D pie chart and another is 3D pie
chart. This can be further classified into flowing categories:

1. Simple Pie Chart

2. Exploded Pie Chart

3. Pie of Pie
 4. Bar of Pie

3.

Check Your Progress 11:

1. Pie charts have been superseded by a more user-friendly alternative called a doughnut
chart, which makes reading pie charts much simpler. It is recognised that these charts
express the relationship of 'part-to-whole,' which is when all of the parts represent one
hundred percent when collected together. In comparison to pie charts, they provide for
more condensed and straightforward representations.
2. A donut chart is similar to a pie chart, with the exception
that the centre is cut off. When you want to display
particular dimensions, you use arc segments rather than
slices. Just like a pie chart, this form of chart can assist you
in comparing certain categories or dimensions to the
greater overall; nevertheless, it has a few advantages over
its pie chart counterpart.
3.

Product Sales

60

30
40

x y z

Check Your Progress 12:

1. An area chart shows how the numerical values of one or more groups change in
proportion to the development of a second variable, most frequently the passage of time.
It combines the features of a line chart and a bar chart. A line chart can be differentiated
from an area chart by the addition of shading between the lines and a baseline, just like
in a bar chart. This is the defining characteristic of an area chart.

2. Overlapping area chart and Stacked area chart

3.

Area Chart
3500

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
2017 2018 2019 2020

Product A Product B Product C

4.17 REFERENCES

• Useful Ways to Visualize Your Data (With Examples). Pdf

• Data Visualization Cheat Sheet. Pdf
• Which chart or graph is right for you? Pdf
• https://www.excel-easy.com/examples/frequency-distribution.html
• https://analyticswithlohr.com/2020/09/15/556/
• https://www.fusioncharts.com/line-charts
• https://evolytics.com/blog/tableau-201-make-stacked-area-chart/
• https://chartio.com/learn/charts/area-chart-complete-guide/
• https://www.lifewire.com/exploding-pie-charts-in-excel-3123549
• https://www.formpl.us/resources/graph-chart/line/
• https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/edu/power-pouvoir/ch9/bargraph-
diagrammeabarres/5214818-eng.htm
• https://sixsigmamania.com/?p=475
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